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TheSecondLawofThermodynamics
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Theuseofthermodynamicsinbiologyhasalonghistoryrichin
confusion.HaroldJ.Morowitz(1)

Sometimespeoplesaythatlifeviolatesthesecondlawof
thermodynamics.Thisisnotthecaseweknowofnothinginthe
universethatviolatesthatlaw.Sowhydopeoplesaythatlife
violatesthesecondlawofthermodynamics?Whatisthesecond
lawofthermodynamics?
Morowitz
Thesecondlawisastraightforwardlawofphysicswiththe
consequencethat,inaclosedsystem,youcan'tfinishanyrealphysicalprocesswith
asmuchusefulenergyasyouhadtostartwithsomeisalwayswasted.This
meansthataperpetualmotionmachineisimpossible.Thesecondlawwas
formulatedafternineteenthcenturyengineersnoticedthatheatcannotpassfroma
colderbodytoawarmerbodybyitself.

AccordingtophilosopherofscienceThomasKuhn,thesecondlawwasfirstput
intowordsbytwoscientists,RudolphClausiusandWilliamThomson(Lord
Kelvin),usingdifferentexamples,in185051(2).Americanquantumphysicist
RichardP.Feynman,however,saystheFrenchphysicistSadiCarnotdiscoveredthe
secondlaw25yearsearlier(3).Thatwouldhavebeenbeforethefirstlaw,
conservationofenergy,wasdiscovered!Inanycase,modernscientistscompletely
agreeabouttheaboveprinciples.

ThermodynamicEntropy
Thefirstopportunityforconfusionariseswhenweintroducethetermentropyinto
themix.Clausiusinventedthetermin1865.Hehadnoticedthatacertainratiowas
constantinreversible,orideal,heatcycles.Theratiowasheatexchangedto
absolutetemperature.Clausiusdecidedthattheconservedratiomustcorrespondto
areal,physicalquantity,andhenamedit"entropy".

Surelynoteveryconservedratiocorrespondstoareal,physicalquantity.Historical
accidenthasintroducedthistermtoscience.Onanotherplanettherecouldbe
physicswithouttheconceptofentropy.Itcompletelylacksintuitiveclarity.Even
thegreatphysicistJamesClerkMaxwellhaditbackwardforawhile(4).
Nevertheless,thetermhasstuck.

TheAmericanHeritageDictionarygivesasthefirstdefinitionofentropy,"Fora
closedsystem,thequantitativemeasureoftheamountofthermalenergynot
availabletodowork."Soit'sanegativekindofquantity,theoppositeofavailable
energy.

Today,itiscustomarytousethetermentropytostatethesecondlaw:Entropyina
closedsystemcanneverdecrease.Aslongasentropyisdefinedasunavailable
energy,thisparaphraseofthesecondlawisequivalenttotheearlieronesabove.In
aclosedsystem,availableenergycanneverincrease,so(becauseenergyis
conserved)itscomplement,entropy,canneverdecrease.

Afamiliardemonstrationofthesecondlawistheflowofheatfromhotthingsto
cold,andneverviceversa.Whenahotstoneisdroppedintoabucketofcoolwater,
thestonecoolsandthewaterwarmsuntileachisthesametemperatureastheother.
Duringthisprocess,theentropyofthesystemincreases.Ifyouknowtheheat
capacitiesandinitialtemperaturesofthestoneandthewater,andthefinal
temperatureofthewater,youcanquantifytheentropyincreaseincaloriesorjoules
perdegree.

Youmayhavenoticedthewords"closedsystem"acoupleoftimesabove.Consider
simplyablackbucketofwaterinitiallyatthesametemperatureastheairaroundit.
Ifthebucketisplacedinbrightsunlight,itwillabsorbheatfromthesun,asblack
thingsdo.Nowthewaterbecomeswarmerthantheairaroundit,andtheavailable
energyhasincreased.Hasentropydecreased?Hasenergythatwaspreviously
unavailablebecomeavailable,inaclosedsystem?No,thisexampleisonlyan
apparentviolationofthesecondlaw.Becausesunlightwasadmitted,thelocal
systemwasnotclosedtheenergyofsunlightwassuppliedfromoutsidethelocal
system.Ifweconsiderthelargersystem,includingthesun,availableenergyhas
decreasedandentropyhasincreasedasrequired.

Let'scallthiskindofentropythermodynamicentropy.Thequalifier
"thermodynamic"isnecessarybecausethewordentropyisalsousedinanother,
nonthermodynamicsense.

LogicalEntropy
Entropyisalsousedtomeandisorganizationordisorder.J.WillardGibbs,the
nineteenthcenturyAmericantheoreticalphysicist,calledit"mixedupness."The
AmericanHeritageDictionarygivesastheseconddefinitionofentropy,"ameasure
ofdisorderorrandomnessinaclosedsystem."Again,it'sanegativeconcept,this
timetheoppositeoforganizationororder.Thetermcametohavethissecond
meaningthankstothegreatAustrianphysicistLudwigBoltzmann.

InBoltzmann'sday,onecomplaintaboutthesecondlawof
thermodynamicswasthatitseemedtoimposeuponnaturea
preferreddirectionintime.Underthesecondlaw,thingscanonly
gooneway.Thisapparentlyconflictswiththelawsofphysicsat
themolecularlevel,wherethereisnopreferreddirectionintime
anelasticcollisionbetweenmoleculeswouldlookthesamegoing
Boltzmann forwardorbackward.Inthe1880sand1890s,Boltzmannused
moleculesofgasasamodel,alongwiththelawsofprobability,to
showthattherewasnorealconflict.Themodelshowedthat,nomatterhowitwas
introduced,heatwouldsoonbecomeevenlydiffusedthroughoutthegas,asthe
secondlawrequired.

Themodelcouldalsobeusedtoshowthattwodifferentkindsofgasseswould
becomethoroughlymixed.Thereasoningheusedformixingisverysimilartothat
forthediffusionofheat,butthereisanimportantdifference.Inthediffusionof
heat,theentropyincreasecanbemeasuredwiththeratioofphysicalunits,joules
perdegree.Inthemixingoftwokindsofgassesalreadyatthesametemperature,if
noenergyisdissipated,theratioofjoulesperdegreethermodynamicentropy
isirrelevant.Thenondissipativemixingprocessisrelatedtothediffusionofheat
onlybyanalogy(5).Nevertheless,Boltzmannusedafactor,k,nowcalled
Boltzmann'sconstant,toattachphysicalunitstothelattersituation.Nowtheword
entropyhascometobeappliedtothesimplemixingprocess,too.(Ofcourse,
Boltzmann'sconstanthasalegitimateuseitrelatestheaveragekineticenergyof
amoleculetoitstemperature.)

Entropyinthislattersensehascometobeusedinthegrowingfieldsofinformation
science,computerscience,communicationstheory,etc.Thestoryisoftentoldthat
inthelate1940s,JohnvonNeumann,apioneerofthecomputerage,advised
communicationtheoristClaudeE.Shannontostartusingtheterm"entropy"when
discussinginformationbecause"nooneknowswhatentropyreallyis,soinadebate
youwillalwayshavetheadvantage"(6).

RichardFeynmanknewthereisadifferencebetweenthetwomeaningsofentropy.
Hediscussedthermodynamicentropyinthesectioncalled"Entropy"ofhisLectures
onPhysicspublishedin1963(7),usingphysicalunits,joulesperdegree,andovera
dozenequations(volIsection446).Hediscussedthesecondmeaningofentropy
inadifferentsectiontitled"Orderandentropy"(volIsection465)asfollows:

Sowenowhavetotalk
aboutwhatwemeanby
disorderandwhatwemean
byorder....Supposewe
dividethespaceintolittle
volumeelements.Ifwehave
blackandwhitemolecules,
howmanywayscouldwe
distributethemamongthe
volumeelementssothat
whiteisononesideand
blackisontheother?Onthe
Feynman
otherhand,howmanyways
couldwedistributethem
withnorestrictiononwhichgoeswhere?Clearly,therearemanymorewaystoarrangetheminthe
lattercase.Wemeasure"disorder"bythenumberofwaysthattheinsidescanbearranged,sothat
fromtheoutsideitlooksthesame.Thelogarithmofthatnumberofwaysistheentropy.Thenumber
ofwaysintheseparatedcaseisless,sotheentropyisless,orthe"disorder"isless.

ThisisBoltzmann'smodelagain.NoticethatFeynmandoesnotuseBoltzmann's
constant.Heassignsnophysicalunitstothiskindofentropy,justanumber(a
logarithm.)AndheusesnotasingleequationinthissectionofhisLectures.

Noticeanotherthing.The"numberofways"canonlybeestablishedbyfirst
artificiallydividingupthespaceintolittlevolumeelements.Thisisnotasmall
point.Ineveryrealphysicalsituation,countingthenumberofpossible
arrangementsrequiresanarbitraryparceling.AsPeterCoveneyandRoger
Highfieldsay(7.5):

Thereis,however,nothingtotellushowfinethe[parceling]shouldbe.Entropies
calculatedinthiswaydependonthesizescaledecidedupon,indirectcontradiction
withthermodynamicsinwhichentropychangesarefullyobjective.

ClaudeShannonhimselfseemstobeawareofthesedifferences
inhisfamous1948paper,"AMathematicalTheoryof
Communcation"(8).Withrespecttotheparcellinghewrites,"In
thecontinuouscasethemeasurementisrelativetothe
coordinatesystem.Ifwechangecoordinatestheentropywillin
generalchange"(p37,Shannon'sitalics).

InthesamepaperShannonattachesnophysicalunitstohis
entropyandnevermentionsBoltzmann'sconstant,k.Atone
Shannon
pointhebrieflyintroducesK,sayingtersely,"TheconstantK
merelyamountstoachoiceofaunitofmeasure"(p11).
Althoughthethe55pagepapercontainsmorethan300equations,Kappearsonly
onceagain,inAppendix2,whichconcludes,"ThechoiceofcoefficientKisa
matterofconvenienceandamountstothechoiceofaunitofmeasure"(p29).
Shannonneverspecifiestheunitofmeasure.

Thissortofentropyisclearlydifferent.Physicalunitsdonotpertaintoit,and
(exceptinthecaseofdigitalinformation)anarbitraryconventionmustbeimposed
beforeitcanbequantified.Todistinguishthiskindofentropyfromthermodynamic
entropy,let'scallitlogicalentropy.

Inspiteoftheimportantdistinctionbetweenthetwo
TheequationS=klogW meaningsofentropy,theruleasstatedabovefor
+constappearswithout
thermodynamicentropyseemstoapplynonethelessto
anelementarytheoryor
thelogicalkind:entropyinaclosedsystemcannever
howeveronewantstosay
decrease.Andreally,therewouldbenothing
itdevoidofanymeaning
mysteriousaboutthislaweither.It'ssimilartosaying
fromaphenomenological
thingsneverorganizethemselves.(Theoriginal
pointofview
meaningoforganizeis"tofurnishwithorgans.")
AlbertEinstein,1910(8.5)
Onlythisrulehaslittletodowiththermodynamics.

Itistruethatcrystalsandotherregularconfigurationscanbeformedbyunguided
processes.Andweareaccustomedtosayingthattheseconfigurationsare
"organized."Butcrystalshavenotbeenspontaneously"furnishedwithorgans."The
correcttermforsuchregularconfigurationsis"ordered."Therecipeforacrystalis
alreadypresentinthesolutionitgrowsfromthecrystallatticeisprescribedby
thestructureofthemoleculesthatcomposeit.Theformationofcrystalsisthe
straightforwardresultofchemicalandphysicallawsthatdonotevolveandthatare,
comparedtogeneticprograms,verysimple.

Therulethatthingsneverorganizethemselvesisalsoupheldinoureveryday
experience.Withoutsomeonetofixit,abrokenglassnevermends.Without
maintenance,ahousedeteriorates.Withoutmanagement,abusinessfails.Without
newsoftware,acomputerneveracquiresnewcapabilities.Never.

CharlesDarwinunderstoodthisuniversalprinciple.It'scommonsense.That'swhy
heoncemadeanotetohimselfpertainingtoevolution,"Neverusethewordshigher
orlower"(9).However,theword"higher"inthisforbiddensenseappearshalfa
dozentimesinthefirsteditionofDarwin'sOriginofSpecies(10).

Eventoday,ifyouassertthatahumanismorehighlyevolvedthanaflatwormoran
amoeba,therearedarwinistswho'llwanttofightaboutit.Theytaketheposition,
apparently,thatevolutionhasnotnecessarilyshownatrendtowardmorehighly
organizedformsoflife,justdifferentforms:

Allextantspeciesareequallyevolved.LynnMargulisandDorionSagan,
1995(11)
Thereisnoprogressinevolution.StephenJayGould,1995(12)
Weallagreethatthere'snoprogress.RichardDawkins,1995(13)
ThefallacyofprogressJohnMaynardSmithandErsSzathmry,1995
(14)

Butthisignorestheplainfactsaboutlifeandevolution.

LifeisOrganization
Seeninretrospect,evolutionasawhole
doubtlesshadageneraldirection,fromsimple
tocomplex,fromdependenceontorelative
independenceoftheenvironment,togreater
andgreaterautonomyofindividuals,greater
andgreaterdevelopmentofsenseorgansand
nervoussystemsconveyingandprocessing
informationaboutthestateoftheorganism'ssurroundings,andfinallygreaterand
greaterconsciousness.Youcancallthisdirectionprogressorbysomeothername.
TheodosiusDobzhansky(15)
Progress,then,isapropertyoftheevolutionoflifeasawholebyalmostany
conceivableintuitivestandard....Letusnotpretendtodenyinourphilosophywhat
weknowinourheartstobetrue.EdwardO.Wilson(16)

Lifeisorganization.Fromprokaryoticcells,eukaryoticcells,tissuesandorgans,to
plantsandanimals,families,communities,ecosystems,andlivingplanets,lifeis
organization,ateveryscale.Theevolutionoflifeistheincreaseofbiological
organization,ifitisanything.Clearly,iflifeoriginatesandmakesevolutionary
progresswithoutorganizinginputsomehowsupplied,thensomethinghasorganized
itself.Logicalentropyinaclosedsystemhasdecreased.Thisistheviolationthat
peoplearegettingat,whentheysaythatlifeviolatesthesecondlawof
thermodynamics.Thisviolation,thedecreaseoflogicalentropyinaclosedsystem,
musthappencontinuallyinthedarwinianaccountofevolutionaryprogress.

Mostdarwinistsjustignorethisstaggeringproblem.Whenconfrontedwithit,they
seekrefugeintheconfusionbetweenthetwokindsofentropy.[Logical]entropy
hasnotdecreased,theysay,becausethesystemisnotclosed.Energysuchas
sunlightisconstantlysuppliedtothesystem.Ifyouconsiderthelargersystemthat
includesthesun,[thermodynamic]entropyhasincreased,asrequired.

RecentWritingAboutEntropyandBiology
Anexcellentexampleofthisconfusionisgiveninapopular1982treatiseagainst
creationism,AbusingScience,byPhilipKitcher.Heisawarethatentropyhas
differentmeanings,buthetreatsthemasnotdifferent:"Therearevariouswaysto
understandentropy....Ishallfollowtheapproachofclassicalthermodynamics,in
whichentropyisseenasafunctionofunusableenergy.ButthepointsImakewill
notbeaffectedbythischoice"(17).

Anothertypicalexampleofconfusionbetweenthetwokindsofentropycomes
fromasimilarbookbyTimM.Berra,EvolutionandtheMythofCreationism.The
followingparagraphfromthatbookwouldseemtoindicatethatanylargeanimal
canassembleabicycle(18).
Forexample,anunassembledbicyclethatarrivesatyourhouseinashippingcarton
isinastateofdisorder.Yousupplytheenergyofyourmuscles(whichyougetfrom
foodthatcameultimatelyfromsunlight)toassemblethebike.Youhavegotorder
fromdisorderbysupplyingenergy.TheSunisthesourceofenergyinputtothe
earth'slivingsystemsandallowsthemtoevolve.

Arareexampleoftheuseofmathematicstocombinethetwokindsofentropyis
giveninTheMysteryofLife'sOrigin,publishedin1984.Itsauthorsacknowledge
twokindsofentropy,whichtheycall"thermal"and"configurational."Tocountthe
"numberofways"forthelatterkindofentropytheyuserestrictionswhichthey
lateradmittobeunrealistic.Theycountonlythenumberofwaysastringofamino
acidsoffixedlengthcanbesequenced.Theyadmitintheend,however,thatthe
stringmightneverform.Toimposetheunitsjoulesperdegreeonto
"configurational"entropy,theysimplymultiplybyBoltzmann'sconstant(19).
Nevertheless,theyultimatelyreachthefollowingconclusion(p157158):
Insummary,undirectedthermalenergyisonlyabletodothechemicalandthermal
entropyworkinpolypetidesynthesis,butnotthecoding(orsequencing)portionof
theconfigurationalentropywork....Itisdifficulttoimaginehowonecouldever
couplerandomthermalenergyflowthroughthesystemtodotherequired
configurationalentropyworkofselectingandsequencing.

InEvolution,ThermodynamicsandInformation,JeffreyS.Wickenalsoadopts
theterms"thermal"and"configurational."Butheretheybothpertainonlytothe
nonenergetic"informationcontent"ofathermodynamicstate,and"energetic"
informationisalsonecessaryforthecompletedescriptionofasystem.Shannon
entropyisdifferentfromallofthese,andnotausefulconcepttoWicken.
Nevertheless,hesaysthatevolutionandtheoriginoflifearenotseparateproblems
and,"Themostparsimoniousexplanationistoassumethatlifealwaysexisted"
(19.5)!

RogerPenrose'streatmentofentropyisworthmentioning.InTheEmperor's
NewMind(20),henimblydodgestheproblemofassigningphysicalunitsto
logicalentropy(p314,Penrose'sitalics):

Inordertogivetheactualentropyvaluesforthesecompartmentsweshouldhaveto
worryalittleaboutthequestionoftheunitsthatarechosen(metres,Joules,
kilograms,degreesKelvin,etc.).Thatwouldbeoutofplacehere,andinfact,forthe
utterlystupendousentropyvaluesthatIshallbegivingshortly,itmakesessentially
nodifferenceatallwhatunitsareinfactchosen.However,fordefiniteness(forthe
experts),letmesaythatIshallbetakingnaturalunits,asareprovidedbytherulesof
quantummechanics,andforwhichBoltzmann'sconstantturnsouttobeunity:k=1.

Somedayinthefuture,anextensionofquantumtheorymight
provideanaturalwaytoparcelanyrealphysicalsituation.Ifthat
happens,oneoftheproblemswithquantifyinglogicalentropyin
arealphysicalsituationwillberemoved.Butnobody,noteven
Penrose,issuggestingthatthisisthecasetoday.Andevenifthat
daycomes,stillwewillhavenoreasontoattachthermodynamic Penrose
unitstologicalentropy.(Althoughtheword"stupendous"appears
again,no"actualentropyvalues"followthequotedpassage.)(Penrose,May2012
)

InTheRefrigeratorandtheUniverse(21),MartinGoldsteinandIngeF.
Goldsteinwonderifthereis"anirreconcilabledifference"betweenthetwokindsof
entropy.Theybegintheirconsiderationoflogicalentropybydiscussingthe
possiblearrangementsofplayingcards,wheretheparcelingisnotarbitrarythe
numberofpossibilitiescanbecounted.Whentheymovetotheworldofphysics,
theyarenotconcernedoverthefactthatparcelingmustnowbedonearbitrarily.
Theyareconcerned,initially,aboutattachingphysicalunitstologicalentropy.
"...Entropyismeasuredinunitsofenergydividedbytemperature....W[counting
microstates]isapurenumber"(p173).ButultimatelytheyapplyBoltzmann's
constant.Nocalculationsusinglogicalentropywithphysicalunitsensue.Thenext
timetheymentionlogicalentropyisinthesection"InformationandEntropy,"
wheretheydividethepreviousproductbyBoltzmann'sconstanttoremovethe
physicalunits!

AnambitioustreatmentofentropyasitpertainstobiologyisthebookEvolution
asEntropy,byDanielR.BrooksandE.O.Wiley.Theyacknowledgethatthe
distinctionbetweenthedifferentkindsofentropyisimportant(22):
Itisimportanttorealizethatthephasespace,microstates,andmacrostatesdescribed
inourtheoryarenotclassicalthermodynamicconstructs....Theentropiesarearray
entropies,moreliketheentropiesofsortingencounteredinconsideringanidealgas
thanlikethethermalentropiesassociatedwithsteamengines....

Infacttheauthorsacknowledgemanykindsofentropytheydescribephysical
entropy,ShannonWeaverentropy,cohesionentropy,andstatisticalentropy,for
example.TheyrarelyuseormentionBoltzmann'sconstant.Oneoftheirmain
argumentsisthatalthoughtheprogressofevolutionseemstorepresentareduction
inentropy,thisreductionisonlyapparent.Inreality,evolutionincreasesentropyas
thesecondlawrequires.Butevolutiondoesnotincreaseentropyasfastasthe
maximumpossiblerate.So,bycomparisontothemaximumpossiblerate,entropy
appearstobedecreasing.Oureyeshavedeceivedus!
 InanotherbookentitledLifeItself,mathematicalbiologistRobertRosenof
ColumbiaUniversityseemstohavegraspedtheproblemwhenhewrites,"The
SecondLawthusassertsthat...asystemautonomouslytendingtoanorganizedstate
cannotbeclosed"(23).Butimmediatelyheveersaway,complainingthattheterm
"organization"isvague.Intentonintroducingtermsheprefers,like"entailment,"he
doesnotconsiderthepossibilitythat,inanopensystem,life'sorganizationcouldbe
importedintooneregionfromanother.

HansChristianvonBaeyer's1998book,Maxwell'sDemon,isengagingand
informativeaboutthescientistswhopioneeredthesecondlaw.Thestoryconcludes
withaninterviewofWojciechZurekoftheTheoreticalDivisionoftheLosAlamos
NationalLaboratory.Zurekintroducesanothersecondkindofentropy,because,
"Likeallscientificideas,theconceptofentropy,usefulasitis,needstobe
refurbishedandupdatedandadjustedtonewinsights.Someday...thetwotypesof
entropywillbegintoapproacheachotherinvalue,andthenewtheorywillbecome
amenabletoexperimentalverification"(23.5).

Oneofthemostprofoundandoriginaltreatmentsofentropyisthat
bytheNobelprizewinningchemistIlyaPrigogine.Hebeginsby
noticingthatsomephysicalprocessescreatesurprisingpatternssuch
assnowflakes,orexhibitsurprisingbehaviorsuchasoscillation
betweendifferentstates.InFromBeingToBecominghesays,in
effect,thatthingssometimesdo,undercertaincircumstances,
organizethemselves.Hereasonsthattheseprocessesmayhave
producedlife(24):
Prigogine
Itseemsthatmostbiologicalmechanismsofactionshowthatlifeinvolves
farfromequilibriumconditionsbeyondthestabilityofthethresholdofthe
thermodynamicbranch.Itisthereforeverytemptingtosuggestthattheoriginoflife
mayberelatedtosuccessiveinstabilitiessomewhatanalogoustothesuccessive
bifurcationsthathaveleadtoastateofmatterofincreasingcoherence.

Somefindsuchpassagesobscureandtentative.Onecriticcomplainsthatwork
alongthelinesadvocatedbyPrigoginefifteenyearsearlierhasbornelittlefruit
subsequently."Idon'tknowofasinglephenomenonhehasexplained,"saidPierre
C.HohenbergofYaleUniversity(25).

Dr.HubertP.Yockeygivesthesubjectofentropyandbiologyaprobingand
insightfultreatmentinhismonograph,Informationtheoryandmolecularbiology
(26).Heemphaticallyagreesthattherearedifferentkindsofentropythatdonot
correlate."TheShannonentropyandtheMaxwellBoltzmannGibbsentropy...have
nothingtodowitheachother"(p313).ButShannonentropy(whichpertainsto
informationtheory)makesnodistinctionbetweenmeaningfulDNAsequencesthat
encodelife,andrandomDNAsequencesofequallength.(Shannonwrote,"These
semanticaspectsofcommunicationareirrelevanttotheengineeringproblem.")
Withnodistinctionbetweenmeaningfulandmeaninglesssequences,Yockeyisable
toconcludethatevolutiondoesnotcreateanyparadoxforShannonentropy.
Nevertheless,Yockeyproveswithimpressivecommandofbiologyandstatistics
thatitwouldbeimpossibletofindthenewgenesnecessaryforevolutionary
progressbytherandomsearchmethodcurrentlyinfavor.Heisdeeplyscepticalof
theprevailingtheoriesofevolutionandtheoriginoflifeonEarth.(CynthiaYockey,
2005 )

In1998,computerscientistChristophAdamiagreesthattrouble
dogsthemarriageofbiologyandlogicalentropy.InIntroductionto
ArtificialLife(27),hecommentson"thedecadesofconfusionthat
havereignedoverthetreatmentoflivingsystemsfromthepointof
viewofthermodynamicsandinformationtheory..."(p59).Hesays,
"informationisalwayssharedbetweentwoensembles"(p70),a
restrictionthatsoundspromising.Yetinhissectionentitled"Second Adami

LawofThermodynamics,"hesaysthatasathermodynamicsystemis
putintocontactwithanotheroneatalowertemperature,andthermalequilibriumis
reached,thetotalentropyofthecombinedensemble"staysconstant"(p99).This
flatlycontradictsthesecondlaw.Later,applyingthesecondlawtoinformation,he
explainsthatonlythe"conditionalentropy"increasesinsuchexamples."The
unconditional(ormarginal)entropygivenbyconditionalentropyplusmutual
entropy...staysconstant"(p118,Adami'sitalics).Morenewkindsofentropy.

In1999'sTheFifthMiracle(28),theoreticalphysicistandsciencewriterPaul
Daviesdevotesachapter,"AgainsttheTide,"totherelationshipbetweenentropy
andbiology.Inanendnotetothatchapterhewrites,"'higher'organismshavehigher
(notlower)algorithmicentropy..."(p277,Davies'italics)anotherreversalofthe
usualunderstanding.Heconcludes,"Thesourceofbiologicalinformation,then,is
theorganism'senvironment"(p57).Later,"Gravitationallyinducedinstabilityisa
sourceofinformation"(p63).Butthis"stillleavesuswiththeproblem....Howhas
meaningfulinformationemergedintheuniverse?"(p65).Hegivesnoanswerto
thisquestion.

TheTouchstoneofLife(1999)followsPrigogine'scourse,relyingon
Boltzmann'sconstanttolinkthermodynamicandlogicalentropy(29).Author
WernerLoewensteinoftenstrikesthechordsthataccompanydeepunderstanding.
"Asfortheoriginofinformation,thefountainhead,thismustliesomewhereinthe
territoryclosetothebigbang"(p25)."Evidentlyalittlebubbling,whirlingand
seethinggoesalongwayinorganizingmatter....Thatunderstandinghasledtothe
birthofanewalchemy..."(p4849).Exactly.

Conclusion
Inmyopinion,theaudaciousattempttorevealtheformal
equivalenceoftheideasofbiologicalorganizationand
thermodynamicorder...mustbejudgedtohavefailed.
PeterMedawar(30)

ComputerscientistRolfLandauerwroteanarticlepublishedin
Medawar June,1996,whichcontainsinsightthatshoulddiscourage
attemptstophysicallylinkthetwokindsofentropy.He
demonstratesthat"thereisnounavoidableminimalenergyrequirementper
transmittedbit"(31).UsingBoltzmann'sconstanttotietogetherthermodynamic
entropyandlogicalentropyisthusshowntobewithoutbasis.Onemayrightly
objectthattheminimalenergyrequirementperbitofinformationisunrelatedto
logicalentropy.Butthissupposedrequirementwasthekeystoneofmodern
argumentsconnectingthetwoconcepts.

Itissurprisingthatmixingentropyandbiologystillfosters
confusion.Therelevantconceptsfromphysicspertainingtothe
secondlawofthermodynamicsareatleast100yearsold.The
confusioncanbeeradicatedifwedistinguishthermodynamic
entropyfromlogicalentropy,andadmitthatEarth'sbiosphereis
opentoorganizinginputfromelsewhere.

What'sNEW Like 212 Share

Landauer

EntropyisananthromorphicconceptE.P.Wigner(32)

Battlebetweenquantumandthermodynamiclawsheatsup,byDavide
Castelvecchi,Nature,30Mar2017.
 ArgonneresearcherspositwaytolocallycircumventSecondLawof
ThermodynamicsbyLouiseLerner,UChicagoArgonneLLC(+Newswise),19Oct
2016.

FromEntropytoInformation:BiasedTypewritersandtheOriginofLifeby
ChristophAdamiandThomasLaBar,arXiv:1506.06988[qbio.PE],arXiv.org,23
Jun2015.

Stabilityanditsmanifestationinthechemicalandbiologicalworlds,Robert
PascalandAddyPross,doi:10.1039/C5CC06260H,Chem.Commun.,07Oct2015.
Throughakineticperspectiveitcanbedemonstratedthattheprocessoflife's
emergence,aswellasitssubsequentevolution,seeminglyinconsistent,ifnotat
oddswiththermodynamiclogic,actuallyhaveamathematical/logicalbasis.
23Feb2015:Thesecondlawessentiallysaysthattheuniversemusthavehada
beginningand[willhave]anend.

RogerPenrose,CyclesofTime:AnExtraordinaryNewViewoftheUniverse,
ISBN:9780099505945,Vintage,May2012."Wemustindeedbearinmindthat
thereislikelytobealwayssomemeasureofsubjectivityintheprecisevalueof
theentropythatonemightassigntoasystem."(p37)

JeremyL.England,"Statisticalphysicsofselfreplication"[abstract|pdf],
doi:10.1063/1.4818538,v139n121923,J.Chem.Phys.,Aug2013and
commentary:ANewPhysicsTheoryofLifebyNatalieWolchover,Quanta
Magazine,22Jan2014.

CharlesLineweaver,PaulC.W.DaviesandMichaelRuse,eds.,Complexityand
theArrowofTime,ISBN978110702725,CambridgeUniversityPress,2013and
areviewbyDanielW.McShea,"UnnecessaryComplexity"[html],
doi:10.1126/science.1245386,p13191320v342,Science,13Dec2013.
18Oct2013:ManfredEigen'snewbook,FromStrangeSimplicitytoComplex
Familiarity.

13Sep2013:Amajorproblemwithalloriginoflifetheorieshowdid
biological"selfpreservation"arise?

2Jan2013:ShufengZhangsendslinkstohispaper,"Entropy:Aconceptthatis
notaphysicalquantity".

BaBarExperimentConfirmsTimeAsymmetry,SLACNationalAccelerator
Labratory,19Nov2012.

GranvilleSewell,"Asecondlookatthesecondlaw"[pdf],
doi:101016/j.aml.2011.01.019,AppliedMathematicsLetters,2011[retracted]."If
anincreaseinorderisextremelyimprobablewhenasystemisclosed,itisstill
extremelyimprobablewhenthesystemisopen,unlesssomethingisenteringwhich
makesitnotextremelyimprobable."

TheunavoidablecostofcomputationrevealedbyPhilipBall,NatureNews,7
Mar2012.

PeterA.Corning,"Thermoeconomics:BeyondtheSecondLaw"[abstract|38
pagePDF],InstitutefortheStudyofComplexSystems,2001."Webelievethatthe
entirestrategyassociatedwithvariousattemptstoreducebiologicalevolutionand
thedynamicsoflivingsystemstotheprincipleseitherofclassical,irreversible
thermodynamicsortostatisticalmechanics...isatheoreticalculdesac."
AriehBenNaim,EntropyDemystified[publisher'spromo],ISBN:978981270
0551,WorldScientificPublishingCo.,May2007."Theunitsofentropy(J/K)...
shouldnotbeusedtoexpressentropyatall"(p204).

28Apr2009:Lifeisnothingbutanelectronlookingforaplacetorest.
F.AlexanderBaisandJ.DoyneFarmer,"PhysicsofInformation"[PDF],SFI
WorkingPaper0708029,2007."...Fromthepointofviewofthermodynamics
entropyisapurelymacroscopicquantity."

HowardLandmandisagreesandoffershelpfuldiscussion,beginning29Sep
2007.

FrastodaSilvarecommendsPeterA.Corning,21Jun2007.

JohnWhitfield,"SurvivaloftheLikeliest?"[text],10.1371/journal.pbio.0050142,
e142,v5n5,PLoSBiology,published15May2007."Throughouttheuniverse,the
interactionofenergyandmatterbringsregularstructuresbetheystars,crystals,
interactionofenergyandmatterbringsregularstructuresbetheystars,crystals,
eddiesinfluids,orweathersystemsinatmospheresintobeing....Could[living
things]bepartofthesamephenomenon?"
PhilipDorrelldisagrees,26Dec2006.

BrigKlyceinterviewedabouttheEvolutionPrizebyTomBarbaletofbiota.org,
2Sep2006.

Anonymousreplieswithacompliment,21Dec2005.

CynthiaYockeyrepliestoamendourcommentsonHubertP.Yockey,17Nov
2005.

Dr.ShuKunLin,publisheroftheonlinejournalEntropy,disagreeswithRossell,
26Sep2005.

SergioRossellsuggeststhatwhentwogassesmix,thethermodynamicentropy
changeismeasurable,27Aug2005.

JeanBernardBrissaud,"Themeaningsofentropy"[abstract|pdf],p6896v7,
Entropy,14Feb2005."Aconfusionaboutthenatureofentropycomesfromthe
factthataperfectlycompressedmessageisofmaximumentropy,containinga
maximumamountofinformation,whilearandomsequenceof0sand1s,alsoof
maximumentropy,containsnoinformation."

24Apr2005:InformationTheory,EvolutionandtheOriginofLife,byHubert
Yockey

RichardDawkins,"HumanChauvinismandEvolutionaryProgress,"p206217,A
DevilsChaplain,MarinerBooks,2004."Evolutionturnsouttobeclearlyand
importantlyprogressive,"Dawkinsnowsays.

ToddL.DuncanandJackS.Semura,"TheDeepPhysicsBehindtheSecondLaw:
InformationandEnergyAsIndependentFormsofBookkeeping"[abstract],p2129
v6,Entropy,Mar2004.

22Mar2004:StephenWolframquote

Dr.AttilaGrandpierre,KonkolyObservatory,Hungaryreplies,22Jan2004.
AndreasGrevenetal.,eds.,Entropy,ISBN:0691113386[promo][Chapter
1.pdf],PrincetonUniversityPress,2003."Wehopethattheseseeminglymysterious
relationsbecomeclearerbyreadingthroughthisbook."

HarveyS.LeffandAndrewF.Rex,Maxwell'sDemon2:Entropy,Classicaland
Quantum,Information,Computing,InstituteofPhysicsPublishing,2003.

TheAdjacentPossibleStuartKauffmantalksabout"theneedforatheoryof
organization,"n127,Edge,3Nov2003.

IsIntelligenceaBiologicalImperative?:PartIV,ofaforumentitled,"TheDrake
EquationRevisited,"heldinPaloAlto,CA,26August2003.Inthediscussion
betweenPeterWardandDavidGrinspoon,thelatterinvokesnonequilibrium
thermodynamicstoenablelifetodecreaseitslogicalentropy.

HenryGee,"Progressiveevolution:Aspirationalthinking"[text],p611v420,
Nature,12Dec2002."Progressiveevolution...stemsfromaprofoundlyidealistic,
preevolutionaryviewoflife."(GeeagreeswithRuse.)

"ClaudeShannon,Mathematician,Diesat84,"TheNewYorkTimes,27February
2001.

2000,November23:MonadtoMan,byMichaelRuse,whodoubtsevolutionary
progress.

2000,October25:JimGalasyncommentsonthesecondlaw.
2000,June12:ErnstMayrdoesnotdoubtevolutionaryprogress.
ChristophAdami,CharlesOfriaandTravisC.Collier,"Evolutionofbiological
complexity"[abstract],doi:10.1073/pnas.97.9.4463,p44634468v97,Proc.Natl.
Acad.Sci.,USA,25Apr2000.

1998,December23:GertKorthofcomplimentsthispage.

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