Licensure Examination for Teachers

Mathematics - General Education

I. Fundamentals of Mathematics
A. Number sets
i. The Number System

Complex Numbers
a + bi

Real Numbers Imaginary Numbers

-3, 0, 5, 3/4, 2/9, 25, 2 4i, -2i, -25

Irrational Numbers Rational Numbers

3
5, 4 -3, 0, 5, 3/4, 2/9, 25

Integers Non - integers

-3, 0, 5 3/4, 1/6, 30%, 0.25

Negative Integers whole numbers

-3, -2 0, 2, 7

Positive numbers
Zero
(natural numbers)
0
+2, +7

ii. Real and Imaginary Numbers

Real numbers are numbers that can be traced or plot in a number line. Otherwise, it is
an imaginary number.

iii. Irrational and Rational Numbers

Rational numbers are numbers that can be expressed as a ratio/quotient of two whole
numbers otherwise it is an irrational number. By inspection, rational numbers are the
integers, terminating and repeating decimals. Irrational numbers are the non repeating and
non termination decimals.
 iv. Integers

Operations of Integers
Addition
a. Like Signed Numbers
In adding two like signed numbers, add (+A) + (+B) = +(+A + +B)
their absolute values and prefix their common
sign in the sum (-A) + (-B) = - (-A + -B)

b. Unlike Signed Numbers (+A) + (-B) = +(+A + -B)

In adding unlike signed numbers, subtract
their absolute values and copy the sign of the If -B > +A
integer with greater absolute value in the sum
(+A) + (-B) = - (-A + -B)

If +A > -B

Subtraction

In subtracting integers, change the sign of the = +

subtrahend and proceed as in addition.

Multiplication

a. Like Signed Numbers

In multiplying two like signed numbers, +A +B = AB
multiply their absolute values and prefix the -A -B = AB
positive sign in the product.

b. Unlike Signed Numbers

In multiplying two unlike signed numbers, A - B = - AB
multiply their absolute values and prefix the -A B = - AB
negative sign

Division

a. Like Signed Numbers

In multiplying two like signed numbers, +A +B = AB
divide their absolute values and prefix the - A -B = AB
positive sign in the product.

b. Unlike Signed Numbers

In multiplying two unlike signed numbers, A - B = - AB
divide their absolute values and prefix the -A B = - AB
negative sign

v. Whole Numbers
Types Description Examples
It can be expressed in the form 2n where n is any whole
Even 6, 24, 30, 8, 10
number.
It can be expresses in the form 2n + 1 where n is any
Odd whole number. 80, 50, 18, 12

vi. Natural Numbers

Types Description Examples
Prime It has exactly two distinct factors. 2, 3, 5, 11, 13
Composite It has more than two distinct factors. 6, 8, 12, 25, 10

B. Divisibility Rules

The number
is divisible by When the . Examples
..
number ends with 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8 meaning the number is
2 9, 512
even.
 3 sum of the digits is divisible by 3. 3 216
4 number formed by the last two digits is divisible by 4. 1 012
5 last digit is 0 or 5 7 340
6 it is divisible by both 2 and 3. 6 192
difference obtained after subtracting twice the last digit from
7 2 912
the number formed by the remaining digits is divisible by 7.
8 the number formed by the last 3 digits is divisible by 8. 1 024
9 the sum of the digits is divisible by 9. 7 623
10 the last digit is 0. 3 540
the difference between the sum of the odd positioned
11 digits and the sum of the even positioned digits is divisible 9 281
by 11.
12 it is divisible by both 3 and by 4. 4 128
the sum of 4 times the last digit and the number formed by
13 182
the remaining digits is divisible by 13.

Important note:

Divisibility rules for two or more relatively prime numbers (GC = 1) may be combined to
serve as a divisibility rules for their product, e.g. The rules for 3, 4 and 13 may be combined to
serve as the divisibility rule for 156 students since, 3, 4, and 13 are relatively prime.

C. Factorization
i. Factors
Factors of the number are numbers or expressions (in case of polynomials) that when you
multiply the product is the number

Prime factorization is the process of expressing a counting number as the product of its prime
factors.
Ex. 126 = 2 x 3 x 3 x 7 or 2 x 32 x 7

Methods of getting the prime factors of numbers

1. Repeated Division by Primes
Find the prime factors of 126.
126
= 63
2

63
= 21
3

21
=7
3

So, 126 =

2. Factor Tree
Find the prime factors of 126
126

2 x 63

3 x 21

3 x 7
 So, 126 = 2 x 3 x 3 x 7 or 2 x 32 x 7
Two or more numbers are called relatively prime numbers if and only if their common factor is
one. All prime numbers are relatively prime numbers.

Ex.: 13 and 15, 25 and 81

ii. Greatest Common Factor
Greatest Common Factor (GCF) of two or more counting numbers is the largest whole
number divisor of the given numbers. The GCF of two number a and b may be denoted by (a,
b).
Ex.: The GCF of 8, 24 and 28 is 4 since the largest whole number that can divide 8, 24
and 28 is 4.

Methods in finding the GCF

1. Intersection of Sets for each of the given numbers, list from least to greatest their factors,
and pick out the greatest factor that is common to all lists.

Ex.: Find the GCF of 8, 24 and 28

8 = 4, 2, 8, 1
24 = 8, 3, 24, 1, 6, 4
28, 7, 4, 28, 1, 14, 2

So the GCF of 8, 24 and 28 is 4.

2. Prime factorization write the prime factorization for each of the given numbers so that
common and only common prime factors are in the same column. The GCF is the product
of the lowest power occurring in the column common to all prime factorization.

3. Euclidean Algorithm- (for use if we are looking for the GCF of only two numbers) the
procedure may be understood through an illustration.
Ex.: Find the prime factors of 24 and 28

28 24 = 1 remainder 4

24 4 = 6 remainder 0

So, the GCF of 24 and 28 is 4 since it is the last divisor that yields no remainder.

D. Least Common Multiple

Least Common Multiple (LCM) of two or more counting numbers is the smallest non zero
number that has given numbers as factors or divisor. The LCM of two numbers a and b may
be denoted by [a, b]

Ex.: The LCM of 5, 6 and 8 is 120 because it is the smallest non zero number that has
5, 6 and 8 factors.

Method in Finding the LCM

1. Intersection of sets for each of the given numbers, list from least to greatest their
multiples, and pick out smallest non zero multiple that is common to all list.

Ex.: Find the LCM of 12, 15 and 30

12 = 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72, 84, 96, 108, 120
15 = 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 105, 120
30 = 30, 60, 90, 120

So, the LCM of 12, 15 and 30 is 60.

 2. Prime Factorization write the prime factorization for each of the given numbers so that
common, and only common, prime factors, are in the same column of any of the prime
factorizations.

Ex.: Find the LCM of 12, 15 and 30

3. Euclidean Algorithm the LCKM of two numbers may be obtained by dividing their
product by their GCF. In symbols,

[, ] =
(, )

12 15 180
Ex.: To find the LCM of 12 and 15 [, ] = = = 60
(12,15) 3
4. Repeated Division (for use only if we are looking for the LCM of only two numbers). The
procedure may be best understood through an illustration.

2 12 30
3 6 15
2 5

So, the LCM of 12 and 30 is 2 x 3 x 2 x 5 = 60

E. Fractions, Decimals, Percent

i. Fractions
a. Types of Fractions

Kinds Definition Examples

A fraction whose numerator is smaller than 2 3 11 15
Proper , , ,
the denominator. 3 4 15 32
A fraction whose numerator is either equal to 5 1 12
Improper ,2 , ,4
or greater than the denominator. 2 2 3

Equivalent 2 4 12 16 18
Fractions which have the same values. , , , ,
Fractions 3 6 8 24 27

2 4 12 16 18
Similar Fractions Fractions which have a common denominator. , , , ,
13 13 13 13 13

Dissimilar 2 5 13 23 18
Fractions which have different denominators. , , , ,
Fractions 3 6 18 24 27

b. Rewriting fractions to simplest form

A fraction is in simplest form when the numerator and denominator are relatively prime. To
rewrite or reduce fraction into its simplest form is to cancel out all the common factors of
numerator and denominator.

c. Comparing and Ordering Fractions

i. Similar fractions
The fraction with the least numerator has the least value.

ii. Dissimilar Fractions with Common numerator

The fraction with the greatest denominator has the least value.

iii. Fractions where a constant difference exists between the denominator and the
numerator
The fraction with the least terms (numerator and denominator) has the least value.
 d. Operations on Fractions
i. Addition and Subtraction
a. Similar Fractions
- Add/Subtract the numerators and copy the common denominator, and
express the answer in simplest form.
b. Dissimilar Fractions
- Make the fractions similar (preferably the LCM of the denominators as the
common denominators) and proceed as above, addition of similar
fractions.
ii. Multiplication
Multiply the numerators and multiply the denominators to get the numerator and
denominator respectively of the product and express the answer in simplest form.
iii. Division
Multiply the dividend and the reciprocal of the divisor and express the answer in
simplest form.
e. Conversion: Fractions to decimal to percent vice versa
To convert fraction to decimal divide the numerator by the denominator.
To convert decimal (terminating and non-repeating) into fraction, write a fraction
with the decimal digits as the numerator and a denominator of a power of ten (the
exponent depends on the number of decimal places). Reduce to lowest term
To convert decimal (repeating decimal)
Equate the given repeating decimal to a variable. Call it equation 1.
Multiply equation 1 by power of 10 depending on the number of repeated
distinct digits in the given decimal. Call it equation 2.
Subtract equation 1 from equation 2 to get equation 3.
From equation 3, get the value of the variable and express it in simplest
form.
Example:
Convert 0.444.. to fraction
Let x = 0.444. equation 1

10x = 4.4444 equation 2

- x = 0.444.. equation 1
9x = 4 equation 3

x = 4/9
To convert decimal to percent, multiply the decimal by 100 and affix the percent
sign.
ii. Percent
a. Percent and its meaning
Percent or per centum is a hundredth part of a whole. Say 16% is 16 hundredth parts of a
whole.
b. Applications of Percent
P = Br B = P r r=PB

Where P = percentage
B = base
r = rate
a. What is 20% of 250?
0.20 x 250 = 50
b. What part of 300 is 15?
c. 30 is 15% of what number?
d. How much annual interest is collected from an investment of P200,000 that yield
12.5% simple interest?
iii. Decimals
Operations of decimals
a. Addition and Subtraction
Align digits with the same place value and perform the indicated operation addition or
subtraction
 b. Multiplication
Multiply the decimal numbers like the multiplication of whole numbers and the number
of decimal places in the product is equal to the total number of decimal places in the
factors.
c. Division
Divide the decimal numbers like the division of whole numbers, and the number of
decimal places in the quotient is the difference between the number of decimal places
in the dividend and the number of decimal places in the divisor.
F. Ratio and Proportion
i. Ratio and Proportion: Definition of Terms
The ratio of a number a to a nonzero number b is defined to be quotient a/b. in other words, a
ratio is a fraction and conversely, a fraction is a ratio. The ratio a to b is expressed in any of
the forms,
1. a/b and 2. a : b such that b 0

Each of these form is read the ratio of a to b. the colon in the form a : b is used to indicate
division. An equation that expresses the equality of two rational expressions is called a
proportion. It may be expressed in either of the forms

1. = or 2. a : b = c : d

Form (2) is read a is to b as c is to d. In each form, b and c are called the means; and a andd
are called the extremes.
ii. Properties of Proportion

a. If = , then ad = bc c. If = , then = e. If = , then =

+ + + +
b. If = , then = d. If = , then = f. If = , then =

iii. Types of Proportion (Variation)

A. Direct Proportion
The ratio of two distinct variables being compared is constant.

y = kx or =

Examples:
a. The variable x is directly proportional to y. what is k if x = 20 and y = 5?
b. Three cans of corned beef can serve ten persons. How many cans will be needed
for 40 persons?
B. Inverse Proportion
The product of two distinct variables being compared is constant.

= = =

Examples:
a. The variable x is inversely proportional to y. what is x if k = 12 and y = 4?
b. If ten men are needed to finish a house in 30 days, how many men are needed to
finish the same house in 10 days?
c. Two people take 12 days to repair a sidewalk. How many people are needed to
complete the repair in four days?
C. Partitive Proportion
Examples:
a. Three carpenters do a job for P 5400. If this sum is to be divided among the men
in the ratio 3: 5 : 7, find the share of each carpenter.
b. Divide 65 into three parts in the ratio 2:3:5. What is the middle part?
c. Three numbers are in the ratio 2: 4: 6 .if the middle number is 68, what is the
sum of the three numbers?
 G. Practice Exercises
II. Geometry
A. Basic Definitions
a. Geometry
b. Point
It is the simplest geometric figure. It is represented by a dot. It denotes exact location on the
plane or in the space. It has no dimension.
B. Lines
i. Basic Definitions
Line - It is a set of points that follows a straight path. It has only one dimension length.
Proper subsets of a straight line
i. Ray
ii. Line Segment
iii. Relations of Lines
Intersecting lines
- Two lines which have a common point.
Parallel lines
- Two coplanar lines that do not intersect no matter how far they are extended.
Skew lines
- Two non coplanar lines do not intersect no matter how far they are extended.
C. Angles
i. Definitions
Angle is a union of two non collinear rays with a common endpoint.

ii. Types of Angles

Acute angles - An angle whose measure is greater than 0o but less than 90o.
Right angles An angle whose measure is exactly 90o.
Obtuse angles An angle whose measure is greater than 90o but less than 180o.

iii. Angle relations

Complementary angles two angles whose sum of their measure 90o.
Supplementary angles - two angles whose sum of their measure 180o.
Vertical angles Two angles whose sides of one angle are the extensions of the sides of the
other angle.
Adjacent angles Two coplanar angles with a common vertex, common side but no common
interior point.
Linear Pair Two angles that are supplementary and are adjacent.

D. Plane
i. Definitions

Plane is a set of all points in a flat surface. It has infinite width and length but it has no
thickness.
ii. Polygon
A polygon is a closed flat figure bounded by line segments. A concave polygon is a
polygon with an interior angle whose measure is greater than 180o, or a polygon whose
diagonal contains an exterior point of the polygon. A convex polygon is whose measure of
each interior angle is greater than 0o but less than 180o.

iii. Triangle
It is the three sided polygon and the only polygon with no diagonal. The sum of the
measures of its interior angles is 180o. it is formed by three line segments whose measures
are a, b and c where a and b are the shorter segments and c is the longest segment such that
a + b > c.

Classification of triangles according to sides

kinds Definitions

Scalene triangle has no congruent sides.

 Isosceles Has at least two congruent sides.
triangle

Equilateral has three congruent sides.

triangle

Classification of triangles according to sides

Kinds Definitions
Acute triangle has three acute angles. It is described by the relations of the
measures of the sides as a2 + b2> c2.
Right triangle has one right angle and the other two are acute. It is described by
the relation of the measures of the sides as a2 + b2 = c2.
Obtuse triangle has one obtuse angle and the other two are acute. It is described
by the relations of the measures of the sides as a2 + b2< c2

iv. Quadrilateral
A quadrilateral is a four sided polygon. The sum of the measures of its interior angles is
360o. It is the polygon that has two diagonals.

Kinds of Quadrilaterals
a. Trapezium has no pair of parallel sides.
b. Trapezoid has one pair of parallel sides.
c. Parallelogram has two pairs of parallel sides.
Rectangle is a parallelogram with right angles.
Rhomboid is a parallelogram with no right angle and whose adjacent sides are
not congruent.
Rhombus is a parallelogram whose sides are all congruent.
Square is the regular quadrilateral
v. Circles
It is locus of points equidistant from a fixed point, called the center. The distance
between the center and any point on the circle is called the radius. The line segment joining any
two points on the circle is called a chord. A chord that passes through the center of the circle is a
diameter. A line that contains a chord is called secant to the circle. Secant intersects the circle in
two points. A line that intersects the circle in one point is a tangent to the circle.

a. Perimeter
It is the measure of the distance around a polygon.
b. Circumference
It is the distance around a circle or any closed curve figure.
c. Area
It is the number of square units within a plane figure.

Polygon Perimeter Area

Scalene P=a+b+c
=
Isosceles P = 2a + c 2
Triangle
2 3
Equilateral P = 3a = 3b = 3c =
4
Trapezium
P=a+b+c+d (1 + 2 )
Trapezoid =
2
Parallelogram
Quadrilateral Rhomboid A = bh
Rectangle
P = 2 (a + b)
A =lw
Square P = 4a A =a2
Rhombus 1 2
=
2
2
Circle = 2 = = or = 2
4
 E. Three Dimensional Figures Solids
Total Surface Area is the total number of square units around the solid.
Volume is the amount of space occupied by a solid expressed in cubic units.

Solid Drawing Total Surface Area Volume

Cube
= 6 2 = 3

s Face diagonal (d) : = 2

Diagonal (D) : = 3

= 2( + + ) =
w

Rectangular Solid Face diagonal (d): = 2 + 2

(parallelepiped) h
Diagonal (D) : = 2 + 2 + 2
l

= 2

Right Circular
Cylinder h = 2
2
= 2 + 2
or
= 2 ( + )

=
2

Pyramid =
3
= +

2
=
2
2
Cone =
3
= +

43
Sphere = 42 =
3

III. Statistics and Probability

A. Statistics
i. Basic Definitions
Statistics is a field of study used to summarize quantities of data and help researchers
/investigators draw sound conclusions.
 ii. Measures of central tendency
Average or measure of central tendency is a value that is typical or representative of a set
of data. Since such typical tend to lie centrally within set of data arranged according to
magnitude, averages are also called measures of central tendency.

a. The mean is the sum of all values divided by the total number of values.
b. The median of a set of values arranged in order of magnitude is either the middle value
or the mean of the two middle values.
c. The mode is the item that occurs most frequently in a set of data.
i. A set of data may have two or more values that tie for the most frequently
occurring. If this occur, the distribution is multimodal.
ii. Also, a set of data set may have no mode if no value occurs more frequently than
the others.
iii. Measures of Variability
Measure of variability/dispersion describes how large the difference between the individual
scores is.
a. Range is the simplest measure of variability. It is the difference the largest and smallest
observation in the data.
b. Semi Interquartile range/Quartile Deviation is the amount of spread between the first
quartile and the median or the median and the third quartile. It measures the dispersion
middle half of the items arranged in an array.
c. Mean Absolute Deviation measures the extent to which each individual value in a
distribution deviates from the mean of that distribution.
d. Standard Deviation is defined as the square root of the variance. It is defined this way
in order to give us measure of dispersion that is;
a. A non negative numbers
b. Has the same units as the data
B. Probability
i. Definitions and Some Formulas
Random Experiment is any activity that can be done repeatedly. Its results will not be
essentially the same even though conditions may be nearly identical

Examples
a.tossing a coin b. rolling a die c. drawing a card from a deck
Sample Spaceis the set of all possible outcomes in an experiment.

Example:
a. In rolling a die, the sample space is S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
b. In tossing a coin twice, the sample space is S = {HH, HT, TT, TH}
Sample Point is an element of a sample space
Example:
a. In tossing a coin once, a sample point is a H or a T.
b. In rolling a die, a sample point is 1, or 2 or 3 or 4 or 5 or 6.

Event is a proper subset of a sample space.

Examples:
a. In the set of the digits of the Hindu Arabic Numeration System, an event is
E1 = {xx is an even digit} or E2 = {yy is a perfect square digit}
b. In rolling a die once, an event is
E1 = {aa is an odd number} or E2 = {bb is a prime integer}

Simple Event is an event that has only one outcome or sample point.
Examples:
a. In the set of counting numbers, a simple event is
N1 = {yy is the even prime number}
b. In the months of the year, a simple event is
N2 = {xx is the month with less than 30 days}
Sure Event is an event whose element must occur or whose element is certain to occur.
Examples:
 a. E1 = {yy is a day Sunday in a week}
b. E2 = {xx is the digit 2 in the set of counting numbers}
Impossible Event is an event whose element must occur or whose element is certain to
occur.
Examples:
a. In the months of the year, an impossible event is
H1 = {aa is a Tuesday as a month of the year}
b. In rolling an ordinary die, an impossible event is
H2 = {bb is an outcome 9}

Mutually Exclusive Eventare independent events.

Examples:
a. Rolling a die and tossing a coin.
b. Drawing a red ball or a blue ball from a box containing 5 red balls and 4 blue balls.
ii. Counting techniques
a. Additive and Multiplicative Rules
If in a sequence of events the first event has n1 possible outcomes and following each of
these the second event has n2 possible outcomes and so one, then entire sequence of r
events may occur n1 n2 n3 nr different ways.
Examples:
Alex, Simone and George stand in a row for a group picture. How many different
poses are possible?
Answer: 3 x 2 x 1 = 6 ways
With n persons, there would be n(n 1)(n 2)(n 3).(3)(2)(1) possibilities. We
denote n(n 1)(n 2)(n- 3)(3)(2)(1) ny n! (read as n factorial or factorial of n).

If the sequence of r events are mutually exclusive (i.e. only one can occur at a time),
then the total number ways in which the event or the second event or the r th event may
occur is n1 + n2 + n3 + + nr ways.
Examples:
Either a coin is tossed once or a die is rolled once but not boith. How amny different
possible outcomes can occur?
Ans: 6 + 2 = 8 ways
A boy can afford to buy one of 4 different nuts or one of five different fruits but not both
for a snack. In how many ways can he choose his snack?
Ans: 4 + 5 = 9 ways
b. Permutations
It is the number of different arrangements of observations can take. It is an ordered
arrangement of n objects.

3.1 The permutation (i.e. arrangement ) in a row (linear permutation) of n different things
taken all at a time (n = r) is = (, ) = !
Example: How many four digit numbers with distinct digits can be formed from the
digits 3, 5, 7 & 9?
Answer: 4! = 24 4- digit numbers.

Example: In the case of 4 persons all of whom stand in a row for a picture, the total
number of different poses possible is 4!.
Answer: 4! = 24
3.2 If only r, where 0 r n of n different things taken r at a time, then the permutations
of n things taken r at a time is
!
=
( )!
Example: In the posing problem, if out of 4 persons only 2 at a time pose in a row for
a picture, the total number of possible poses is
! 4!
= = = 12
( )! (4 2)!
 3.3 The number of cyclic permutations of n different things taken all at a time is =
( 1)!.
Example: If 5 persons are to take seats at a round table, then the total number of
possible seating arrangements is (5 1)! = 4! = 24. However, if they sit in a row,
there will be 5! = 120 arrangements.

3.4 In our of n things, there are p things that are alike, q things that are alike, r things that
are alike, etc., where p + q + r + n, then the number of permutations in a row is
!
=
! ! !

Example: The number of different permutations that can be made out of the letters of
the word PHILIPPINES taken all at a time is
! 11!
= = = 1, 180, 000
! ! ! 3! 3!

c. Combinations
It is the number of arrangements of observations without regard to order. When mere selection
of sets of r things out of n different things are being considered without regard to arrangement
of the r things, we are forming combinations of n things taken r at a time.

4.1 The number of combinations of n things taken all at a time is = (, ) = 1.

4.2 The number of combinations of n things taken r at a time, where r n is

(, ) !
= (, ) = =
! ! ( )!
Example: How many chords can be drawn using 7 distinct points on a circle?
(7, 2) 7!
= (, ) = = = 21
2! (7
2! 2)!
Example: A committee of 10 members will be selected from a group of 15 people. How
many different committees can be formed?
(16, 10) 16!
= (16, 10) = = = 3, 003
10! 10! (16 10)!
iii. Probability of an Event
a. Definitions
It is the relative frequency of an event in the population. It is the chance or proportion of an
event to occur.
Probability of an Event
Definition:
Suppose that in an experiment, there are m = n (S) different possible outcomes, and
that these outcomes are all equally likely. Suppose further that the event E occurs in k = n of
()
these outcomes, then the probability of event E, P, is given by () = = .
()

Example: What is the probability of drawing a face card from a deck of 52 playing cards?
4 1
Answer: =
52 3
b. Theorems
Theorem 1: 0 P(E) 1
Example:
A box contains 10 tickets numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 & 10. If one ticket is drawn from
the box at random from the box, find the probability that the number is a perfect square?
Answer: 3/10

Theorem 2:P(E U F) = P(E) + P(F) P(E F)

Example:
A box contains 3 red balls and 4 white balls. If two balls are drawn at random from the
box, find the probability that they are in the same color?
Answer: 3/7

Theorem 3: For an event, P = 1 P(Ec), where Ec the compliment of E.

 Example:
A box contains 3 red balls and 5 white balls. These balls are randomly selected. What is
the probability that . . .
46 23
a. At least one red ball is selected in drawing 3 balls? Answer: =
56 28
5
b. At least white balls are drawn in drawing 3 balls? Answer:
7
Theorem 4: If k is the probability of the occurrence of an event and m is the probability of
the occurrence of the second event after the first has occurred, then the probability that
the first and the second events will occur is km.
Example:
From a box containing 3 red socks and 4 white socks, two socks are drawn in succession
the first one drawn not being replaced. What is the probability that the two socks are
both white?
2
Answer:
7

Example:
In the preceding example, if the first sock drawn is replaced before making the second
draw, what is the probability that the two socks drawn are both red?
9
Answer:
49

iv. Conditional Probability

The conditional probability of an event A given that B has occurred; denoted by

( )
(|) =
()
Example:
Two dice are drawn in succession. Find the probability that the sum is obtained from 5 to 9 if it
is known that the first die shows a 4?
Answer: 5/6

Example:
Let S be the sum obtained when two dice are rolled. Find 5 < S < 9 if it is known that one of
the two dice shows a 4 (the other die rolled under the table and we have not examined it).
Answer: 9/11

Example:
In a class of 50 students who studied both mathematics and physics, 15 failed in mathematics,
10 failed in Physics and 5 failed in both subjects. What is the probability that a person who
failed in Physics also failed in mathematics?
Answer:

Definition:
When the occurrence of the event does not affect the probability of another event occurring,
the two events are said to be independent events, then P(AB) = P(A) and P(BA) = P(B).

Theorem 5: If A and B are independent events, P(A B) = P(A) P(B)

Example: In the multiple choice test, each item is to be answered by selecting one of four
choices, of which only one is correct. If there are 5 questions on the test, what is the
probability of getting a perfect score if the test is answered by pure guessing?
1
Answer:
1,024

IV. Algebra
A. Definitions and Symbols
1. Algebra is a formal symbolic language composed of strings of symbols.
2. Numbers are analogous to proper nouns in English such names of dogs Spot, Buttons,
Puppy, boots, etc.
3. Variables are symbols that stand for any number. They are the common nouns within the
language of algebra dog, cat, student, etc.
 4. Operators signify relationships between numbers and/or variables. Operators serve the
same function as verbs in the English language. Some sample operators in the language of
algebra are: +, -, , *, = , <, >, ,
5. Delimiters are the punctuation marks in algebra. They let the reader know where one phrase
or sentence ends and another begins. Some delimiters used in algebra are: ( ), [ ], { },
B. Algebraic Expression
An expression composed of constants, variables, grouping symbols and operation symbols is
called algebraic expression. It is the result of combining constants and variables with the
ordinary operations of arithmetic.
i. Polynomials
a. Basic Definition

A polynomial is an expression formed by adding and multiplying numerals and variables.

The variable in a polynomial must occur, however with a counting number for its exponent.

A term of a polynomial is a single number or the product of a number and one or more
variables raised to whole number powers.

The degree of a polynomial in one variable is the highest power of the variable in the
polynomial. If the polynomial involves more than one variable, then the degree of the
polynomial is the highest sum of the powers of the variables in a term of the polynomial.

If two terms contain the same variables with the same powers, they are called like terms
or similar terms. For example -7x2yand 5x2y are like terms, whereas -7x2yand -
7y2x3are unlike terms or they are dissimilar terms.
A monomial is a polynomial with only one term. A binomial is a polynomial that has only
two terms. Trinomial is a polynomial with three terms. Multinomial is a polynomial that has
four or more terms.

b. Evaluating Algebraic Expression

Evaluating an algebraic expression means obtaining or computing the value of the
expression where value/s of the variable/s is/are assigned.

c. Simplifying Algebraic Expressions with Grouping Symbols

Steps in simplifying algebraic expressions involving grouping symbols
1. Remove grouping symbols like ( ), [ ], { } by simplifying the enclosed phrase, beginning
from the innermost pair.
2. Perform all multiplication and division operations from left to right whichever comes
first.
3. Perform all addition and subtraction operations from left to right.

d. Operations on Algebraic Expression

1. Addition
Example: Find the sum of 9x5 2x3 + 6x2 + 3 and 5x4 7x2 - 3
2. Subtraction
Example: From (3x3y2 4xy + 1), subtract (-4x3y2 3y2x2 + 3xy 5)
3. Multiplication with Special Products and Factoring
Laws of exponents
Product Law aman = am+n m, n and a are integers and a 0
Power of a power
(am)n = amn m, n and a are integers and a 0
law
Power of a product m, a and b are integers and
ambm = (ab)m
Law a, b 0
m, n and a are integers and a 0
Quotient Law = and m>n

 1 m, n and a are integers and a 0
= and m<n

m, n and a are integers and a 0
Zero law = = 0 = 1 and m=n

Power of a Quotient b, n and a are integers and a 0

Law ( ) = and b0.

Multiplication of a monomial by another monomial

3 3
Example: a. (3xy)(-2x2y) = -6x3y2 b. ( 2 3 ) (2 2 2 ) = 433
4 4
Multiplication of a polynomial by a monomial
Example: a. (2 3 )( 2 + 2 ) = 2 4 + 2 3 3 2 2 3
Multiplication of a polynomial by another polynomial (Special Products)
Product of the sum and difference of two terms
The product of the sum and difference of two terms is the square of the first
term minus the square of the second term.

(x - y(x + y) = x2 y2
Square of a Binomial
The square of the binomial is the square of the first term, plus twice the
product of the two terms, plus the square of the last term.
(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2 = (-x y)2 (x y)2 = -2xy + y2 = (-x + y)2

Product of two binomials of the form (ax + by) and (cx + dy)
The product of the binomials (ax + by) and (cx + dy) where a, b, c & d are real
numbers, is ax(cx + dy) + by(cx + dy) = acx 2 + (ad + bc)xy + bdy2. In words,
the product of two binomials is the product of the first terms, plus the product
of the two outer terms plus the product of the two inner terms plus the product
of the last terms. Follow the FOIL.

Product of a Binomial and trinomial of the form (x y) and (x 2xy + y2)

The product of a binomial and a trinomial of the form (x y) and (x2xy + y2)
is equal to the product of the first terms plus the product of the last terms.
(x + y)(x2 xy + y2) = x3 + y3 (x y)(x2 + xy + y2) = x3 y3

Cube of Binomial
The cube of a binomial is the cube of its first term, plus thrice the product of
the square of the first term and its second term plus thrice the product of the
first term and the square of its second term plus the cube of its second term
(x + y)3 = x3 + 3x2y + 3xy2 + y3 (x y)3 = x3 3x2y + 3xy2 y3

Square of a trinomial and multinomial

The square of a trinomial or multinomial is the sum of the squares of its terms
plus twice the product of every possible pair of its terms.

(x + y + z)2 = x2 + y2 + z2 + 2xy + 2xz + 2yz

4. Division
Rational expressions indicate division. In dividing polynomials some laws of exponents
can be applied namely the quotient law and the power of a quotient law.
a. Long Division
b. Synthetic Division
c. Factoring
Factoring is the reverse of multiplying. To factor an expression means to write an
equivalent expression that is a product of two or more expressions.
 Types Examples

Common factoring 5x4 20x3 = 5x3(x 4)

Factoring the DTS 4x2 25 = (2x 5)(2x + 5)

Factoring the PST x2 14x + 49 = (x 7)(x 7)

Factoring x2 5x + 6 = (x 3)(x 2)

The QT 2x2 + 5x 12 = (2x 3)(x + 4)

Factoring the STC 8x3 + 27y6 = (2x + 3y2)(4x2 6xy2 + 9y4)

Factoring the DTC x3 125y3 = (x 5y)(x2 + 5xy + 25y2)

Factoring by Grouping 6x3 9x2 + 4x 6 = (2x 3)(3x2 + 2)

Factoring by completing
4x4 37x2y2 + 49y4 = (2x3 3xy 7y2)(2x2 + 3xy 7y2)
the square

ii. Rational Expression

A rational expression or an algebraic fraction is a quotient of algebraic expressions (remember
that division by zero is not defined).

a. Reducing rational expression to simplest form

A rational expression is said to be in lowest or simplest form if the numerator and denominator
have no common factor except one (1). It means that the numerator and denominator are
relatively prime numbers.

b. Operations on rational expressions

1. Multiplication and Division of Rational Expressions

a. Product of fractions:


b. Quotients of fractions: = =

2. Addition and Subtraction of Rational Expression
a. Similar:
+
=

b. Dissimilar:

=

c. Simplifying complex rational expression
Complex rational expression is a rational expression in which at least the numerator or
denominator is a rational expression. To simplify the complex fraction, express the numerator
into single fraction by means of indicated operation. Do the same with the denominator. Divide
the numerator by the denominator. The result is a simplified complex fraction in a form of simple
rational expression.

V. Problem Solving
A. How to solve word problems
1. Read the problem all the way through quickjly to see what kind of word problems it is and
what it is all about. It very useful to understand the context and the situation of the problem.
2. Look for a question at the end of the problem. This is often a good way to find what you are
solving for. Sometimes two or three things need to be found.
3. Start every problem with Let x = something. You let x equal to what you are trying to find.
What you are trying to find is usually is usually stated in the question at the end of the
problem. This is called the unknown. You should note that x is always labeled with the unit of
measure called for in the problem. That is why we do not bother repeating the unit label for
the answer line.
4. If you have to find more than one quantity or unknown, try to determine the smallest
unknown. This unknown is often the one to let x equal.
 5. Go back and read the problem over again. This time read it one piece at a time. Simple
problems generally have two statements. One statement helps you set up the unknown/s and
the other gives you equation information. Translate the problem from words to symbols one
at a time.
B. Types of Problems
1. Number problem
Number problems are problems about relationships among numbers. The unknown is a
whole number, not a fraction nor a mixed number. It is almost always a positive number. In
some problems the numbers are referred to as integers, which you may remember as
positive numbers, negative or zero.

2. Age problem
Age problems usually follow a certain pattern. That is they usually have a certain basic facts.
Frequently, they refer to ages at different points in time.

3. Time, rate and distance

Remember the following formulas:

d = st, t = d/s , s = d/t

4. Work
Problems involving people or machine doing a job ar called work problems. If a piece of work
is to be done in t units of time then in a unit of time, 1/t o fthe work can be accomplished.

5. Investment
6. Digit
7. Mixture
8. Geometry Related problems