https://en.m.wikipedia.

org/wiki/Coastal_hazards
Coastal hazards
Coastal Hazards are physical phenomena that expose a coastal area to risk of property damage, loss of life and environmental degradation. Rapid-
onset hazards last over periods of minutes to several days and examples include major cyclones accompanied by high winds, waves and surges or
tsunamis created by submarine earthquakes and landslides. Slow-onset hazards develop incrementally over longer time periods and examples
include erosion and gradual inundation.[1]

Contents
Introduction
Since early civilisation, coastal areas have been attractive settling grounds for human population as they provided abundant marine resources, fertile
agricultural land and possibilities for trade and transport. This has led to high population densities and high levels of development in many coastal
areas and this trend is continuing into the 21st century. At present, about 1,2 billion people live in coastal areas globally, and this number is predicted
to increase to 1,8-5,2 billion by the 2080s due to a combination of population growth and coastal migration.[2] Along with this increase follows major
investments in infrastructure and the build environment.
The characteristics of coastal environments, however, pose some great challenges to human habitation. Coastlines are highly dynamic natural
systems that interact with terrestrial, marine and atmospheric processes and undergo continuous change in response to these processes. Over the
years, human society has often failed to recognize the hazards related to these dynamics [3] and this has led to major disasters and societal
disruption to various degrees. Even today, coastal development is often taking place with little regard to the hazards present in these environments,
although climate change is likely to increase the general hazard levels.[4] Societal activities in coastal areas can also pose a hazard to the natural
balance of coastal systems, thereby disrupting e.g. sensitive ecosystems and subsequently human livelihood.
Coastal hazard management has become an increasingly important aspect of coastal planning in order to improve the resilience of society to coastal
hazards. Possible management options include hard engineering structures, soft protection measures, various accommodation approaches as well as
a managed retreat from the coastline. For addressing coastal hazards, it is also important to have early warning systems and emergency
management plans in place to be able to address sudden and potential disastrous hazards i.e. major flooding events. Events as the Hurricane Katrina
affecting the southern USA in 2005 and the cyclone Nargis affecting Myanmar in 2008 provides clear examples of the importance of timely coastal
hazard management.
Coastal environments of the USA
Let us take any country in the world, like the United States, for example.
There are many different types of environments along the coasts of the United States with very diverse features that affect, influence, and mold the
near-shore processes that are involved. Understanding these ecosystems and environments can further advance the mitigating techniques and
policy-making efforts against natural and man-made coastal hazards in these vulnerable areas. The five most common types of coastal zones range
from the northern ice-pushing, mountainous coastline of Alaska and Maine, the barrier island coasts facing the Atlantic, the steep, cliff-
back headlands along the pacific coast, the marginal-sea type coastline of the Gulf region, and the coral reef coasts bordering Southern Florida and
Hawaii.[5]
Ice-pushing/mountainous coastline
These coastal regions along the northernmost part of the nation were affected predominantly by, along with the rest of the Pacific Coast, continuous
tectonic activity, forming a very long, irregular, ridged, steep and mostly mountainous coastline. These environments are heavily occupied with
permafrost and glaciers, which are the two major conditions affecting Alaska's Coastal Development.[6]
Barrier island coastline
Barrier islands are a land form system that consists of fairly narrow strips of sand running parallel to the mainland and play a significant role in
mitigating storm surges and oceans swells as natural storm events occur. The morphology of the various types and sizes of barrier islands depend on
the wave energy, tidal range, basement controls, and sea level trends. The islands create multiple unique environments of wetland systems including
marshes, estuaries, and lagoons.[7]
Steep, cliff-backing abrasion coastline
The coastline along the western part of the nation consists of very steep, cliffed rock formations generally with vegetative slopes descending down
and a fringing beach below. The various sedimentary, metamorphic, and volcanic rock formations assembled along a tectonically disturbed
environment, all with altering resistances running perpendicular, cause the ridged, extensive stretch of uplifted cliffs that form the peninsulas,
lagoons, and valleys.[8]
Marginal-sea type coastline
The southern banks of the United States border the Gulf of Mexico, intersecting numerous rivers, forming many inlets bays, and lagoons along its
coast, consisting of vast areas of marsh and wetlands. This region of landform is prone to natural disasters yet highly and continuously developed,
with man-made structures attaining to water flow and control.[9]
Coral reef coastline
Coral reefs are located off the shores of the southern Florida and Hawaii consisting of rough and complex natural structures along the bottom of the
ocean floor with extremely diverse ecosystems, absorbing up to ninety percent of the energy dissipated from wind-generated waves. This process is
a significant buffer for the inner-lying coastlines, naturally protecting and minimizing the impact of storm surge and direct wave damage. Because of
the highly diverse ecosystems, these coral reefs not only provide for the shoreline protection, but also deliver an abundant amount of services to
fisheries and tourism, increasing its economic value.[10]
Causes of Coastal HazardsEdit
Natural VS Human disasters
The population that lives along or near our coastlines are an extremely vulnerable population. There are numerous issues facing our coastlines and
there are two main categories that these hazards can be placed under, Natural disasters and Human disasters. Both of these issues cause great
damage to our coastlines and discussion is still ongoing regarding what standards or responses need to be met to help both the individuals who want
to continue living along the coastline, while keeping them safe and not eroding more coastline away. Natural disasters are disasters that are out of
human control and are usually caused by the weather. Disasters that include but are not limited
to; storms, tsunamis, typhoons, flooding, tides, waterspouts, nor'easters, and storm surge. Human disasters occur when humans are the main culprit
behind why the disaster happened. Some human disasters are but are not limited to; pollution, trawling, and human development. Natural and
human disasters continue to harm the coastlines severely and they need to be researched in order to prepare/stop the hazards if possible.[11]
The populations that live near or along the coast experience many hazards and it affects millions of people. Around ten million people globally feel
the effects of coastal problems yearly and most are due to certain natural hazards like coastal flooding with storm surges and typhoons.[12] A major
problem related to coastal regions deals with how the entire global environment is changing and in response, the coastal regions are easily affected.

Storms, Flooding and Erosion

Storms are one of the major hazards that are associated to coastal regions. Storms, flooding, and erosion are closely associated and can happen
simultaneously. Tropical storms or Hurricanes especially can devastate coastal regions. For example, Florida during Hurricane Andrew occurred in
1992 that caused extreme damage. It was a category five hurricane that caused $26.5 billion in damages and even 23 individuals lost their lives from
the storm.[13] Hurricane Katrina also caused havoc along the coast to show the extreme force a hurricane can do in a certain region.[14]The Chennai
Floods of 2015, which affected many people, is an example of flooding due to cyclones. People across the whole state of Tamil Nadu felt its impact
and even parts of Andhra Pradesh got affected. There was a loss of Rs.900 crore and 280 people died. Many cyclones like this happen across Asia but
the media reports only minor hurricanes which hit the United States.

In almost all cases, storms are the major culprit that causes flooding and erosion. Flash flooding is caused by storms that occurs when a massive
amount of rainfall comes down into an area over a short period of time. Where as a storm surge, which is closely related to tropical storms, is when
the wind collects and pushes water towards low pressure or inland and can rise rapidly.[15] It is an offshore rise of water and overall creates a higher
sea level that rises and is pushed inland. The amount of rise or fall of storm surge depends greatly on the amount and duration of wind and water in
a specific location. Also if it occurs during a high tide it can have an even greater effect on the coast.

Almost all storms with high wind and water cause erosion along the coast. Erosion occurs when but not limited to; along shore currents, tides, sea
level rise and fall, and high winds. Larger amounts of erosion cause the coastline to erode away at a faster rate and can leave people homeless and
leave less land to develop or keep for environmental reasons. Coastal erosion has been increasing over the past few years and it is still on the rise
which makes it a major coastline hazard. In the United States, 45 percent of its coast line is along the Atlantic or Gulf coast and the erosion rate per
year along the Gulf coast is at six feet a year. The average rate of erosion along the Atlantic is around two to three feet a year. Even with these
findings, erosion rates in specific locations vary because of various environmental factors such as major storms that can cause major erosion upwards
to 100 feet or more in only one day.[16]

Pollution, Trawling and Human Development

Pollution, trawling, and human development are major human disasters that affect coastal regions. There are two main categories related to
pollution, point source pollution, and nonpoint source pollution. Point source pollution is when there is an exact location such as a pipeline or a body
of water that leads into the rivers and oceans. Known dumping into the ocean is also another point source of pollution. Nonpoint source pollution
would pertain more to fertilizer runoff, and industrial waste. Examples of pollution that affect the coastal regions are but are not limited to; fertilizer
runoff, oil spills, and dumping of hazardous materials into the oceans. More human acts that hurt the coastline are as follows; waste discharge,
fishing, dredging, mining, and drilling.[17] Oil spills are one of the most hazardous dangers towards coastal communities. They are hard to contain,
difficult to clean up, and devastate everything. The fish, animals such as birds, the water, and especially the coastline near the spill. The most recent
oil spill that had everybody concerned with oil spill was the BP oil spill.
Trawling hurts the normal ecosystems in the water around the coastline. It depletes all ecosystems on the ocean floor such as, flounder, shellfish,
marsh etc.. It is simply a giant net that is drug across the ocean floor and destroys and catches anything in its path. Human development is one of the
major problems when facing coastal hazards. The overall construction of buildings and houses on the coast line takes away the natural occurrences
to handle the fluctuation in water and sea level rise. Building houses in pre-flood areas or high risk areas that are extremely vulnerable to flooding
are major concerns towards human development in coastal regions. Having houses and buildings in areas that are known to have powerful storms
that will create people to be in risk by living there. Also pertaining to barrier islands, where land is at risk for erosion but they still continue to build
there anyway. More and more houses today are being taken by the ocean; look at picture above.
Coastal hazards & climate change
The predicted climate change is adding an extra risk factor to human settlement in coastal areas. Whereas the natural dynamics that shape our
coastlines have been relatively stable and predictable over the last centuries, much more rapid change is now expected in processes as sea level rise,
ocean temperature and acidity, tropical storm intensity and precipitation/runoff patterns.[18] The world's coastlines will respond to these changes in
different ways and at different pace depending on their bio-geophysical characteristics, but generally society will have to recognize that past coastal
trends cannot be directly projected into the future. Instead, it is necessary to consider how different coastal environments will respond to the
predicted climate change and take the expected future hazards into account in the coastal planning processes.
PoliciesEdit
National Flood Insurance Program
The National Flood Insurance Program or NFIP was instituted in 1968 and offers home owners in qualifying communities an opportunity to rebuild
and recover after flooding events following the decision by insurance companies to discontinue providing flood insurance. This decision was made on
behalf of the private insurers after continually high and widespread flood losses. The goals of this program are to not only better protect individuals
from flood, but to reduce property losses, and reduce the total amount disbursed for flood loses by the government. Only communities which have
adopted and implemented mitigation policies that are compliant with or exceed federal regulations. The regulatory policies reduce risk to life and
property located within floodplains. The NFIP also comprehensively mapped domestic floodplains increasing public awareness of risk. The majority of
 structures were constructed after the mapping was completed and risk could be assessed. To reduce the cost to these owners, which constitute
roughly 25% of the total policies the rates for insurance are subsidized.[19]
Coastal States Organization
The Coastal States Organization or COS was established in 1970 to represent 35 U.S. sub-federal governments on issues of coastal policies. CSO
lobbies Congress on issues pertaining to Coastal Policy allowing states input on federal policy decisions. Funding, support, water quality, coastal
hazards, and coastal zone management are the primary issues COS promotes. The strategic goals of COS are to provide information and assistance to
members,evaluate and manage coastal needs, and secure long term funding for member states initiatives.[20]
Coastal Zone Management Act
In 1972 the Coastal Zone Management Act or CZMA works to streamline the policies which states create to a minimum federal standard for
environmental protection. CZMA establishes the national policy for the development and implementation of regulatory programs for coastal land
usage, which is supposed to be reflected in state legislation such as CAMA. CZMA also provides minimum building requirements to make the
insurance provided through the NFIP less expensive for the government to operate by mitigating losses. Congress found that it was necessary to
establish the minimum which programs should provide for. Each coastal state is required to have a program with 7 distinct parts: Identifying land
uses,Identifying critical coastal areas, Management measures,Technical assistance, Public participation, Administrative coordination, State coastal
zone boundary modification.[21][22]
The Coastal Area Management Act
The Coastal Area Management Act or CAMA is policy that was implemented by the state of North Carolina in 1974 to work in-tandem with the CZMA.
It creates a cooperative program between the state and local governments. The State government operates in an advisory capacity and reviews
decisions made by local government planners. The goal of this legislation was to create a management system capable of preserving the coastal
environment, insure the preservation of land and water resources, balance the use of coastal resources and establish guidelines and standards for
conservations, economic development, tourism, transportation, and the protection of common law.[23]
Management and planningEdit
Due to the increasing urbanization along the coastlines, planning and management are essential to protecting the ecosystems and environment from
depleting. Coastal management is becoming implemented more because of the movement of people to the shore and the hazards that come with
the territory. Some of the hazards include movement of barrier islands, sea level
rise, hurricanes, nor'easters, earthquakes, flooding, erosion, pollution and human development along the coast. The Coastal Zone Management
Act (CZMA) was created in 1972 because of the continued growth along the coast, this act introduced better management practices such
as integrated coastal zone management, adaptive management and the use mitigation strategies when planning. According to the Coastal Zone
Management Act, the objectives are to remain balanced to "preserve, protect, develop, and where possible, to restore or enhance the resources of
the nation's coastal zone".[24] The development of the land can strongly affect the sea,[25] for example the engineering of structures versus non-
structures and the effects of erosion along the shore.

Integrated coastal zone management

Integrated coastal zone management means the integration of all aspects of the coastal zone; this includes environmentally, socially, culturally
politically and economically to meet a sustainable balance all around. Sustainability is the goal to allow development yet protect the environment in
which we develop. Coastal zones are fragile and do not do well with change so it is important to acquire sustainable development. The integration
from all views will entitle a holistic view for the best implementation and management of that country, region and local scales. The five types of
integration[26] include integration among sectors, integration between land and water elements of the coastal zone, integration amount levels of
government, integration between nations and integration among disciplines are all essential to meet the needs for implementation. Management
practices include
1. maintaining the functional integrity of the coastal resource systems,without disrupting the environment
2. reducing resource-use conflicts, by making sure resources are used adequately and sustainably,
3. maintaining the health of the environment, which means to protect the ecosystems and natural cycle,
4. facilitating the progress of multisectoral development, which means allowing developers to develop within standards.[27]
These four management practices should be based on a bottom-up approach, meaning the approach starts from a local level which is more intimate
to the specific environment of that area. After assessment from the local level, the state and federal input can be implemented. The bottom-up
approach is key for protecting the local environments because there is a diversity of environments that have specific needs all over the world.
Adaptive management
Adaptive management is another practice of development adaptation with the environment. Resources are the major factor when managing
adaptively to a certain environment to accommodate all the needs of development and ecosystems. Strategies used must be flexible by either
passive or active adaptive management include these key features:[28]
AIterative decision-making (evaluating results and adjusting actions on the basis of what has been learned)
Feedback between monitoring and decisions (learning process)
Explicit characterization of system uncertainty through multi-model inference (experimentation)
Embracing risk and uncertainty as a way of building understanding (trial and error)
To achieve adaptive management is testing the assumptions to achieve a desired outcome, such as trial and error, find the best known strategy then
monitoring it to adapt to the environment, and learning the outcomes of success and failures of a project.
Mitigation
The purpose of mitigation is not only to minimize the loss of property damage, but minimize environmental damages due to development. To avoid
impacts by not taking or limiting actions, to reduce or rectify impacts by rehabilitation or restoring the affected environments or instituting long-term
maintenance operations and compensating for impacts by replacing or providing substitute environments for resources[29] Structural mitigation is
the current solution to eroding beaches and movement of sand is the use of engineered structures along the coast have been short lived and are
only an illusion of safety to the public that result in long term damage of the coastline. Structural management deals with the use of the following:
groins which are man-made solution to longshore current movements up and down the coast. The use of groins are efficient to some extent yet
cause erosion and sand build up further down the beaches. Bulkheads are man-made structures that help protect the homes built along the coast
and other bodies of water that actually induce erosion in the long run. Jetties are structures built to protect sand movement into the inlets where
boats for fishing and recreation move through. The use of nonstructural mitigation is the practice of using organic and soft structures for solutions to
protect against coastal hazards. These include: artificial dunes, which are used to create dunes that have been either developed on or eroded. There
needs to be at least two lines of dunes before any development can occur. Beach Nourishment is a major source of nonstructural mitigation to
ensure that beaches are present for the communities and for the protection of the coastline. Vegetation is a key factor when protecting from
erosion, specifically for to help stabilize dune erosion.

http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Impact_of_tourism_in_coastal_areas:_Need_of_sustainable_tourism_strategy
Impact of tourism in coastal areas: Need of sustainable tourism strategy
This article discusses the issues and impacts associated with coastal tourism, the current status of related environmental affairs and a forecast of
tourism in the future. The article concludes by providing suggestions for future management of coastal tourism.
Introduction
Since the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, there is increasing awareness of the importance of sustainable forms of tourism. Although tourism,
one of the world largest industries, was not the subject of a chapter in Agenda 21, the Programme for the further implementation of Agenda 21,
adopted by the General Assembly at its nineteenth special session in 1997, included sustainable tourism as one of its sectoral themes. Furthermore
in 1996, The World Tourism Organization jointly with the tourism private sector issued an Agenda 21 for the Travel and Tourism Industry, with 19
specific areas of action recommended to governments and private operators towards sustainability in tourism.
Specific situation of coastal areas
Coastal areas are transitional areas between the land and sea characterized by a very high biodiversity and they include some of the richest and most
fragile ecosystems on earth, like mangroves and coral reefs. At the same time, coasts are under very high population pressure due to
rapid urbanization processes. More than half of todays world population live in coastal areas (within 60 km from the sea) and this number is on the
rise.
Additionally, among all different parts of the planet, coastal areas are those which are most visited by tourists and in many coastal
areas tourism presents the most important economic activity. In the Mediterranean region for example, tourism is the first economic activity for
islands like Cyprus, Malta, the Balearic Islands and Sicily.
Forecast studies carried out by WTO[1] estimate that international tourist arrivals to the Mediterranean coast will amount to 270 millions in 2010 and
to 346 millions in 2020 (in 2000 around 200 million foreign visitors per year).
Main sources of impact
Residence in the coastal zone
Fisheries and aquaculture
Shipping
Tourism
Land-use practices (Agriculture, Industrial development)
Climate change
Resulting problems
Loss of marine resources due to destruction of coral reefs, overfishing
Pollution of marine and freshwater resources
Soil degradation and loss of land resources (e.g. desertification and salinification due to excessive water use, overuse of fertilizers, erosion)
Air pollution
Loss of cultural resources, social disruption
Loss of public access
Natural hazards and sea level rise
Climate change
How does tourism damage coastal environment
Massive influxes of tourists, often to a relatively small area, have a huge impact. They add to the pollution, waste, and water needs of the local
population, putting local infrastructure and habitats under enormous pressure. For example, 85% of the 1.8 million people who visit Australia's Great
Barrier Reef are concentrated in two small areas, Cairns and the Whitsunday Islands, which together have a human population of just 130,000 or so.
Tourist infrastructure
In many areas, massive new tourist developments have been built - including airports, marinas, resorts, and golf courses. Overdevelopment for
tourism has the same problems as other coastal developments, but often has a greater impact as the tourist developments are located at or near
fragile marine ecosystems. For example:
mangrove forests and seagrass meadows have been removed to create open beaches
tourist developments such as piers and other structures have been built directly on top of coral reefs
nesting sites for endangered marine turtles have been destroyed and disturbed by large numbers of tourists on the beaches
Careless resorts, operators, and tourists
The damage doesn't end with the construction of tourist infrastructure. Some tourist resorts empty their sewage and other wastes directly into
water surrounding coral reefs and other sensitive marine habitats. Recreational activities also have a huge impact. For example, careless boating,
diving, snorkeling, and fishing have substantially damaged coral reefs in many parts of the world, through people touching reefs, stirring up sediment,
and dropping anchors. Marine animals such as whale sharks, seals, dugongs, dolphins, whales, and birds are also disturbed by increased numbers of
boats, and by people approaching too closely. Tourism can also add to the consumption of seafood in an area, putting pressure on local fish
populations and sometimes contributing to overfishing. Collection of corals, shells, and other marine souvenirs - either by individual tourists, or local
people who then sell the souvenirs to tourists - also has a detrimental effect on the local environment.
Cruise ships: Floating towns
The increased popularity of cruise ships has also adversely affected the marine environment. Carrying up to 4,000 passengers and crew, these
enormous floating towns are a major source of marine pollution through the dumping of garbage and untreated sewage at sea, and the release of
other shipping-related pollutants.
Source WWF on Tourism Pressure and European Environment Agency on Tourism
The case of cruise ship tourism
A development that has turned out to be a severe problem for many coastal areas in the last decade is the increase in cruise ship tourism. The cruise
ship business is the segment that has grown most rapidly during the last decade. While world international tourist arrivals in the period 1990 1999
grew at an accumulative annual rate of 4.2%, that of cruises did by 7.7%. In 1990 there were 4.5 million international cruise arrivals which had
increased to a number of 8.7 million in 1999. Particularly for many islands in the Caribbean, cruise tourism is an important market segment. In the
period from 1990 to 1999 there was an increase from 13.71 million international tourist arrivals to 20.32 million (CTO). Meanwhile the number of
cruise passengers increased from 7.75 million to 12.14 million in the same period. This means that in 1999 almost 2/3 of all arrivals to the Caribbean
were cruise passengers.
Problems
Discharge of sewage in marinas and nearshore coastal areas.
The lack of adequate port reception facilities for solid waste, especially in many small islands, as well as the frequent lack of garbage storing
facilities on board can result in solid wastes being disposed of at sea, and being transported by wind and currents to shore often in locations
distant from the original source of the material.
Tar balls on beaches indicate that oil tankers and other ships dump their oil and garbage overboard (despite laws against such practice), while
pollution off Florida and in the Gulf of Mexico is causing serious concern.
Land-based activities such as port development and the dredging that inevitably accompanies it in order to receive cruise ships with sometimes
more than 3000 passengers can significantly degrade coral reefs through the build up of sediment. Furthermore, sand mining at the beaches
leads to coastal erosion.
In the Cayman Islands damage has been done by cruise ships dropping anchor on the reefs. Scientists have acknowledged that more than 300
acres of coral reef have already been lost to cruise ship anchors in the harbour at George Town, the capital of Grand Cayman.
The potential socio-cultural stress produced by cruise tourism needs to be mentioned as well, since it means that during very short periods
there is high influx of people, sometimes more than the local inhabitants of small islands, demanding food, energy,water, etc. and possibly
overrunning local communities.
Source: Sustainable Tourism Management in Coastal Areas, Eugenio Yunis 2001
Impacts
Environmental impacts
Tourism can create great pressure on local resources such as energy, food, land and water that may already be in short supply. According to the
Third Assessment of Europes environment (EEA, 2003[2]), the direct local impacts of tourism on people and the environment at destinations are
strongly affected by concentration in space and time (seasonality).
They result from:
The intensive use of water and land by tourism and leisure facilities.
The delivery and use of energy.
Changes in the landscape coming from the construction of infrastructure, buildings and facilities.
Air pollution and waste.
The compaction and sealing of soils (damage and destruction of vegetation).
The disturbance of fauna and local people (for example, by noise).
Impacts on biodiversity
Tourism can cause loss of biodiversity in many ways, e.g. by competing with wildlife for habitat and natural resources. More specifically, negative
impacts on biodiversity can be caused by various factors.
Socio-cultural impacts
Change of local identity and values:
Commercialization of local culture: Tourism can turn local culture into commodities when religious traditions, local customs and festivals are
reduced to conform to tourist expectations and resulting in what has been called "reconstructed ethnicity"
Standardization: Destinations risk standardization in the process of tourists desires and satisfaction: while landscape, accommodation, food and
drinks, etc., must meet the tourists expectation for the new and unfamiliar situation. They must at the same time not be too new or strange
because few tourists are actually looking for completely new things.This factor damages the variation and beauty of diverse cultures.
Adaptation to tourist demands: Tourists want to collect souvenirs, arts, crafts, cultural manifestations. In many tourist destinations, craftsmen
have responded to the growing demand and have made changes in the design of their products to make them more attractive to the new
customers. Cultural erosion may occur in the process of commercializing cultural traditions.
Cultural clashes may arise through:
Economic inequality - between locals and tourists who are spending more than they usually do at home.
Irritation due to tourist behaviour - Tourists often, out of ignorance or carelessness, fail to respect local customs and moral values.
Job level friction - due to a lack of professional training, many low-paid tourism-jobs go to local people while higher-paying and more prestigious
managerial jobs go to foreigners or "urbanized" nationals.
Benefits of Sustainable coastal tourism
Economic benefit
The main positive economic impacts of sustainable (coastal) tourism are: contributions to government revenues,foreign exchange earnings,
generation of employment and business opportunities.Further information on economic contributions of tourism can be found on the website of
the World Travel and Tourism Council.
Contribution to government revenues
Government revenues from the tourism sector can be categorised as direct and indirect contributions. Direct contributions are generated by income
taxes from tourism and employment due to tourism, tourism businesses and by direct charges on tourists such as ecotax . Indirect contributions
derive from taxes and duties on goods and services supplied to tourists, for example, taxes on tickets (or entry passes to any protected areas),
souvenirs, alcohol, restaurants, hotels, service of tour operators.
Foreign exchange earnings
Tourism expenditures, the export and import of related goods and services generate income to the host economy. Tourism is a main source of
foreign exchange earnings for at least 38 % of all countries (World Tourism Organisation).
Employment generation
The rapid expansion of international tourism has led to significant employment creation. Tourism can generate jobs directly through hotels,
restaurants, taxis, souvenir sales and indirectly through the supply of goods and services needed by tourism-related businesses; for e.g. conducted
tour operators. Tourism represents around 7 % of the worlds employees (World Tourism Organisation). Stimulation of infrastructure investment
Tourism can influence the local government to improve the infrastructure by creating better water and sewage systems, roads, electricity, telephone
and public transport networks. All this can improve the standard of living for residents as well as facilitate tourism.
Contribution to local economies
Tourism can be a significant or even an essential part of the local economy. As environment is a basic component of the tourism industrys assets,
tourism revenues are often used to measure the economic value of protected areas. Part of the tourism income comes from informal employment,
such as street vendors and informal guides. The positive side of informal or unreported employment is that the money is returned to the local
economy and has a great multiplier effect as it is spent over and over again. The World Travel and Tourism Council estimates that tourism generates
an indirect contribution equal to 100 % of direct tourism expenditures.
Direct financial contributions to nature protection
Tourism can contribute directly to the conservation of sensitive areas and habitats. Revenue from park-entrance fees and similar sources can be
allocated specifically to pay for the protection and management of environmentally sensitive areas. Some governments collect money in more far-
reaching and indirect ways that are not linked to specific parks or conservation areas. User fees, income taxes, taxes on sales or rental of recreation
equipment and license fees for activities such as hunting and fishing can provide governments with the funds needed to manage natural resources.
Competitive advantage
More and more tour operators take an active approach towards sustainability. Not only because consumers expect them to do so but also because
they are aware that intact destinations are essential for the long term survival of the tourism industry. More and more tour operators prefer to work
with suppliers who act in a sustainable manner, e.g. saving water and energy, respecting the local culture and supporting the well being of local
communities. In 2000 the international Tour Operators initiative for Sustainable Tourism was founded with the support of UNEP.
Environmental Management and Planning benefits
Sound and efficient environmental management of tourism facilities and especially hotels (e.g.water and energy saving measures, waste
minimization, use of environmentally friendly material) can decrease the environmental impact of tourism. Planning helps to make choices between
the conflicting interests of industry and tourism, in order to find ways to make them compatible. By planning sustainable tourism development
strategy at an early stage,prevents damages and expensive mistakes , thereby avoiding the gradual deterioration of the quality of environmental
goods and services significant to tourism.
Socio-cultural benefits
Tourism as a force for peace
Travelling brings people into contact with each other. As sustainable tourism has an educational element it can foster understanding between people
and cultures and provide cultural exchange between guests and hosts . This increases the chances for people to develop mutual sympathy, tolerance
and understanding and to reduce prejudices and promote the sense of global brotherhood.
Strengthening communities
Sustainable Coastal Tourism can add to the vitality of communities in many ways. For e.g. events and festivals of the local communities where they
have been the primary participants and spectators. Often these are refreshed, reincarnated and developed in response to tourists interests.
The jobs created by tourism can act as a very important motivation to reduce emigration from rural areas. Local people can also increase their
influence on tourism development, as well as improve their jobs and earnings prospects through tourism-related professional training and
development of business and organizational skills.
Revitalization of culture and traditions
Sustainable Tourism can also improve the preservation and transmission of cultural and historical traditions. Contributing to the conservation and
sustainable management of natural resources can bring usually the chance to protect local heritage or to revitalize native cultures, for instance by
regenerating traditional arts and crafts.
Encouragement social involvement and pride
In some situations, tourism also helps to raise local awareness concerning the financial value of natural and cultural sites. It can stimulate a feeling of
pride in local and national heritage and interest in its conservation. More broadly, the involvement of local communities in sustainable tourism
development and operation seems to be an important condition for the sustainable use and conservation of the biodiversity.
Benefits for the tourists of Sustainable Tourism
The benefits of sustainable tourism for visitors are plenty: they can enjoy unspoiled nature and landscapes, environmental quality of goods or
services(clean air and water), a healthy community with low crime rate, thriving and authentic local culture and traditions.
Source: http://www.netcoast.nl/coastlearn/website/tourism/
Sustainable Tourism Strategy
Analysis of status-quo
Development of previous tourism management or related strategies for the specific area (What can be used? Has it been implemented? Which
lessons are to be learnt?)
A stakeholder analysis (Who has an interest in sustainable tourism development? Who are the main actors?)
Facts and figures of the local educational system, economical and social structure
Anecdotal and traditional knowledge
Methods for collecting this information:
Interviews with stakeholders
Questionnaires distributed and collected by e-mail, fax or personally in oder to compile standardised data and perform a statistical analysis
Invitation to focus group meetings (e.g. meetings on environmental education, biodiversity management, good governance and fisheries)
Literature search in the local library and the internet
Strategy development
A Sustainable Tourism Strategy is based on the information collected . It defines the priority issues, the stakeholder community, the potential
objectives and a set of methodologies to reach these objectives. These include:
Conservation of specific coastal landscapes or habitats that make the area attractive or are protected under nature conservation legislation
Development of regionally specific sectors of the economy that can be interlinked with the tourism sector (e.g. production of food specialities
and handicrafts)
Maximising local revenues from tourism investments
Enabling self-determined cultural development in the region, etc.
Action plan
The Action Plan describes the steps needed to implement the strategy and addressing a number of practical questions such as: which organizations
will take up which activities, over what time frame, by what means and with which resources? As the actions have to be considered on the basis of
regional circumstances, there is no standard action plan for all. However, Action Plans usually include measures in the following fields:
Administration: e.g. promotion of co-operation between sectors and of cross-sectorial development models; involving local people in drafting
tourism policy and decisions
Socio-economical sector: e.g. promoting local purchasing of food and building material; setting up networks of local producers for better
marketing; development of new products to meet the needs of tourists, etc.
Environment: e.g. improving control and enforcement of environmental standards (noise, drinking water, bathing water, waste-water
treatment, etc.); identification and protection of endangered habitats; creation of buffer zones around sensitive natural areas; prohibition of
environmentally harmful sports in jeopardised regions; strict application of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and Strategic Environmental
Assessment procedures on all tourism related projects and programs
Knowledge: training people involved in coastal tourism about the value of historical heritage; environmental management; training protected
area management staff in nature interpretation; raising environmental awareness among the local population; introducing a visitors
information programme (including environmental information)
Source: http://www.netcoast.nl/coastlearn/website/tourism/
Conclusions
During the last century, beaches have completely reversed their role: they have become the driving force behind the economic welfare instead of
just being an inhospitable place. However, the demographic pressure and the overuse of the territory related to those factors, in
the hinterland (dams in the rivers, farming and tourism) as well as in the proper beach (sewage discharge, dry goods extraction and crops) have
caused a general decrease in the contribution of sediments to the beaches with a continental or a marine origin. It is hard to find a unique solution
for all those problems. However, it should be absolutely essential to follow these points:
First, an Integrated Coastal Zone Management
Second, a better dissemination of the existing information should be achieved. For that purpose, a better coordination of the existing
governmental bodies that deal with coastal management is necessary.
Third, an improvement of the environmental education is essential for a sustainable development of the coast.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/urban_environments/urbanisation_medcs_rev1.shtml
Urbanisation can cause problems such as transport congestion, lack of sufficient housing, over-rapid growth and environmental degradation. Many
cities display particularly sharp inequalities in housing provision, health and employment.
Some people try to escape these problems by moving away from the city - a process called counter-urbanisation. Long term, however, the solution
must be to make cities more sustainable.
Causes of urbanisation
Urbanisation means an increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas compared to rural areas. An urban area is a built-up area such as a
town or city. A rural area is an area of countryside.
As a country industrialises, the number of people living in urban areas tends to increase. The UK and many other MEDCs urbanised during the 18th
and 19th centuries. People migrated from rural areas (due to the mechanisation in farming) to urban areas where there was employment in the new
factories. The area of cities known as the inner city developed during this time as rows of terraced housing were built for workers.
Today the UK is a mostly urban society, with 90 per cent of the population living in towns or cities.
On a global scale, urbanisation is taking place rapidly, particularly in LEDCs.
Although the UK is an urban society, more and more people are choosing to live on the edge of urban areas - with many relocating to the
countryside. This is called counter-urbanisation.