OURNALOF GEOPHYSICAL

RESEARCH VoL. 74, No. 22, OCTOBEa

15, 1969

The RelationshipbetweenAndesiticVolcanismand Seismicityin

Indonesia, the Lesser Antilles, and Other Island Arcs
TREVOR HATHERTON

GeophysicsDivision, Department o[ Scientificand Industrial Research

Wellington, New Zealand

WILLIAM R. DCKNSON

School o] Earth Sciences,Stanford University

Stanford, California 94305

The relationship between K, the level of potash content in lavas erupted from an andesitc
volcano, and h, the depth to the center of the inclined seismic (Benioff) zone beneath the
volcano, is extended using new data from Indonesia, the Lesser Antilles, and New Zealand.
Coefficients of correlation between K and h of -1-t-0.86
(K) and -1-t-0.80(K6o) are obtained by
straight-line regression. This is compared with a coefficient between K55 and distance d of
the volcano from the trench of only -t-0.60. The coefficientsof correlation of K against hmi.,
which is the depth to the upper surface of the Benioff zone, are not significantly different
from those between K and h.

INTRODUCTION We are now endeavouring(a) to test our K-h

We have previously shown [Dickinson and relationship in other areas [Hatherton and
Hatherton, 1967] that in the eireum-Paeifie Dickinson, 1968] and (b) to improve our curves
islandares and active continentalmarginsthere by the addition of other data, especially for
appearsto be a relationshipbetweenthe potash volcanoeserupting lavas with high potash con-
content of an andesitc volcano and the depth tents. In the presentstudy, data from Indonesia,
of the seismic (Benioff) zone below that vol- where many of the lavas are high in potash,
and from the Lesser Antilles and New Zealand
cano. We obtained curves of K20 contents at 55
and 60% SiO2,respectively,againstthe depth h are added to our previous results from eireum-
of the Benioff zone (hereafter called the K-h Pacific arcs. Together with our original data
curves). The range of h above which andesitie they allow us to make a statistical assessment
of the correlation between K and h.
rocks appear is 80 to 290 km, an interval cor-
respondingapproximately to the low-velocity INDONESIA
layer of the upper mantle. The simplestmodel
we can devise to explain the correlation is Seismic sections. Unfortunately no detailed
shownby Figure 1. Andesitie magmasor their modern studieshave beenmade of the seismicity
parents are generatedat the Benioff zonesand of this region and to derive depths to the
Benioff zones beneath the volcanoes we have
rise to the ground surface without undergoing
had to construct our own seismic sections.
enough contamination to mar the pattern of
chemicalvariationsestablishedat sitesof partial We have examinedthe monthly Seismological
Bulletins of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Sur-
melting alongthe Benioff zone.
Our original curves [Dickinson and Hather- vey from January 1961 to April 1966 and the
ton, 1967] were based on a relatively small Catalogue of Epicenters in the International
number of samples,particularly at the higher SeismologicalSummary for 1959 and 1960 and
potashlevels; the limiting factor in our statistics have plottedthe epicentersand depthsof earth-
was the small number of areas where seismic quakesin the region boundedby 6N, 12S,
cross sectionshad previously been published. 95E, and 134E. We have followed Berlage
[1937] in drawing, though for limited areas
Copyright 1969 by the American Geophysical Union. only, lines of equal depth. The positions of
5301
5302 HATHERTON AND DICKINSON
Interior Limit Exterior Limit Trench
of of
Andesite Volcanoes Andesite Volcanoes

Range ofOccurrence
Zone of Shallow
of Andesires
,,o/
,ci
,, Earthquakes
--I00

Low.Velocity
Layer I '
in I E
200
i

-- 500 t

-- 400

/
I ! I 50O
600 500 400 00 200 I00 0

TYPICAL SCALE (km)

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of model proposedfor andesite production and distribution.

the epicenters(of which about 1000 were used), Cross section AA' (Figure 3) through Java
the equal depth lines, and the locations of all lies close to the volcanoes Ungaran, Dieng,
active or recently active volcanoesof this area Merapi, Tjeremai, Slamet, and Galunggung.
are shownin Figure 2. All volcanoes,with the This seismic cross section is similar to several
exceptionsof Batu Tara in the Flores Sea and that have been publishedby Sykes [1966] and
GunungApt in the Banda Sea, lie betweenthe Hamilton and Gale [1968] for other regions
100 and 300 lcm contours,consistentwith our that have a simpletrench-andesitearc-continent
model of Figure 1. asymmetry. The thicknessof the envelopeof
The positionswhere seismicsectionscan be the Benioff zone is about 50 kin, again similar
drawn for K-h investigationsare determined to the thicknessesobtained by the above au-
primarily by the availability of chemicalanaly- thors, and the zone dips beneaththe arc from
ses for rocks from the various volcanoes. The near the inner margin of a region of relatively
chemical analyses used in this investigation shallow seismicity between the are and the
have been taken from Neuman van Padang trench.
[1951], who gives isolated analysesof rocks Cross section BB' across Flores and close to
from many of the volcanoes,but for only a the volcanoes ?aluweh and Lewotolo lies in a
few are there sufficientanalysesto draw I-Iarker more complex morphologicalsituation. Deep
variation diagrams.Even so, some.ofthe potash water lies to the northwest of the cross section
contents quoted later are based on as few as in the Flores Sea and to the southeast of the
four analyses. sectionin the Savu Sea, thoughneither of these
The volcanoesfor which sufficient analyses could be considered to be trench-like features.
for goodor approximateK or I (percentage- The islands of Sumba and Timor strike ob-
K20 at 55% St02 or 60% SiOn) determinations liquely to Flores and intervene between the
can be made are noted in Figure 2. Crosssec- Sunda trench to the west and the trench to the
tions AA', BB', and CC' have been drawn in east of the Banda Sea. Cross section BB' shows
Figure 3, 4, and 5 by projectiononto these a fairly typical Benioff zone but differs from
lines of the epicentersin the enclosedneigh- cross section AA' in showing some relatively
boring regions. shallow seismicityboth north and south of the
 ,

ANDESITIC VOLCANISM AND SEISMICITY 5303

upper extension of the inclined zone. The together with the Benloft zone depths beneath
Benioff zone dips away from the region to the the volcanoes.
south of Flores, and the seismicisobathsof
LESSER ANTILLES
Figure 2 showthat the deep earthquakeslie to
the north of Flores. The volcanoes Lewotolo The seismicdata of Sykes and Ewing [1965]
and Paluweh are in similar positionson the sec- allow us to construct two transverse seismic
tion about 240 km above the center of the zone. sections across the Lesser Antillean arc in
Batu Tara lies about 380 km above the center placeswhere petrologicdata adequateto apply
of the Benioff zone but is not an island arc vol- tests of the K-h correlation are available. The
cano; silica contentsof Batu Tara are in the two sectionsare: (1) the more northerly sec-
range 47-58% and potash contentsare be- tion crossingthe arc at Nevis Peak to corre-
tween 3.3 and 5.2% in analysesof the lavas. spondwith petrologicdata for Nevis (C. O.
Cross section CC' lies across another com- Hutton, p. 196 in Weyl [1966]), for nearby
plex situation. The section runs from conti- Montserrat [MacGregor, 1938, p. 74], and for
nental West New Guinea through Halmahera St. Kitts [Baker, 1968,p. 136-137]; and (2)
across the Molucca Passage,with a narrow the more southerly sectioncrossingthe arc at
trench separatingthe floor of the passagefrom Mont Pelee to correspondwith petrologicdata
the Northern Celebes;to the northwestof the for Martinique [Lacroix, 1926,p. 394-395] and
Northern Celebesis the deep CelebesSea, one nearby St. Lucia [Robsonand Tomblin,1961,
of several such featuresseparatingthe island p. 43]. The seismicdepthsh and the potash
arcs from the coast of Asia. Thus we have two contents K55 and K6ofor the Lesser Antilles are
opposite-facingsystems,which are dissimilar givenin Table 1.
at their extremes,Halmahera-NewGuinea be-
NEw ZEALAND
ing continental and the CelebesSea presum-
ably beingoceanic.Thesecontrasts are reflected We have previouslytestedthe K-h relation-
in the seismicity: the Celebessystem displays shipfor somevolcanoesin New Zealand[Hath-
a relatively conventionalseismiczone dipping erton and Dickinson,1968] by usingthe seismic
west-northwestto depths of 650 km, whereas sectionsof Hamilton and Gale [1968] and the
the Halmahera system dips more gently east- analysesin Steiner [1958]. Recently [Hather-
southeastto depthsof about 240 km. Although ton, 1969], the analysesof rocksfrom Mt.
a depth can clearlybe assignedto the seismic mont, the westernmost andesitcvolcanoin New
zone of the Celebesbelow Lokon-Empung,it is Zealand, which is high in potash, have been
difficult to make such a choice below Dukono. gatheredtogetherand K and Ko determined.
Depths to the centersh of the Benioffzones The depthsto the BenioffzonebeneathEgmont
below the volcanoes have been measured from are also available from Hamilton and Gale
the seismicsections,
with the exceptions
of the [1968], sectionCC'. All the New Zealanddata
depths below Tandikat and Merapi that have are also included in Table 1.
been estimated from the seismic isobaths. The
T, K-h PLOTS AND TEIR STaTISTICaL
values of h for the various volcanoesare given
SIGNIFICANCE
in Table 1.
Chemical analyses. Harker partial variation Figure 6 showsthe results.of our previous
diagrams for K20-SiO. for the volcanoesdis- study [Dickinsonand Hatherton, 1967, Table
cussedabove have been plotted from the analy- 1] together with the results reported here,
ses in Neurnan van Padang [1951]. Analy- plotted as Ks-h and Ko-h diagrams.The
ses of ash have been rejected and so have all straight lines of best fit obtained by least
analyseswith more than 2% water becauseof squaresare also shown in Figure 6 and the
the suspicionof alteration. All other analyses coefficients of correlation are r -- +0.86 for
have been corrected to 100% volatile-free. Figure 6a (55% SiOn.level) and r -- +0.80 for
These include basalts and dacites as well as Figure 6b (60% SiO, level). Our previousre-
andesites. The K and ICaovalues for each vol- sults with little control at the high potash end
cano have been derived after Dickinson and appearedto showa quadraticrelationshipbe-
Hatherton [1967]; they are listed in Table 1, tween the two variables; although polynomi-
5304 HATHERTON AND DICKINSON

95E IO0E 105E I IOE

I I I
5ON

.'- I / '

' . _ _ USEDIN THIS STUDY

TANDKAT.

5 S

./ ', _--.

IOS
/ . /
# I

..

I
95E IO0E 105E I10 E

Fig. 2. Seismic isobaths and o]anoesin Indonesian reion with epicenters on hJch iso-
baths and sections (Figures 3, 4, and 5) are based.

als might fit the data in Figure 6 (particularly
at the 60% SiO, level) slightly better than
straightlines,there appearsto be no real justi-
ficationat presentfor trying to developa poly-
nomial relationshipbetweenK and h.
The angles of dip of the various Benioff
zones we have examined range from 20 to
70 . If the true thicknesses of the zones are
similar, the vertical distancebetween the top
and bottom faces increaseswith the angle of
dip. Thus, h -- h,,l. 7 (t/2 cos) where
is the distancefrom the ground surfaceto the
upper surfaceof the Benioffzone,t is the true
thicknessof the zone,and . the dip of the zone.
As the difference between h and hm,. is not con-
stant, we have plotted Ks and K6oagainst h,,,
also, to determineif there is a more significant
correlation between K and h.. The correla-
tion coetcients are respectively 70.82 and
70.72 for K and K6oagainst h,.. If the re-
sults of volcano30, Lewotolo,are ignored,the
correlation coefficientsimprove to 70.88 and
70.83, respectively.These are not significantly
different from the coefficients of correlation for
K and K6oagainst h, which includethe Lewo-
tolo data.
The significanceof the relationshipbetween
the potashcontentof an andesiteand its height
 ANDESITIC VOLCANISM AND SEISMICITY 5305
125 E 130 E

." 200
5N

HALMAHERA
/
0 o

- 5os
I ..

FLORE S B SEA
500 tt t

400

FLO[

SAVU SEA
IMOi
--IOOS

I
120E 125 E 130E

abovethe Benioff zonemay be comparedwith linear relationshipfor Kamchatka data in Fig-

the relationship between potash content and
other parameters of asymmetry in an island
arc, such as the distance d of the volcano from
the center of the trench associated with the arc.
Previously we have only commented that 'in
the gross picture the relationship of d with
percentage-K20is not as significantas that be-
tween h and percentage-K20' [Dickinson and
Hatherton, 1967, p. 803]. In Figure 7 we plot
K against d for volcanoesin arcs with well
developedtrenches.Our K-h relationshipim-
plies that in an individual arc K must also in-
crease regularly with d (see Figure 1 and
ure 7). Despite this, the coefficientof correla-
tion of K5 and d in Figure 7 is only +0.60,
and the much greater significanceof the rela-
tionship between potash content and depth to
Benioff zone, with correlation coefficientsin the
range 0.82 to 0.88, is apparent.
PETROLOGICALSIGNIFICANCE OF K-h PLOTS
If the mantle beneath the arcs is assumed ini-
tially to be chemicallyhomogeneous, our model
implies that andesitic volcanism effects a pri-
mary and irreversible geochemicalevoluton of
the upper mantle [Dickinson, 1968]. However,
5306 HATHERTON AND DICKINSON

BI B
A i il A
05' 4 30 20 i 0o
..... :%.
I00 - ioo
I00
- I00
200 -- 200

300 -- 30O E

400 'x:x 400

/ 400 -- 400 r

500 500

500 --
oo I I I I '1 o 500
Fig. 3. Seismic section AA' across Java. :
600 --

Oliver and Isacks [1967] have suggestedthat

the Benioff seismiczonesbeneath the arcs may
7OO I I x!t600
\o
o\
700

Fig. 4. Seismic section BB' acrossFlores.

be at the upper surfaces of thick slabs of
oceaniccrust and upper mantle carried beneath
the arcs as part of a fundamental movement
plan related to ocean-floorspreadingand con-
tinental drift. If so,the magmasproducedat the
seismiczonesmay gain part of their substance
and volatile content from
scending beneath the seismic zones [Coats,
1962]. Green and Ringwood [1968] have shown
qualitatively that the low melting fraction of
quartz eclogite,to which basalt would invert if
carried deep into the mantle, is the andesitic
compositionin the pressureregion correspond-
the material de- ing to a depth of 100-150 km. Kushiro [1969]
has stated, on the basisof experimentationwith
hydrous systems,that andesiticmagmascould

C CI
8
O' I '

I00 - ioo

200 -- 200

:500 -- 300 E

4OO -- 400 rm

5OO -- 5OO

600
t /o
o// ,' *** 600
/ , /

700//I,' 7OO

Fig. 5. Seismic section CC' acrossCelebes Sea, Molucc Passage,and Halmahera.

 ANDESITIC VOLCANISM AND SEISMICITY 5307

be generateddirectly from the mantle down to inson,1968] has suggestedthat the equilibrated
depthsof at least 70 km, provideda little water distribution of potash between a melt phase
is present. In either case, the ascent of the and appropriate solid phasesmay shift with
andesiticmagmasmay be a means of forming changingconditionsof temperature and pres-
new continental crust in the arcs [Markhinin, sure at the melting point at different depths
1968], whether wholly from primary fraction- along the seismiczones.As the K-h correlation
ation of mantle within the low-velocity zone or implies not only consistentlyvarying depths of
partly from secondaryfractionationof shal- origin for the magmas but also consistently
lower mantle and oceanic crust carried tecton- varying path lengthsof travel to the surface,
ically to the deeperlevels. it may be that somesystematichistory of mag-
The explanationfor the successivelyhigher matic evolution during ascent can equally well
potashcontentsin magmasarriving at the sur- account for the K-h correlation, even if the
face from correspondingly deepersites of par- magmashave nearly the same compositions at
tial meltingalongthe seismiczonesremainsun- all levels of partial melting along the seismic
certain in the absenceof adequateexperimental zones.The recentsuggestionby Stanton [1967]
data relevant to the process.One of us [Dick- that the evolutionof andesiticmagmasmay be

TABLE 1. Relevant Chemistry and Geometry of Active Volcanoesin Indonesia, Lesser Antilles,
and New Zealand

Intercept

Volcano* No.i K55 K6o h,[[ km d, km

Indonesia
(21) Marapt 6, 1-14 1.7 2.5 160 320
(22) Tandikat 6, 1-15 -- 1.85 130 300
(23) Galunggung 6, 3-14 0.6 -- 130 270
(24) Tjeremai 6, 3-17 1.15 1.95 210 320
(25) Slamet 6, 3-18 1.7 -- 210 --
(26) Dieng 6, 3-20 1.9 2.65 260 330
(27) Ungaran 6, 3-23 3.2 -- 290 --
(28) Merapi 6, 3-25 2.0 -- 225
(29) Paluweh 6, 4-15 1.85 2.5 240
(30) Lewotolo 6, 4-23 3.0 3.95 240
(31) Lokon-Empung 6, 6-10 0.9 -- 130 --
(32) Dukono 6, 8-1 1.5 2.5 180
Lesser Antilles
(33) Mr. Misery 16-3 0.6 0.7 120 250
(34) Nevis Peak 16-4 -- 1.2 120 250
(35) Montserrat 16-5 0.8 0.9 120 250
(36) Mont Pelee 16-12 0.7 1.0 130 --
(37) Qualibou,St. Lucia 16-14 0.8 1.3 130 --
New Zealand
(38) Ohakune-Edgecumbe -- 0.9 1.45 140 300
(39) White Island -- -- 2.1 210 300
(40) Egmont -- 2.1 2.5 280 380

Notes.
* For volcanoes1-20, seeDickinsonand Hatherton[1967,Table 1].
Numberof volcanoin Catalogue of ActiveVolcanoes
of theWorld [1951,1961].
: Ks, % KO at 55% SiOn.
K60, % KO at 60% SiO,.
[] Depth to centerof Benloft zonebelow volcano.
Distance to volcano from center of trench, where present.
5308 HATHERTON AND DICKINSON

3.5-

"New Zealand-Tonga

3.0-
x Indonesia x/
Japan x
o Kurile-Kamchatka
+ Alaska /
L.Antilles

2.0-- aC.
America/
/X XX
1.5-- .Xx
x
0.5-
r- +086

0 I
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 520

"h" DEPTHTO CENTEROF BENIOFFZONE, (kin)

4.0 -

,, New Zealand-Tonga
x Indonesia
Japan
o Kurle- Kamchatka
+ Alaska
L. Antilles
a C. America
x o
.o_2.5-

2.0-

15-

/o!
o

0.5- r = + 0.80

0 I i I I i I '
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 520
"h", DEPTHTO CENTEROF BENIOFFZONE, (km)

Fig. 6. Variation in K20 content of andesites(K55 and K6o) with depth to center of
Benioff zone h beneath volcanoes.Straight lines are least-squaresbest fits; r is coefficient
of correlation.
 ANDESITIC
3,0
2.5
!Avcchmsky
t
?- Sheveluch
3 Ichinsky
KAMCHATKA
.c2- 2.0
x
1.5
[3 O 1962.
0.5-
O/2 o x
O
r=+0.60
0
160 200 240 280 ;520
"d" DISTANCE
FROM
AXISOF TRENCH,(Kin)
Fig. 7. Variation in If20 content at 55% SiO2
(if55) with distance of volcano from
trench d. Straight line shows correlation of If55
and d for a single arc, Ifamchatka, resulting from
the K-h relationship. r is coefficient of correlation.
For explanation of symbols see Figure 6.
induced by internal gas transfer in open con-
duit systems may lead to fruitful lines of
thought in this regard. Also of interest is the
suggestionof Green et al. [1967] that mantle
diapirs may be activated at varying depths
along the inclined seismiczones. As such dia-
pirs rose into lower pressure regions, induced
partial melting might lead to eventual magma
segregation and differentiation at shallower
levels.The levelsof magmagenerationwouldbe
controlledby the amountof potential superheat
in the diapirs, and this would be related to the
varying initial diapir temperaturesgovernedby
the depth of initiation of upward rise from the
seismic zone. Although these and other in-
ferential schemesmight explain the K-h corre-
lation, we continue to prefer, at this stage of
investigation,the simple and direct hypothesis
that relative levelsof potashcontentin the dif-
ferent lava suitesare set by partial melting at
the Benioff zone. Kuno [1968], in a thorough
review of the andesireproblem, has concluded
that andesiremagmasprobablyform by crystal
fractionation of basalt magmas derived from
the mantle and not by contamination.
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VOLCANISM AND SEISMICITY 5309
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