ASTRONOMY

The Heavenly Bodies

GROUP 8
BSA 2-4
Ulitin, Liza Austria
Dancalan, Johm Louie
Vicente, Harvey
Virtusio, Kimberly
Suarez, Rusty
Vargas, Ricka Mae
Severino, Mhaya
Sisante, Maryferd
 Formulation of the Earth: Moon System
Five serious theories that have been proposed for the formation of the Moon:

The Fission Theory: The Moon was once part of the Earth and somehow separated from the
Earth early in the history of the Solar System. The present Pacific Ocean basin is the most
popular site for the part of the Earth from which the Moon came.
The Capture Theory: The Moon was formed somewhere else, and was later captured by the
gravitational field of the Earth.
The Condensation Theory: The Moon and the Earth condensed together from the original
nebula that formed the Solar System.
The Colliding Planetesimals Theory: The interaction of earth-orbiting and Sun-orbiting
planetesimals (very large chunks of rocks like asteroids) early in the history of the Solar
System led to their breakup. The Moon condensed from this debris.
The Ejected Ring Theory: A planetesimal the size of Mars struck the earth, ejecting large
volumes of matter. A disk of orbiting material was formed, and this matter eventually
condensed to form the Moon in orbit around the Earth.

EVOLUTION OF THE MOON

The crust of the moon was formed 4.5

billion years ago and was intensively cratered.

Late in the formation of the moon crust,

a few huge impacts created multiple ring basins.
 A long interval of less intense cratering
followed.

About three billion years ago basalt

magma welled to the surface along the faults
around the multiple rings basins and flooded
basins. Since then the moon has been quite
except for have large impacts.

The craters we see on the moon and other

bodies are simply the scars left by the last few
meteoroids to be swept up. Heat accumulates
as impact debris buries the hot material left
by the earlier impacts.

The final stage of accretion of the moon

probably heated the surface so much the
global melting occurred.
Earth Orbits the Sun
Characteristics:
1. The speed of the Earth's orbit around the Sun
108,000 km/h
One orbit = 365.242199 mean solar days

2. The planet's distance from the Sun varies as it orbits

Perihilion - when the Earth is closest to the Sun
Aphelion - when the earth is at its farthest distance from the Sun
149.6 million km - average distance of the Earth from the Sun

3. The nature of the Earth's orbit

Elliptical orbit
Johannes Kepler - first described the orbital pattern
Eccentricity - a parameter that determines the amount by which its orbit around
another body deviates from a perfect circle.

4. The role of the Earth's orbit in the seasons

Axial tilt - the angle between a planet's rotational axis at its north pole and a line
perpendicular to the orbital plane of the planet.
The Earth is tilted 23.5 degrees on its vertical axis
Angle of the Light
Equinoxes
The Equinox means equal night.
It happens when the tilt of the Earths axis causes it to be straight relative to the
Sun.
On March 20th, Vernal (Spring) Equinox.
On September 22nd, Autumn Equinox.

Year Vernal equinox Autumnal equinox Leap year

2016 20 March, 04:30 22 September, 14:21 Yes

2017 20 March, 10:28 22 September, 20:02
2018 20 March, 16:15 23 September, 01:54
2019 20 March, 21:58 23 September, 07:50
2020 20 March, 03:50 22 September, 13:31 Yes
all times are UTC (GMT)
SOLSTICES
Solstice comes from the Latin word solstitium, meaning Sun stands still.
Solstices happen when the tilt of the Earths axis reaches its maximum angle
compared to the Sun, and it begins to move back to the other direction.
This usually happens around June 21st and December 21st.
During the June Solstice (Summer Solstice), the rays of the Sun shines
directly on the Tropic of Cancer.
During the December Solstice (Winter Solstice), the rays of the Sun shines
directly on the Tropic of Capricorn.

Year Summer Winter Leap year

2015 21 June, 16:38 22 December, 04:48
2016 20 June, 22:34 21 December, 10:44 Yes
2017 21 June, 04:24 21 December, 16:28
2018 21 June, 10:07 21 December, 22:23
2019 21 June, 15:54 22 December, 04:19
2020 20 June, 21:44 21 December, 10:02 Yes
all times are UTC (GMT)
 Eclipses

What Are Eclipses?

An eclipse is an astronomical event where one celestial body partially or totally covers
another celestial object.
This happens when the eclipsing body comes between the observer and the eclipsed
object like in the case of a solar eclipse, or when the eclipsing body temporarily cuts off
the source of illumination of the eclipsed object, like during a lunar eclipse.
When a planet comes between the Earth and the Sun, and becomes visible as a black
dot, it is called a transit.

Types of Eclipses
Eclipses and Transits 1900-2099
Observers from Earth can see two types of eclipses eclipses of the Sun (solar
eclipses), and eclipses of the Moon (lunar eclipses). These occur when the Sun, Earth
and Moon align in a straight or almost straight configuration. Astronomers call this a
syzygy, from the ancient Greek word syzygia, meaning to be yoked or conjuncted
together.
The term eclipse also finds its roots in ancient Greek it comes from the word kleipsis,
meaning to fail or abandoned.
Eclipses, solar and lunar, have fascinated scientists and lay people for centuries. In
ancient times, eclipses were seen as phenomena to be feared many cultures came up
with stories and myths to explain the temporary darkening of the Sun or the Moon. In
recent centuries, eclipses have been sought after by scientists and astronomers who
use the events to study and examine our natural world.
Solar Eclipses
All Solar Eclipses 1900-2099
Solar eclipses can only occur during a new Moon, when the Moon moves between the
Earth and the Sun and the three celestial bodies form a straight line: Earth - Moon -
Sun.
There are 4 kinds of solar eclipses: total, partial, annular. There is also a rare hybrid
that is a combination of two eclipses.
Total Solar Eclipses
A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon completely covers the Sun, as seen
from Earth. Totality during such an eclipse can only be seen from a very small
area on Earth. This area is usually about 100 miles (160 kms) wide and 10,000
miles (16,100 kms) long. Areas outside this track may be able to see a partial
eclipse of the Sun.
Looking at a solar eclipse without any protective eyewear can severely harm your
eyes. The only way to safely see a solar eclipse is to wear protective eclipse
glasses or to project an image of the eclipsed Sun using a DIY Pinhole Projector.
Partial Solar Eclipses
A partial solar eclipse can be observed when the Earth, Moon and Sun do not
align in a perfectly straight line, and the Moon only partially covers the disc of the
Sun.
Annular Solar Eclipses
An annular solar eclipse occurs when the Moon appears smaller than the Sun as
it passes centrally across the solar disk and a bright ring, or annulus, of sunlight
remains visible during the eclipse.
Hybrid Solar Eclipses
A hybrid solar eclipse is a rare form of solar eclipse, which changes from an
annular to a total solar eclipse along its path.
Lunar Eclipses
All Lunar Eclipses 1900-2099
Partial lunar eclipse in 2008 seen in Germany.iStockphoto.com/cinoby
The Moon does not have its own light. It shines because its surface reflects the Sun's
rays. A lunar eclipse occurs when the Earth comes between the Sun and the Moon and
blocks the Sun's rays from directly reaching the Moon. Lunar eclipses only happen at
full Moon.
There are 3 kinds of lunar eclipses: total, partial, and penumbral.
Total Lunar Eclipses
A total lunar eclipse occurs when the Earth's umbra the central, dark part of its
shadow obscures all of the Moon's visible surface.
Partial Lunar Eclipses
A partial lunar eclipse can be observed when only part of the Moon's visible
surface is obscured by the Earths umbra.
Penumbral Lunar Eclipses
A penumbral lunar eclipse happens when the Moon travels through the faint
penumbral portion of the Earths shadow.

A transit of Mercury. (Ill. not to scale)

Planet Transits
When a planet comes between the Earth and the Sun, it is called a transit. The only two
planets that can be seen transiting the Sun from Earth are Venus and Mercury, because
they are the only planets which orbit inside Earth's orbit.
From 20002099, there will be 14 transits of Mercury. However, Venus transits are even
rarer with only two this century, in 2004 and 2012.
The umbra (Latin for "shadow") is the innermost and darkest part of a shadow, where
the light source is completely blocked by the occluding body. Such an opaque object
does not let light through it. An observer in the umbra experiences a total eclipse. The
umbra of a round body occluding a round light source forms a right circular cone; to a
viewer at the cone's apex, the two bodies are equal in apparent size. The distance from
the Moon to the apex of its umbra is roughly equal to that between the Moon and Earth.
Because the Earth is 3.7 times wider than the Moon, its umbra extends correspondingly
farther, roughly 1.4 million kilometers.[1]

Formulation of the Solar System

Data to explain:
1. Planets are isolated from each other.
2. Planetary orbits are nearly circular.
3. All orbits lie in almost the same plane.
4. All planets travel along their orbits in the same direction of Sun rotation-CCW
5. Most planets rotate in this same direction - CCW
a.Venus - slowly CW
b.Uranus - on its side
c.Pluto - on its side - captured asteroid?
d.Moons go CCW around planets (few exceptions)
6. The revolution of most of the moons is in this same direction.
7. The Solar System is highly differentiated: rocky (slow rotators, few or no
moons) vs. gaseous planets (fast rotators, many moons).
8. Asteroids: old, different from rocky or gaseous planets.
9. Comets: old, icy, do not move on the same plane as the planets. Exist in a
swarm called the Oort cloud, very far from the Sun.
The planets, most of the satellites of the planets and the asteroids revolve around the
Sun in the same direction, in nearly circular orbits. When looking down from above the
Sun's northpole, the planets orbit in a counter-clockwise direction. The planets orbit the
Sun in or near the same plane, called the ecliptic. Pluto is a special case in that its orbit
is the most highly inclined (18 degrees) and the most highly elliptical of all the planets.
Because of this, for part of its orbit, Pluto is closer to the Sun than is Neptune. The axis
of rotation for most of the planets is nearly perpendicular to the ecliptic. The exceptions
are Uranus and Pluto, which are tipped on their sides.
Terrestrial Planets
Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars
The terrestrial planets are compact, rocky, Earth-like planets.
Jovian Planets
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune
The Jovian planets are named because of their gigantic Jupiter-like appearance.
Planets
Terrestrial Small Dense (4 - 5.5 g/cm3) Rocky + Metals
Jovian Large Low density (0.7 - 1.5 g/cm3) Gaseous

How Did We Get a Solar System?

Huge cloud of cold, thinly dispersed interstellar gas and dust threaded with
magnetic fields that resist collapse
Concentrations of dust and gas in the cloud; material starts to collect (gravity >
magnetic forces)
Gravity concentrates most stuff near center
Heat and pressure increase
Collapses central proto-sun rotates faster (probably got initial rotation from the
cloud
1. Interstellar gas and dust cloud: diameter 1 ly. Gravitational collapse.
2. Solar nebula: 100 AU diameter, rotating disk. Dust particles in inner nebula are
broken down because of warmer temperatures. Dust particles from 10 AU on out
remain. Inner nebula starts to cool.
3. Gravitational collapse eventually leads to the disk. Condensation and accretion: dust
particles form condensation nuclei. Through collisions, particles grow rapidly in size. At
about 0.5 AU only metallic grains condense. At about 1 AU rocky silicate grains
condense. At about 3 AU water ice particles condense. Planetesimals, up to a few km
across, are formed.
4. Gravitational accretion: planetesimals have sufficient gravity to attract material
gravitationally. Large bodies dominate and grow rapidly. The largest bodies form
protoplanets. Protomoons form around them. Smaller bodies suffer numerous
collisions and fragment. Some planetesimals, through gravitational interactions with
the large protoplanets, are ejected into the outer solar system forming the Oort cloud of
comets.
5. Gravitational accretion of gas: the largest protoplanets in the coolest parts of the solar
nebula accrete gas. The smaller protoplanets in the inner solar nebula are unable to
accrete gas because of their higher temperature.
6. Sweep of debris: over about 1 billion years, the material left over from the solar
system formation is cleared. The Sun enters its T-Tauri phase and blows the remaining
gas out of the solar system. The Jovian planets strongly influence the orbits of the
remaining planetesimals (comets), either throwing them out into the Oort cloud or
inward, where they collide with the terrestrial planets. Terrestrial planets obtain their
atmospheres, and particularly water, from the constant impact of cometary material. In
a process that remains uncertain, Jupiter influences the region of the asteroid belt so
that some material remains in stable solar orbits but is unable to coalesce into a larger
body.

Early in the Life of Planets

Planetesimals swept up debris
Accretion + Impacts = HEAT
Eventually begin to melt materials
Iron, silica melt at different temperatures
Terrestrial Planet Interiors
Mercury
Mercury has an average density of 5430 kilograms per cubic meter, which is second
only to Earth among all the planets. It is estimated that the planet Mercury, like Earth,
has a ferrous core with a size equivalent to two-thirds to three-fourths that of the
planet's overall radius. The core is believed to be composed of an iron-nickel alloy
covered by a mantle and surface crust.

Venus
It is believed that the composition of the planet Venus is similar to that of Earth. The
planet crust extends to around 10-30 kilometers below the surface, under which the
mantle reaches to a depth of some 3000 kilometers. The planet core comprises a liquid
iron-nickel alloy. Average planet density is 5240 kilograms per cubic meter.

Earth
The Earth comprises three separate layers: a crust, a mantle, and a core (in descending
order from the surface). The crust thickness averages 30 kilometers for land masses
and 5 kilometers for seabeds. The mantle extends from just below the crust to some
2900 kilometers deep. The core below the mantle begins at a depth of around 5100
kilometers, and comprises an outer core (liquid iron-nickel alloy) and inner core (solid
iron-nickel alloy). The crust is composed mainly of granite in the case of land masses
and basalt in the case of seabeds. The mantle is composed primarily of peridotite and
high-pressure minerals. Average planet density is 5520 kilograms per cubic meter.
Mars
Mars is roughly one-half the diameter of Earth. Due to its small size, it is believed that
the martian center has cooled. Geological structure is mainly rock and metal. The
mantle below the crust comprises iron-oxide-rich silicate. The core is made up of an
iron-nickel alloy and iron sulfide. Average planet density is 3930 kilograms per cubic
meter.

Pluto
The structure of Pluto is not very well understood at present. Nevertheless,
spectroscopic observation from Earth in the 1970s has revealed that the planet surface
is covered with methane ice. Surface temperature is -230C (-382?F), and the frozen
methane exhibits a bright coloration. However, with the exception of the polar caps, the
frozen methane surface is seen to change to a dark red when eclipsed by its moon
Charon. Average planet density is 2060 kilograms per cubic meter. The low average
density requires that the planet must be a mix of ice and rock.
Differentiation
Separation of homogenous interior into layers of different compositions
Early hottest time dense iron-rich material core
Releases additional heat
Leaves mantle with molten ocean enriched in silica
Crust eventually forms from lightest material
Radioactive decay = primary heat source
Partial melting of mantle material rising magma volcanoes / lava flows

When Did the Solar System Form?

Analysis of the 4.5-billion-year-old meteorite, which exploded in the Earth's upper
atmosphere January 18 and rained fragments over part of Canada's Yukon Territory, are
expected to show what conditions were like when the solar system began to form.
Initial formation of Jupiter near "snow line" at 4 AU. Jupiters large mass and high
gravity attracted much of the material available from its region of the solar nebula. This
left the asteroid belt too depleted in mass to form a planet and resulted in a relatively
small mass for the planet Mars. Jupiters high mass also makes it a magnet for comets
and asteroids, sweeping them up or slinging them out of the solar system. It has been
estimated that without Jupiter the frequency of impact between asteroids and comets
and the Earth would have been 1000 times greater.
The meteorite "offers us a snapshot of the original composition of the entire solar
system before the planets formed," said Michael Zolensky, a scientist at NASA's
Johnson Space Center (JSC). "It tells us what the initial materials were like that went
into making up the Earth, the Moon and the Sun."
The meteorite is a carbonaceous chondrite, a rare type that accounts for only 2
percent of all meteorites. While carbonaceous chondrite asteroids are relatively
common, meteorites from them are rare because they break up as they enter the
Earth's atmosphere or from weathering processes after landing.
Carbonaceous chondrites are particularly interesting because they are rich in
organic materials, including amino acids that are the building blocks for life Because
such meteorites show no signs of "processing" since their formation 4.5 billion years
ago, they are thought to be the best sample of the dust cloud from which the solar
system formed.

Bottom line meteorites tell us about the composition and processes that took place
to form our Solar System
Some are unaltered give us dates and composition (and process)
Some are altered process information (metamorphism, differentiation) (and
composition)
Some come from different places within a planet again, composition and process
Meteorites and their message
Meteorites are bits of solar system that enter earth's atmosphere. Most burn up from
friction (never hit). ~500/year baseball-sized.
Rare bigger ones hit, including a big one about 65 Ma (10 km diameter in Mexico).
Big ones cause local melting of any rocks that they hit. Explosive craters.
General Properties of the Planets
Silicate and Metal Planets
SILICATE
chemicals that contains silicon
a salt or ester derived from a silicic acid
any of numerous insoluble often complex metal salts that contain silicon and oxygen
in the anion, constitute the largest class of minerals

METAL
any various opaque , fusible, ductile and typically lustrous substances that are good
conductors of electricity and heat, form cations by loss of electrons, and yield basic
oxides and hydroxides

THE INNER PLANETS OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM

MERCURY

The smallest planet in the Solar System and the one closest to the
Sun
Mercury consists of approximately 70% metallic and 30% silicate
material
Mercury's surface is similar in appearance to that of the Moon,

Caloris Basin One of the largest features on Mercury's surface is the Caloris Basin
(right); it is about 1300 km in diameter. It is thought to be similar to the large basins
(maria) on the Moon.
VENUS
Venus is the second planet from the Sun
The diameter of Venus is 12,092 km (only 650 km less than
Earth's) and its mass is 81.5% of Earth's.
Venus has an extremely dense atmosphere composed of 96.5%
carbon dioxide, 3.5% nitrogen, and traces of other gases, most
notably sulfur dioxide

Inside Venus
Lithosphere or Crust silicate rock
Mantle silicate rock (1,900 miles thick)
Nickel-iron core partly molten (3,750 miles- diameter)
EARTH
Earth was formed about 4.54 billion years ago
It is composed mostly of iron (32.1%), oxygen (30.1%), silicon
(15.1%), magnesium (13.9%), sulfur (2.9%), nickel (1.8%),
calcium (1.5%), and aluminium (1.4%), with the remaining 1.2%
consisting of trace amounts of other elements. Due to mass
segregation, the core region is estimated to be primarily
composed of iron (88.8%), with smaller amounts of nickel (5.8%),
sulfur (4.5%), and less than 1% trace elements.

MARS
Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun
Mars is the site of Olympus Mons, the largest volcano and
second-highest known mountain in the Solar System, and of
Valles Marineris, one of the largest canyons in the Solar System.
Mars is approximately half the diameter of Earth, and its surface
area is only slightly less than the total area of Earth's dry land.

Like Earth, Mars has differentiated into a dense metallic core overlaid by less dense
materials. Besides silicon and oxygen, the most abundant elements in the Martian crust
are iron, magnesium, aluminum, calcium, and potassium.
 The Gas Giant Planets

GAS GIANT
is a large planet composed mostly of gases, such as hydrogen and helium, with
a relatively small rock core
the term was created by James Blish, a science fiction writer
the gas giant of our solar system are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
they are also known as Jovian planets
Uranus and Neptune sometimes categorize as "Ice giants" because their
composition differs from Jupiter and Saturn.
JUPITER
Mass: 1,898,130,000,000,000,000 billion kg (317.83 x Earth)
Equatorial Diameter: 142,984 km
Polar Diameter: 133,709 km
Equatorial Circumference: 439,264 km
Known Moons: 67
Notable Moons: Io, Europa, Ganymede & Callisto
Known Rings: 4
Orbit Distance: 778,340,821 km (5.20 AU)
Orbit Period: 4,332.82 Earth days (11.86 Earth years)
Surface Temperature: -108C
First Record: 7th or 8th century BC
Recorded By: Babylonian astronomers
Size Of Jupiter Compared To The Earth
FACTS:
Jupiter is the fourth brightest object in the solar system
The ancient Babylonians were the first to record their sightings of Jupiter
Jupiter has the shortest day of all the planets
Jupiter has the shortest day of all the planets
Jupiter orbits the Sun once every 11.8 Earth years
Jupiter has unique cloud features
The Great Red Spot is a huge storm on Jupiter
Jupiters interior is made of rock, metal, and hydrogen compounds
Jupiters moon Ganymede is the largest moon in the solar system
Jupiter has a thin ring system
Eight spacecraft have visited Jupiter
4 KNOWN MOONS IN JUPITER

JUPITER'S RING

THE GREAT RED SPOT

SATURN
Mass: 568,319,000,000,000,000 billion kg (95.16 x Earth)
Equatorial Diameter: 120,536 km
Polar Diameter: 108,728 km
Equatorial Circumference: 365,882 km
Known Moons: 62
Notable Moons: Titan, Enceladus, Iapetus, Rhea, Mimas,
Tethys & Dione.
Known Rings: 30+ (7 Groups)
Orbit Distance: 1,426,666,422 km (9.58 AU)
Orbit Period: 10,755.70 Earth days (29.45 Earth years)
Surface Temperature: -139 C
First Record: 8th century BC
Recorded By: Assyrians
Size Of Saturn Compared To The Earth

FACTS
Saturn can be seen with the naked eye
Saturn was known to the ancients, including the Babylonians and Far Eastern
observers
Saturn is the flattest planet
Saturn orbits the Sun once every 29.4 Earth years
Saturns upper atmosphere is divided into bands of clouds
Saturn has oval-shaped storms similar to Jupiters
Saturn is made mostly of hydrogen
Saturn has the most extensive rings in the solar system
Saturn has 150 moons and smaller moonlets
Titan is a moon with complex and dense nitrogen-rich atmosphere
Four spacecraft have visited Saturn

SATURN'S MOON
URANUS
Mass: 86,810,300,000,000,000 billion kg (14.536 x Earth)
Equatorial Diameter: 51,118 km
Polar Diameter: 49,946 km
Equatorial Circumference: 159,354 km
Known Moons: 27
Notable Moons: Miranda, Titania, Ariel, Umbriel & Oberon
Known Rings: 13
Orbit Distance: 2,870,658,186 km (19.22 AU)
Orbit Period: 30,687.15 Earth days (84.02 Earth years)
Surface Temperature: -197 C
Discover Date: March 13th 1781
Discovered By: William Herschel
Size Of Uranus Compared To The Earth

FACTS
Uranus was officially discovered by Sir William Herschel in 1781
Uranus turns on its axis once every 17 hours, 14 minutes
Uranus makes one trip around the Sun every 84 Earth years
Uranus is often referred to as an ice giant planet
Uranus hits the coldest temperatures of any planet
Uranus has two sets of rings of very thin set of dark coloured rings
Uranus moons are named after characters created by William Shakespeare and
Alaxander Pope
Only one spacecraft has flown by Uranus
URANUS' MOON

URANUS' RING

NEPTUNE
Planet Profile
Mass: 102,410,000,000,000,000 billion kg (17.15x Earth)
Equatorial Diameter: 49,528 km
Polar Diameter: 48,682 km
Equatorial Circumference: 155,600 km
Known Moons: 14
Notable Moons: Triton
Known Rings: 5
Orbit Distance: 4,498,396,441 km (30.10 AU)
Orbit Period: 60,190.03 Earth days (164.79 Earth years)
Surface Temperature: -201 C
Discover Date: September 23rd 1846
Discovered By: Urbain Le Verrier & Johann Galle
Size Of Neptune Compared To The Earth
FACTS
Neptune was not known to the ancients
Neptune spins on its axis very rapidly
Neptune is the smallest of the ice giants
The atmosphere of Neptune is made of hydrogen and helium, with some
methane
Neptune has a very active climate
Neptune has a very thin collection of rings
Neptune has 14 moons
Only one spacecraft has flown by Neptune
NEPTUNE'S MOON

NEPTUNE'S RING
Small Solar System Objects
Comets
Comets are small, fragile, irregularly shaped bodies composed of a mixture of non-
volatile grains and frozen gases. They have highly elliptical orbits that bring them very
close to the Sun and swing them deeply into space, often beyond the orbit of Pluto.

PARTS OF A COMET

Nucleus: The nucleus is the frozen center of a comet's head. It is composed of ice, gas,
and dust. The nucleus contains most of the comet's mass but is very small (about 1 to
10 km across - or more).

Coma: The coma is the roughly spherical blob of gas that surrounds the nucleus of a
comet; it is about a million km across. The coma is comprised of water vapor, carbon
dioxide gas, ammonia, dust, and neutral gases that have sublimed from the solid
nucleus. The coma and the nucleus form the head of a comet.

Ion Tail: A tail of charged gases (ions) always faces away from the sun because the
solar wind (ions streaming from the sun at high velocities) pushes it away (it is also
called the plasma tail). When the comet is approaching the Sun, the ion tail trails the
comet: when the comet is leaving of the Sun, the ion tail leads. The tail fades as the
comet moves far from the Sun. The ion tail can be well over 100 million km long.

Dust Tail: The dust tail is a long, wide tailcomposed of microscopic dust particles that
are buffeted by photons emitted from the Sun; this tail curves slightly due to the comet's
motion. The tail fades as the comet moves far from the Sun.

Hydrogen Envelope: Hydrogen gas surrounds the coma of the comet and trails along
for millions of miles (it is usually between the ion tail and the dust tail). The hydrogen
envelope is about 10 million km across at the nucleus of the comet and about 100
million km long. It is bigger when the comet is near the Sun.

Their velocity increases greatly when they are near the Sun and slows down at
the far reaches of the orbit. Since the comet is light only when it is near the Sun (and is
it vaporizing), comets are dark (virtually invisible) throughout most of their orbit. The
solar wind pushes the tail away from the Sun.
 What do the orbital paths of comets look like?
Based on observations of how comets move through the sky, scientists have determined that
comets travel around our Sun in highly elliptical (oval-shaped) orbits. The time it takes to make a
complete orbit is called a comet's period. Comet periods typically range from a few years to
millions of years.
Where do comets come from?
Comets are divided into short-period comets and long-period comets. Short period comets
such as Comet Halley revolve around our Sun in orbits that take less than 200 years. Their
orbital paths are close to the same plane of orbit as Earth and the other planets, and they orbit
our Sun in the same direction as the planets. Based on these orbital characteristics, short-period
comets are believed to originate in the Kuiper belt, a disk-shaped region extending beyond
Neptune. The Kuiper belt contains small, icy planetary bodies, only a few of which have been
imaged. These are the leftovers from early solar system formation. Occasionally the orbit of a
Kuiper belt object will be disturbed by the interactions of the giant planets in such a way that it
will have a close encounter with Neptune and either be flung out of the solar system or pushed
into an orbit within our solar system.
Long period comets such as Comet Hale-Bopp or Comet Hyakutake take more than 200 years
to orbit our Sun. Their orbital path is random in terms of direction and plane of orbit. Based on
calculations from their observed paths, long-period comets are believed to originate in the Oort
cloud. The Oort cloud is a spherical envelope that may extend 30 trillion kilometers
(approximately 20 trillion miles) beyond our Sun. Oort cloud objects have never been imaged.

Asteroids
Asteroids are rocky or metallic objects, most of which orbit the Sun in the asteroid belt
between Mars and Jupiter. A few asteroids approach the Sun more closely. None of the
asteroids have atmospheres.

Asteroids are also known as planetoids or minor planets.

THE ASTEROID BELT

The asteroid belt is a doughnut-shaped concentration of asteroids
orbiting the Sun between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, closer to the
orbit of Mars. Most asteroids orbit from between 186 million to 370
million miles (300 million to 600 million km or 2 to 4 AU) from the
Sun. The asteroids in the asteroid belt have a slightly elliptical orbit.
The time for one revolution around the Sun varies from about three
to six Earth years.

The strong gravitational force of the planet Jupiter shepherds the

asteroid belt, pulling the asteroids away from the Sun, keeping them
from careening into the inner planets.

THE SIZES OF ASTEROIDS

Asteroids range in size from tiny pebbles to about 578 miles (930 kilometers) in
diameter (Ceres). Sixteen of the 3,000 known asteroids are over 150 miles (240 km) in
diameter. Some asteroids even have orbiting moons.
Asteroids are classified into a number of types according to their spectra (and hence
their chemical composition) and albedo:
C-type, includes more than 75% of known asteroids: extremely dark (albedo
0.03); similar to carbonaceous chondrite meteorites; approximately the same
chemical composition as the Sun minus hydrogen, helium and other volatiles;
S-type, 17%: relatively bright (albedo .10-.22); metallic nickel-iron mixed with
iron- and magnesium-silicates;
M-type, most of the rest: bright (albedo .10-.18); pure nickel-iron.
There are also a dozen or so other rare types.

Asteroid Classifications
Main asteroid belt: The majority of known asteroids orbit within the asteroid belt
between Mars and Jupiter, generally with not very elongated orbits. The belt is
estimated to contain between 1.1 and 1.9 million asteroids larger than 1 kilometer
(0.6 mile) in diameter, and millions of smaller ones. Early in the history of the
solar system, the gravity of newly formed Jupiter brought an end to the formation
of planetary bodies in this region and caused the small bodies to collide with one
another, fragmenting them into the asteroids we observe today.
Trojans: These asteroids share an orbit with a larger planet, but do not collide
with it because they gather around two special places in the orbit (called the L4
and L5 Lagrangian points). There, the gravitational pull from the sun and the
planet are balanced by a trojan's tendency to otherwise fly out of the orbit. The
Jupiter trojans form the most significant population of trojan asteroids. It is
thought that they are as numerous as the asteroids in the asteroid belt. There are
Mars and Neptune trojans, and NASA announced the discovery of an Earth
trojan in 2011.
Near-Earth asteroids: These objects have orbits that pass close by that of
Earth. Asteroids that actually cross Earth's orbital path are known as Earth-
crossers. As of June 19, 2013, 10,003 near-Earth asteroids are known and the
number over 1 kilometer in diameter is thought to be 861, with 1,409 classified as
potentially hazardous asteroids - those that could pose a threat to Earth.
 Meteoroids
The term meteor comes from the Greek meteoron, meaning phenomenon in the sky. It
is used to describe the streak of light produced as matter in the solar system falls into
Earth's atmosphere creating temporary incandescence resulting from atmospheric
friction. This typically occurs at heights of 80 to 110 kilometers (50 to 68 miles) above
Earth's surface. The term is also used loosely with the word meteroid referring to the
particle itself without relation to the phenomena it produces when entering the Earth's
atmosphere. A meteoroid is matter revolving around the sun or any object in
interplanetary space that is too small to be called an asteroid or a comet. Even smaller
particles are called micrometeoroids or cosmic dust grains, which includes any
interstellar material that should happen to enter our solar system. A meteorite is a
meteoroid that reaches the surface of the Earth without being completely vaporized.

FACTS
A meteoroid is a small rock or particle of debris in our solar system. They range in size
from dust to around 10 metres in diameter (larger objects are usually referred to as
asteroids).
A meteoroid that burns up as it passes through the Earths atmosphere is known as a
meteor. If youve ever looked up at the sky at night and seen a streak of light or
shooting star what you are actually seeing is a meteor.
A meteoroid that survives falling through the Earths atmosphere and colliding with the
Earths surface is known as a meteorite.
The fastest meteoroids travel through the solar system at a speed of around 42
kilometres per second (26 miles per second).
The Earths atmosphere experiences millions of meteors every day.
Meteors are easier to see during the lower light conditions of night.
A small percentage of meteoroids fly on a path that goes into the Earths atmosphere
and then back out again, they are known as Earth grazing fireballs.
When many meteors occur in a close time frame in the same part of the sky it is called a
meteor shower.
Around 500 meteorites reach the Earths surface every year but of those only around 5
ever make it to scientists for study.
Meteorites that are observed as they fall through the Earths atmosphere and later
recovered are called falls, all others are called finds. To this date there have been
around 1000 collected falls and 40000 finds.