Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ANAESTHESIA AND INTENSIVE CARE MEDICINE --:- 1 2017 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Please cite this article in press as: Williams D, Electricity and magnetism, Anaesthesia and intensive care medicine (2017), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.mpaic.2017.04.011
PHYSICS
Table 1
Figure 1 Components in series and parallel. Effective values of resistors (a), inductors (b), and capacitors (c) in series
and parallel congurations.
resistance into a substantially proportional large change in PD to time when a capacitor charges or discharges. Applications
increase the sensitivity of sensors (e.g. pressure transducer) include storage and release of charge (e.g. defibrillator, camera
(Figure 2). Wheatstone bridges also help to compensate for flash), smoothing of AC (e.g. power supplies, suppression of
thermal drift, and may be modified to measure other quantities radio frequency interference), touch sensors, and timing devices.
(e.g. capacitance, inductance, impedance). Inductors consist of a coil of wire around an air or ferromag-
Variable resistors with linear or logarithmic scales (e.g. dim- netic core. Inductance (L; Wb/A: 1Wb/A 1 Henry, H) depends
mers and volume controls), thermistors3 (e.g. temperature on the permeability of free space (m0) and core (mr), number of
probes and thermal cut-outs) and light-dependant resistors (e.g. turns (n), cross sectional area (A) and length (l ) of core: L
motion detectors, emergency lighting) are all widely used in the m0mrn2A/l. Inductors store energy as a magnetic field (E 1/
hospital environment. 2LI2), and effectively add inertia e analogous to a turbine with
Capacitors typically consist of two conductors separated by an a flywheel attached e delaying onset and offset of maximal
insulator (dielectric) and store energy as electric charge. In current flow. The latter effect may be employed in a defibrillator
terms of our fluid analogy, capacitors resemble a rigid container to prolong the duration of the delivered shock.
divided into two compartments by a thick rubber plate. In The flow of AC through passive components is more complex
essence, DC cannot pass through a capacitor, but transient or AC than DC, as frequency ( f ) and phase angle (f) are involved as
can. Capacitance (C; farad, F) depends on the permittivity of free well as amplitude. The AC analogues of DC resistance are
space (0) and dielectric (r), plate area (A) and separation (d ): C impedance (Z; ohm, U) for resistors; and reactance (X; ohm, U)
0rA/d. Stored charge Q CV. If 1 J energy is needed to push for capacitors (XC 1/2pfC ) and inductors (XL 2pfL). Current
1 C of charge uphill against an electrical potential of 1 V, then 1 flow through resistors is not affected by frequency, but current
joule 1 coulomb-volt: E QV. The mean voltage during passes more easily through capacitors at high frequencies, and
complete charge and discharge is V/2, therefore stored energy (or through inductors at low frequencies. A combination of resistors,
work of charging) E 1/2CV2 1/2QV. There is an exponential capacitors and inductors will therefore have minimum or
relationship between current, voltage, and electrical charge with maximum impedance at a resonant frequency ( f0), which occurs
when XC and XL are equal and opposite, and this can be used in
the design of high-pass, low-pass, band pass, or notch filters to
3
Depending on the type of thermistor, resistance may increase (positive selectively pass or block specific frequency bands as part of
temperature coefficient, PTC) or decrease (negative temperature coeffi- signal processing (e.g. in monitoring equipment and radio
cient, NTC) with increasing temperature in a non-linear fashion. receivers).
ANAESTHESIA AND INTENSIVE CARE MEDICINE --:- 2 2017 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Please cite this article in press as: Williams D, Electricity and magnetism, Anaesthesia and intensive care medicine (2017), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.mpaic.2017.04.011
PHYSICS
Figure 2 Potential divider and Wheatstone bridge. (a) Potential divider: Two resistors (R1, R2) in series have total resistance R1 R2, and by
Kirchhoffs Current Law, the same current (I ) passes through each. By Ohms Law: V1 I(R1 R2) and V2 IR2; therefore V2 V1R2/R1 R2 (i.e.
the PD across each resistor varies in proportion to the ratio of the two resistances). In practice, if load RL is placed across R2, then V2 V1 Rp/R1
Rp, where: Rp (R2 RL)/(R2 RL). (b) Wheatstone bridge: Two potential dividers are connected to a common supply voltage (V), and linked by
a galvanometer (M ) at the bridge between them. R1 and R2 are xed and known resistances (ratio arms), R3 is a calibrated variable resistor, and
R4 is the unknown resistance. R3 is adjusted until current through the galvanometer is zero (null deection), at which point the bridge is
balanced: potential at A potential at B (i.e. PD 0 V; I1 I2; I1R1 I2R3 and I1R2 I2R4; therefore R1/R2 R3/R4; and R4 R2/R1 R3).
ANAESTHESIA AND INTENSIVE CARE MEDICINE --:- 3 2017 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Please cite this article in press as: Williams D, Electricity and magnetism, Anaesthesia and intensive care medicine (2017), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.mpaic.2017.04.011
PHYSICS
(electromagnet). Pure (soft) iron cores produce temporary magnitude of the effect depends on the ratio of the number of
electromagnets that lose magnetism when the current is switched windings (n): n1/n2 V1/V2 I2/I1. Applications include power
off: steel (i.e. FeeC alloy) cores produce permanent electro- supplies and isolation transformers.
magnets, which retain magnetism when the current is switched Motion (mechanical kinetic energy) can be converted into
off. current (electrical energy) by relative motion between a
Ferromagnetic objects placed within a solenoid may be conductor and a magnetic field. The direction of current flow is
magnetized by DC to make permanent magnets, and demag- predicted by Flemings Right Hand Dynamo Rule. Applications
netized (degaussed) by AC. Ferromagnetic objects may also be include generators, dynamos, and microphones. Conversely,
weakly magnetized by repeatedly stroking them with another current may be converted into motion by passing a changing
magnet, or hammering them when aligned with the earths current through a conductor in a fixed magnetic field. The di-
magnetic field at the appropriate angle of dip; and demagne- rection of motion is predicted by Flemings Left Hand Motor Rule.
tized by heating, or hammering them when aligned perpendic- Applications include: electric (rotary and linear) motors, relays,
ular to the earths magnetic field. Alloys of rare earth elements loud speakers and moving coil meters.
(e.g. samariumecobalt: SmCo5, neodymiumeironeboron: When current flows through a (typically wide, flat) conductor
Nd2Fe14B) can be magnetized to make extremely strong compact in a magnetic field, the transverse force generated on the elec-
permanent magnets. trons causes them to accumulate on one side, producing a
measurable PD across the width of the conductor (the Hall ef-
Electromagnetic induction fect). Common applications include magnetometers, robust non-
contact switches, and sensors for e. g. flow, pressure, and
Electromagnetic induction (inductance) is generation of a po-
tential difference across a conductor due to a changing magnetic
movement. A
field. The changing magnetic field may be caused by AC, or by
relative motion between the conductor and the magnet. The FURTHER READING
magnitude of the induced EMF is proportional to the frequency of Scherz P. Practical electronics for inventors. 2nd edn. 2007. New York:
the AC, or rate at which the lines of the magnetic field are cut by McGraw Hill, 2007.
the conductor (Faradays Law of Electromagnetic Induction); and Serway R, Jewett J. Physics for scientists and engineers. 6th edn. CA:
the direction of the induced EMF is such as to oppose the change Thomson, Brooks, Cole, 2004.
in magnetic flux which caused it (Lenzs Law). Tooley M. Electronic circuits: fundamentals and applications. 2nd edn.
A transformer consists of two (primary and secondary) or 2004. Oxford: Elsevier/Newnes, 2004.
more coils on a common ferromagnetic core. Although electri-
cally isolated, in an AC circuit the coils interact via electromag-
FOR FURTHER DETAILS OF LAWS OF MAGNETISM
netic induction, and can step up or step down voltage at the Williams D, Mandal NG, Sharma A. Electricity and magnetism. Anaesth
expense of current in an analogous manner to the way in which Intensive Care Med 2011; 12: 423e5.
different gear ratios on a bicycle exchange torque for speed. The
ANAESTHESIA AND INTENSIVE CARE MEDICINE --:- 4 2017 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Please cite this article in press as: Williams D, Electricity and magnetism, Anaesthesia and intensive care medicine (2017), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.mpaic.2017.04.011