CHAPTER 1 1 CORROSION... Electrical Circuit ‘The Chemical Reaction. CHAPTER 2...... : Dry abrasive blast cleaning. Abrasives. nn Sizing of abrasives Shot blasted profile. Profile measurement Assessing a profile to BS 7079 Pt C ISO 8503.1 Use of the comparators Using the comparators Preparation of steel substrate before application of paints and related product Abrasive Blasting Grade: Equipment. Considerations .. Air Blastin; Water Blasting .. High pressure water blasting up to 30 000 psi (water jetting). High pressure water plus abrasive injection Low pressure water plus abrasive injection Steam Cleaning Air blasting with water injectio Hand and power tool cleaning. 7079 Pt A, ISO 8501, SS 05 59 00 Flame cleaning. Method. Pickling. Vapour degreasing Test for soluble iron salt Test to detect soluble chlorides.. Other tests for salts... Test to detect the presence of millscale Test to detect the presence of dust on a substrate... Test to detect the presence of moisture on a substrat Test to detect the presence of oil or grease. CHAPTER 4Metallic Pigments Opaque pigments .. Extender pigments Laminar pigments Solutions Dispersions. A suspension . ‘An emulsioi CHAPTER 6... : = DRYING AND CURING OF PAINT FILMS CHAPTER 7 PAINT SYSTEMS. Primer. iid-coat: Finishing coats . Moisture tolerant systems Powder coating materials Thermosettin, Sacrificial coatings... CHAPTER 8. WATER BORNE COATING: CHAPTER 9. PAINT MANUFACTURE Direct charge dispersing mills CHAPTER 10.. TESTING OF PAINTS FOR PROPERTIES AND PERFORMANCE. Tests done on paint . Determination of volatile, non volatile Flash point determination .. Paint density. Relative density or specific gravit Hegman grind gauge... Viscosity Kinematic viscosity. Flow viscometers (Flow cups). CHAPTER 11 —— FILM THICKNESSES Wet film thickness measurement. Tests done on dry paint films. Dry film thicknessTest panels Calculations . Destructive test gauges... Non destructive test gauges Tests for mechanical properties on paint films. Abrasion resistance... Hardness, Flexibility BS 3900 E1 Impact resistance.. Mechanical thumb test Pencil scratch test (Wolff-Wilborn).. Mechanical scratch test Gold leaf test: Thumbnail test Opacity. Hiding power charts and micrometer adjustable film applicator. Cross cut (cross haté Dolly test. Hydraulic adhesion test equipment CHAPTER 12... SPECIFIED COATING CONDITIONS . Relative Humidity. Dew Point The Whirling Hygrometer, Aspirated Byprometer or Psychrometer . Steel temperature measurement CHAPTER 13. CATHODIC PROTECTION Sacrificial anode systems. Impressed current system. Interference .. Monitoring CP Cathodic disbondment CHAPTER 14.. HOLIDAY/PINHOLE DETECTIO! Voltage setting CHAPTER 15. PAINT APPLICATION. Brush application Roller application. Spray application Conventional spray Airless spray.Other paint application methods CHAPTER 16... METAL COATING Galvanising Anodising. Electro-plating. Hot metal sprayin; Powder system. Electric arc system Wire and pistol system. CHAPTER 17 COATING FAULTS CHAPTER 18 COLOUR... The Munsell colour system. The BS 4800 colour system The BS 5252, framework for colour co-ordination for building purposes. CHAPTER 19... HEALTH AND SAFET Hazard warning symbols. Responsibilities Drager tube and Drager bellows Using the tubes and bellows . CHAPTER 20... DUTIES OF AN INS! CHAPTER 21 .. LIST OF SPECIFICATION AND BS NUMBERS CHAPTER 22 QUALITY. Quality assurance. Quality control Quality related standards. Quality related definitions (from the above CHAPTER 23... REVISION QUESTIONS Surface preparation — Tuesday.. Paint technology (1) - Wednesday. Paint technology (2) - Wednesday. Paint testing — Thursday. Revision questions general - Friday Revision questions PA 10 specific. B. Gas 3.2 Maths Exercise: Density and SG exercise RH and DP exerciseAppendix A. PAIO w..sscsseees Appendix B. INSULATION General. Acoustic cladding.. General. Materials. Application of materials, Thermal insulation General. Materials .. Insulating materials. Protective coverings. Fixing materials . Application of materials, Appendix C... DATA SHEET EXAMPLES. EE OAAAUnU Eetia The Welding Institute CHAPTER 1 CORROSION Corrosion can be generally defined as “Degradation of a metal by chemical or Electro-chemical means”. — From this definition it is obvious that two mechanisms are involved, firstly an electrical circuit and secondly a chemical reaction. Electrical Circuit In a corrosion cireuit the current is always D.C. (Direct Current). It is conventionally thought that a current passes from positive + to negative -, ie. from anode to cathode. In fact electrons are flowing in exactly the opposite direction, from cathode to anode. For corrosion circuit to exist three things are needed: a) Anode ‘An anode is a positively charged area. It becomes positively charged because the atoms release two electrons each, thus causing an imbalance between protons and electrons, positive and negatively charged units. In it’s passive state, the iron atom has 26 of each, protons and electrons, when the two electrons are released the atom still has it’s 26 protons, but now only 24 electrons. In this state the atom is now an ion, overall positively charged by two units and written as Fe*. (An ion is a charged particle, and can be positive or negative, a single atom or a group of atoms, known as a molecule.) This losing of electrons can be shown as: - Fe > Fe™* + 2e. The Fe" is called a positive iron ion. An ion can be positive or negative and is a charged particle, an atom or a group of atoms. A passive iron atom Fe 26 protons and An iron ion Fe™, 26 protons and only 26 electrons. 24 electrons Nucleus Figure 1.1 iron atoms b) Cathode qmie — [nn en Painting Inspection Grade 32. 1 Copyright © 2003, TWI LtdTwI The Welding Institute ‘A cathode is a negatively charged area where there are more electrons than needed in its passive state. These are electrons released from the anode. At the cathode the electrons enter into the electolyte to pass back to the anode. ©) Electrolyte An electrolyte is a substance, which will conduct a current and be broken down by it, (dissociate into ions). Water is the most abundant electrolyte and also very efficient. Acids, alkalis and salts in solution are also very efficient electrolytes. As the electrons pass into the electrolyte it is dissociated into positive and negative ions, as shown by the formula: -2H,0>2H' + 20H. Simultaneously the electrons couple back with the Hydrogen ions to form two full Hydrogen atoms, which join together diatomically to form Hydrogen gas. This is termed as being evolved, or given off from the cathode. ‘The hydroxyl ions return to the anode through the electrolyte carrying the electrons. The corrosion triangle, as shown below, can illustrate the electrical circuit. The electron circurt can be seen to be from anode A, to cathode C, through the electrolyte E, back to A. E A cc Figure 1.2 The corrosion triangle ‘The Chemical Reaction From the above we can see that no chemical reaction, (combination of elements) has occurred at ‘the cathode, or in the electrolyte. The chemical reaction, the formation of corrosion products, only occurs at the anode. The positive iron ions, Fe++, receive the returning hydroxyl ions and ionically bond together to form iron hydroxide, which is hydrous iron oxide, rust, and is shown by the formula: Fe + 20H Fe (OH)2 It is now apparent that corrosion only occurs at the anode, never at the cathode. Hence the term cathodic protection. If a structure can be made to be the cathode in a circuit, it will not corrode. The corrosion triangle shows the three elements needed for corrosion to occur, anode, cathode and electrolyte. If any one of these three is removed from the triangle, corrosion cannot occur. The one most commonly eliminated is the electrolyte. Placing a barrier between the electrolyte and the anodic and cathodic areas, in the form of a coating or paint system does this. If electrolyte is not in direct contact with anode end cathode, there can be no circuit, and so no corrosion. Painting Inspection Grade 3/2 1 Copyright © 2003, TWI LtdThe Welding Institute The basic corrosion reaction, as explained above, occurs fairly slowly at ambient temperatures. In common with all chemical reactions certain factors can increase the reaction rate, listed below are some of these. 1 Temperature. Steel, in common with most metals, is thermodynamically unstable. The hotter the steel is the faster the corrosion will occur. 2 Hygroscopic Salts. An hygroscopic salt is one, which will attract water and dissolve in it. ‘When salts are present on a substrate and a coating is applied over them, water will be drawn through the film and the resulting solution builds up a pressure under the film. Eventually the film is forced up to form blisters. These blisters are called osmotic or hygroscopic blisters, and are defined as ‘pinhead sized water filled blisters’. Sulphates and Chlorides are the two most common salts, chlorides predominant in marine environments, and sulphates in industrial areas and sometimes agricultural. 3. Aerobic conditions, (presence of oxygen)... By introducing oxygen into the cathodic Feaction the number of Hydroxyl jons.doublé: This means that double the number of iron ions will be passivated and therefore double the corrosion rate. Shown by :- 2H,0 + Or + 4e > 40H- 4 Presence of some types of bacteria on the metal surface, for example Sulphur Reducing Bacteria, better known as SRB’s, or MEM’s, Metal Eating Microbes. 5 Bi-metallic contact. Otherwise known as Bi-Metallic Corrosion. Metals can be listed in order of nobility. A noble metal is one, which will not corrode. In descending order, the further down the list the metal is, the more reactive it is, and so, the more anodic it is, the metal loses its electrons to become reactive ions. The degree of activity can be expressed as potential, in volts. The list can be called a Galvanic List, but when the free potentials of the metals are known it can also be called the Electro Motive forces series or the Electro-Chemical series. Below is a list of some metals in order of nobility with potentials as mheasured using a copper/copper sulphate half cell reference electrode, in seawater at 25oc. KNOWN POTENTIAL AV. VALUES. Graphite oer +025 Titanium 0.0v Silver =0.1v Nickel 200 20.15 v Lead =0.2v ‘Admiralty Brass =03v Copper =0.35v Tin =035v Mill Seale =04v Low Alloy Steel =0.7v [Mild Steel =07¥ ‘Aluminium Alloys =0.9¥ ~|Zine =1.0¥v Magnesium =1.6v Painting Inspection Grade 3/2 3 Copyright © 2003, TWI LtdTwi The Welding Institute From the list above it can be seen that millscale is immediately above steel on the galvanic list. This means that millscale is cathodic to steel, and if left on the surface of steel will accelerate the corrosion of the steel substrate. Millscale is formed during the rolling operation of steel sections e.g. RSC, RSA, RSJ. The oxides of iron form very quickly at femperaftires in excess of 580c. The first oxide formed is FeO, iron oxide, the next is FesO, and last of all Fe,03. Common names in order are Wustite, Magnetite and Haematite. These oxides are compressed during the rolling operation to produce blue millscale. The thickness of millscale varies from 25 to 100 um. Because millscale is only produced during rolling, when it has been removed by any surface preparation method, it can never re-cur. molt fe ate? wlan Bobanre 7 : jen. Crates Lal Wve 2 Lombcnaten of OFibR TED Se Peete F mad Seate — Aus Dora derckwnd + Painting Inspection Grade 3/2 4 Copyright © 2003, TWI Ltdiar The Welding Institute CHAPTER 2 SURFACE PREPARATION METHODS & STANDARDS If the products of the corrosion reactions, and other contaminants, were left on a substrate and paint applied over them, the adhesion of the coating and thus the coatings life would be far from satisfactory. Surface preparation involves removing these contaminants, and in some instances increasing the area available To\adhesion by roughening up the substrate. A good surface preparation grade (degree of cleanliness) along with a suitable surface profile can give 10 years life from a typical four coat paint system. ‘The same system applied over a substrate with little or no profile and contaminant remaining might give four to six years, or even less. Therefore two factors need to be considered when inspecting a surface preparation. 1. Degree of cleanliness 2. Surface Profile (degree of roughness) If a specification gives criteria for both of these factors, then quality is not achieved until both criteria are satisfied. Surfaces can be prepared for paint application in several different ways, each one varies in cost, efficiency, ease and suitability. a) Dry Abrasive Blast Cleaning b) Water Blasting ©) Hand and Power Tool Cleaning 4) Flame Cleaning ©) Pickling f) Vapour Degreasing £) Weathering Dry abrasive blast cleaning Dry abrasive blast cleaning involves compressing air and forcing it along a hose and out of a small aperture called a nozzle. A pressure of 100 PSI results in the air exiting the nozzle at approximately 450 mph. If abrasive particles are mixed in with the air and travel at the same speed, they will carry a lot of work energy. This energy is used in chipping away millscale and other detritus ftom the substrate. With some abrasives part of the energy is used in shattering into small pieces and with others all the energy is used in impinging into the steel surface, roughening the surface and increasing the surface area to increase adhesion properties. Because all standards refer to the amount of contamination remaining on the surface, the longer the time spent on this operation, the higher the degree of cleanliness. Painting Inspection Grade 3/2 5 Copyright © 2003, TWI LtdThe Welding Institute Abrasives Abrasives come in many forms and can be classified in several different ways, as shown below. None metallic (Mineral) | Metallic (Recyclable) ‘Agricultural by-product (2 anes [expendable ( onby ene we) _| Copper Slag comen wh | ACI (Angular Chilled Iron) | Walnut Shell pebaieed| Nickel Slog Steel Grit Coconut Shell} 1 4.~», aoe | Boiler Slag Steel Shot Eggshell [| > Glass Bead Grit and Shot Mix Com Cob Husk’ Aquamarine (Olivine(agge)| Gamet¢ Peach Husk NG Gamet - Al wineicani e"P ) J Sand E It can be seen that the recyclable abrasives are the more costly, and therefore justify a cleansing operation before re-use. In the context of this course we are considering the following: - a) Sand It is not permitted to use sand. SI 1657 states that any mineral used as an abrasive must release less than 1% free silica on impact. (Silica causes preumonicosis or silicosis). COSHH REGS does not allow the use of sand containing silica for dry blasting. Sand itself is perfectly safe, but shattering on impact releases silica which can be inhaled. ) Copper Slag Although the name implies metallic content the amount of copper in the structure is extremely minute. Minerals smelted with the copper, liquefy and form a protective cover over the molten copper to prevent reaction with the atmosphere like slag on a weld. When the copper metal is nun off the slag is rapidly cooled in cold running water, which causes it to shatter. The material is supplied in grit form (random, sharp edges, amorphous) and is very brittle, shatters into smaller pieces on impact, and should be used only once and then discarded and so classed as expendable. ©) Gamet ‘A natural mineral classed as being “of a diamond type hardness” can be either expendable or recyclable. If the situation justifies, cleansing units are available to extract contamination so that the material can be reused, usually up to three times. Doesn’t shatter on impact but does suffer some “wear”. Supplied in Grit form. Painting Inspection Grade 3/2 6 Copyright © 2003, TWI LtdA The Welding Institute 4) Metallic Grit In this context, steel and iron are both metallic. Cast steel grit being the softer of the two tends to round off on impact and loses its sharp edges. Angular Chilled Iron chips off small slivers on impact to produce sharp cutting surfaces on its next cycle. The finings so produced are extremely abrasive and cause extreme wear on moving parts of the recovery systems. Metallic abrasives are recyclable because the particles reduce in size slowly. Hence it can be re- used many times and still perform a useful function in a "working mix’. A working mix is an accepted ratio of large and small particles, where the large particles cut the profile and the smaller particles clean out the troughs. ©) Metallic Shot Shot is spherical and doesn’t shatter (otherwise it would form grit). When supplied the particles are virtually uniform in size and shape, (not a working mix) but like the grit they wear down slowly in size. Regular addition of new abrasive as with grit, will then maintain a working mix. The particles are worn down eventually to finings, and are drawn out of the system during cleansing. f) Metallic Shot and Grit Mixed A mix of shot and grit results in a more uniform profile. The grit cuts the profile and the shot, being unable to enter the troughs produced, controls the peak height and so greatly reduces the number of ‘rogue peaks.’ A rogue peak is one, which is well proud of the acceptable profile range, and if painted over due to contraction of the paint, will leave bare metal in contact with the atmosphere, thus allowing corrosion to occur. When rogue peaks are in concentrated area the effect is of a rash, hence rust rashing or rust spotting, A typical mix ratio of Shot to Grit as used in a pipe coating mill would be 70 ~ 80 % shot to 20 — 30% grit. Other properties of an abrasive have an effect on the resulting substrate also, these being. Size of the particles Hardness of the material Density of the material Shape of the particle For example steel has a density of approximately 7.6 gm/cc and copper slag, depending on composition, approximately 4.2 gm/cc. If one particle of each material, of identical size, hit a steel substrate, then it would be logical to say that the steel would impinge further into the substrate, resulting in a deeper trough. A spherical particle would not impinge as deeply because the large smooth surface area would use its energy up in peening or work hardening the surface rather than cutting into it. So a shot blasted surface is different in appearance and texture to that of a grt blasted surface. Painting Inspection Grade 32. 1 Copyright © 2003, TWI Ltd