INTRODUCTION

The aim of this section of the document at hand is to answer questions such as: Whats the best
frame option for my building? How deep? What span? in the context of the Ethiopian
construction industry.

At the start of each project, a decision is made about the form and material of the structural
frame. These key decisions are frequently influenced by whatever frame the contractor, client,
QS or engineer may have used on a previous building. In Ethiopia, almost all buildings are
designed as concrete framed buildings for obvious reasons. We try to go a step further in this
report in explaining why concrete is the best option for our design as well as discussing the
various types of concrete frames that can be constructed in Ethiopia and sifting through some
common misconceptions within the Ethiopian construction industry.

Construction should not just be about achieving the cheapest building possible, but providing
best value for the client. The best value may be about costs, but also includes speed of
construction, robustness, durability, sustainability, lettable space, etc. Notes on how concrete
meets these value criteria are included here, both in the general case and specifically for the
frame option selected for our design. Sustainability is becoming more and more of an issue in
todays world. We believe that concrete can help provide a sustainable solution to the changing
climate, through the use of its high thermal mass. Concrete is also locally sourced, indeed the
raw materials for concrete are ubiquitous, and at the end of its life, it is fully recyclable.

BENEFITS OF CONCRETE FRAMED BUILDINGS

Concretes unique flexibility provides a wide range of framing options and design/construction
solutions to suit our designs exact needs. Later pages outline particular benefits and constraints.
In assessing suitability, we have considered the following issues to achieve the best solution.

Whole Life Value

The frame is the key structural element of any building. Frame choice and design can have a
surprisingly influential role in the performance of the final structure, and importantly, also
influence people using the building. However, cost alone should not dictate frame choice. Many
issues should be considered when choosing the optimum structural solution and frame material
that give best value for the construction and operational stages. Inherent benefits fabric energy
storage, fire resistance and sound insulation mean that concrete buildings tend to have lower
operating costs and lower maintenance requirements. This is an important consideration,
particularly for owner and occupiers of the building.

Cost and Programme

Generally, insitu concrete-framed buildings can be constructed relatively quick. Prerequisites for
fast construction in any material are design discipline, repetition, integration, simplification and
standardisation of design details.
Rationalising reinforcement, designing and detailing for prefabrication, precasting or part-
precasting can help progress concrete construction on site. Many contractors appreciate the
opportunity to discuss buildability and influence designs for construction. More important,
however, is the whole project programme. Concrete provides a safe working platform and semi-
internal conditions, allowing services installation and follow-on trades to commence early in the
programme, while flexibility allows accommodation of design changes later in the process. The
point illustrated here is further explained in the flat slabs section of this report.

Speed of construction
Concrete is highly compatible with fast programme construction, from rapid mobilisation at the
start though modern methods of construction, including sophisticated formwork systems, post-
tensioning, and precast elements. Modern formwork systems have markedly increased
construction rates. The speed of the various forms of concrete construction that is available in
Ethiopia (based on the data that our office has collected from various construction projects that
we have been involved in) is given below:
START ON SITE
LEAD-IN TIME (WEEKS) SPEED ON SITE (WEEKS / 1000sqm / CRANE)
SLAB CONSTRUCTION 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
FLAT SLAB
RIBBED SLAB
WAFFLE SLAB
ONE-WAY SLAB AND BAND BEAM
TWO-WAY SLAB AND BEAM

DEPTH (mm) SPAN (m)

800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
FLAT SLABS
TROUGHED SLABS
ONE WAY SLABS

Frame costs
While recent price rises in reinforcement and structural steel have increased frame costs, it is
therefore very important to consider that impact the type of frame choice will have on the cost
of the full fitted-out building costs. This is very important inn the Ethiopian context as there is
the misconception amongst many professionals that ribbed slab solution is by-far the most
economical when in actual fact it is not. Each type of frame that is currently used in Ethiopia has
its merits, and adverse as well as beneficial impacts on the type of building that is being designed.
Generally, the cost of the frame alone is not a sufficient cost driver. We have therefore looked at
the complete cost of the building with regards to the type of frame to make the right selection.

Foundation costs
Foundations typically represent approximately 3% of whole project initial cost. For the heaviest
reinforced concrete solution, foundations will be more expensive, but still represent only a small
percentage of the whole and can be offset by using various techniques which are discussed on
the appendix of this report.
Cladding costs
The thinner the overall structural and services zone, the less the cladding costs. Cladding can
represent up to 25% of the construction cost, so it is worth minimising the cladding area. This can
be achieved with a concrete flat slab and separate services zone.

Performance in Use
Fire protection
Inherent fire resistance means concrete structures generally do not require additional fire
protection. This removes time, costs, use of a separate trade and ongoing maintenance to applied
fire protection. In addition to this, while developing the structural conceptual design, we have
considered the environmental exposure conditions at Bahir-Dar and selected and selected a
concrete specification that meets this requirement as well as a minimum of 120-minute fire
resistance.

Acoustics
The inherent mass of concrete means additional finishings are minimised or even eliminated.
Independent testing of 250mm thick concrete floors in a new tunnel form block of student
accommodation gave results exceeding requirements by more than 5dB for both airborne and
impact sound insulation.

Vibration control
For concrete buildings, vibration criteria for most uses are covered without any change to the
normal design. For some uses, such as laboratories or hospitals, additional measures may be
needed, but these are significantly less than for other materials.

Co-ordination / Design flexibility

Concrete can be used in a variety of ways to suit the designer, the client, the building and the site
using cast insitu concrete, or precast concrete from the factory or made on site. It is important
to consider possible forms of construction in the earliest design stages, allowing change to be
easily effected, and value unlocked. Services co-ordination and installation Mechanical and
electrical services are an expensive and programme-critical element in construction, with
significant maintenance and replacement issues. The soffit of a concrete flat slab provides a zone
for services distribution free of any downstand beams. This reduces design team coordination
effort and risk of errors. It allows flexibility in design and adaptability in use. A flat soffit permits
maximum off site fabrication of services, higher quality work and quicker installation. M&E
contractors quote an additional cost of horizontal services distribution below a profiled slab of
up to 15%. Openings in the slab for service risers can be accommodated simply during design,
and formed during casting, or cut later to suit. For the longest spans, wide shallow beam solutions
provide large areas uninterrupted by secondary beams, and the freedom to route ducts under
the shallow main beams.

Environmental
The environmental impacts of developments are increasingly considered during initial design.
Concrete has many environmental benefits in construction, and, most importantly, during use.
Thermal mass
A concrete structure has a high thermal mass. Exposed soffits allow for, regulating temperature
swings. This can reduce initial plant costs and ongoing operational costs, while converting plant
space to usable space. With the outlook of increasingly hot climates, it makes sense to choose a
material that reduces the requirement for energy intensive, high maintenance air-conditioning.

Other environmental benefits

Concrete is durable, frequently allowing building reuse, rather than replacement. Demolished,
concrete is 100% recyclable, as are reinforcing bars. The constituent parts of concrete (water,
cement and aggregate) are all readily and locally available to any construction site, keeping any
impact of transporting raw materials low.

Other Benefits
Robustness and vandal resistance
Concrete is, by its nature, very robust, capable of withstanding explosions, accidental damage
and vandalism.

Minimal maintenance
Unlike other materials, concrete does not need any environmentally unfriendly coatings or paint
to protect it against deterioration. Properly designed concrete is maintenance free.

Adaptability
Markets and working practices are constantly changing, therefore it makes sense to consider a
material that can accommodate changing needs or be adapted with minimum effort. A concrete
frame can easily be adapted to other uses. Holes can be cut through slabs and walls relatively
simply, while there are methods to strengthen the frame if required.

Partitions
Sealing and fire stopping at partition heads is simplest with flat soffits. Significant savings of up
to 10% of the partitions package can be made compared to the equivalent dry lining package
abutting a profiled soffit with downstands. This can represent up to 4% of the frame cost, and a
significant reduction in programme length.

Aesthetics
Internal fair-faced concrete can be both aesthetically pleasing and durable, ensuring buildings
keep looking good with little maintenance. Precast concrete cladding also looks good. It is
available in many different colours, textures and finishes
CHOICE OF STRUCTURAL FORMS
Having considered all the above options, the following forms of construction have been selected
for the various types of buildings in our design.

Flat slabs
Flat slabs are very popular for office
buildings, hospitals, hotels and blocks of
apartments as they are quick and easy to
construct. They are very economical for
spans of 5 to 9 m and commonly used up
to 12 m span. Their flat soffits allow easy
service distribution.

Advantages/disadvantages
These slabs are easy and fast to construct,
and the architectural finish can be applied
directly to the underside of the slab. The
absence of beams allows lower storey
heights and flexibility of both partition location and horizontal service distribution. It is easy to
seal partitions for airtightness, fire protection and acoustic isolation. However, the provision of
large holes can prove difficult, especially near perimeter columns. Punching shear should be
checked and provided for.

Construction
Construction of flat slabs is one of
the quickest methods available.
Table forms can be used; these are
becoming more lightweight so that
larger areas can be constructed on
one table form, with formwork
lifted by crane. Table forms should
be used as repetitively as possible
to take most advantage of the
construction method. Downstand
beams should be avoided wherever
possible as forming beams
significantly slows construction.
Edge beams need not be used for most cladding loads. Reinforcement should be rationalised
fairly heavily as this gives the most economical solution. (see figure to the left).
 Lead times
MARKETS: Lead times are very short as this is one of the most common
forms of construction. If contractor reinforcement detailing
Residential
or prefabricated reinforcement is used, lengthen lead time
Commercial
to allow for production and checking of detailing
Hospitals
information.
Laboratories
Schools
Procuring
Offices
This is one of the most common forms of concrete
Hotels
construction. Almost all contractors in Ethiopia, with the
BENEFITS: right supervision are able to construct this type of slab.
Cost
Cost/whole life cost/value
Speed
Flat slabs are particularly appropriate for areas where tops of
Flexibility
partitions need to be sealed to the slab soffit for acoustic or
Sound control
fire reasons. It is frequently the reason for flat slab to be
Fire resistance
considered faster and more economic than other forms of
Robustness
construction, as partition heads do not need to be cut around
Thermal mass
downstand beams or ribs. Flat slabs can be designed with a
Durable finishes
good surface finish to the soffit, allowing exposed soffits to
be used. This allows exploitation of the buildings thermal
mass in the design of HVAC requirements, increasing energy efficiency.

Speed on site
With table forms, the average speed on site of flat slabs is approximately 500m2/crane/week.

Mechanical and electrical services

Flat slabs provide the most flexible arrangements for services distribution as services do not have
to divert around structural elements. Holes through the slab close to the column head affect the
design shear perimeter of the column head. Holes next to the column should be small and limited
to two. These should be on opposite sides rather than on adjacent sides of the column. It is worth
setting out rules for the size and location of these holes early in the design stage to allow
coordination. Large service holes should be located away from the column strips and column
heads in the centre of the bays. Again, location and size of any holes should be agreed early in
the design.

Health and safety

Modern table forms can incorporate all edge protection and provide a robust working platform
One-way solid slabs
One-way in-situ solid slabs are the
most basic form of slab. Deflection
usually governs the design, and steel
content is usually increased to reduce
service stress and increase span
capacity. Generally employed for
utilitarian purposes in offices, retail
developments, warehouses, stores
and similar buildings. Can be
economical for spans from 4 to 6 m.

Advantages/disadvantages
One-way in-situ solid slabs are simple to construct and the provision of holes causes few
structural problems. However, the associated downstand beams may deter fast formwork cycles
and can result in greater storey height.

Construction
MARKETS:
Beam and slab construction involves the use of one or two
Transfer structures way spanning slabs onto beams spanning in one or two
Heavily loaded directions. The beams can be wide and flat or narrow and
slabs deep, depending on the structures requirements. Beams
Long spans tend to span between columns or walls and can be simply
(utilisation of supported or continuous. This form of construction is
beam) commonly used for irregular grids and long spans, where flat
slabs are unsuitable. It is also used for transferring columns,
BENEFITS:
walls or heavy point loads to columns or walls below. It is not
Flexibility a fast method of construction as formwork tends to be
Sound control labour intensive. As there are very large clear spans with
Fire resistance heavy roof loads (as shown in the sketch below) in our
Robustness design, this method of construction has been chosen to span
Thermal mass the distances needed by using deep beams. It should be
understood that the beams are the structural elements that
bridge the gap and not the slab the span a relatively short
distance between the beams

Design
This is a very common form of construction and as such is well covered in standard codes and
guidance. Beams can be designed as either L or T beams using the slab as a flange.

Construction
The formwork tends not to be reused. Beam reinforcement can be prefabricated and craned into
place. Slabs tend to be lightly reinforced and can normally be reinforced with standard mesh.
Lead times
Fast lead times as formwork tends to be made on site.

Procuring
All concrete frame contractors, and indeed general builders, are able to do this type of work.

Speed on site
Slow and laborious on site due to time for formwork and fixing reinforcement in the beams.

Mechanical and electrical services

Wide band beams can have less effect on the horizontal distribution of the M&E services than
deep beams which tend to be more difficult to negotiate, particularly if spanning in both
directions. Any holes put into the web of the beam to ease the passage of the services must be
coordinated. Vertical distribution of services can be located anywhere in the slab zone, but holes
through beams need to be designed into the structure at an early stage.

Health and safety

Most of the work is undertaken on site; therefore, care is needed with all operations. Formwork
should include all guard rails.
Appendix

Here we discuss techniques that can be used to further make the structural frame more efficient
and significantly reduce cost of the in the entire structural elements of the building. These
methods have never been utilised in Ethiopia and if we are able to utilise these techniques in the
project, we will not only save the owner a great deal of money, but also set a pioneering trend
for the rest of the construction industry.

Item 1
Composite biaxial voided flat slabs
This system, which uses plastic spheres as void formers, enables true two-way flat slab design,
fast construction and a high quality flat soffit. Spans of up to 17 metres are possible. Precast
plates act as permanent
formwork and are provided
with two-way reinforcement
and shear links cast in. The
plates are typically aligned with
the slab span and delivered in
panels up to 12 metres long by
2.4 metres wide. Bottom mat
splice steel and all top steel is
provided and fixed by the
contractor before the topping
is cast.

Advantages/disadvantages
This system is fast to construct and the flat soffits allow easy service installation. Enhanced shear
strength is provided around columns by removing void formers. The voids reduce the self-weight
by 20% to 25% compared with solid flat slab floors but tend to increase deflection. Early supplier
involvement is required to gain maximum benefit. In the Ethiopian context, such a technique can
be utilised and assist in reducing the amount of plastic waste that is being dumped in landfill
sites. This technique will help by creating jobs in the logistics involved in collecting these plastic
wastes thereby making its advantage threefold.

Item 2
Cellular light weight infill blocks (CLWB)
Cellular light weight infill blocks C(LWB) or reduced density concrete, is defined as a cement
based slurry, with a minimum of 20% (per volume) air entrained into the plastic mortar. As
mostly no coarse aggregate is used for production of air entrained concrete the correct term
would be called mortar instead of concrete. CLWB is a versatile building material with a simple
production method that is relatively inexpensive. CLWB is produced in a variety of densities from
400 kg/m to 1,600 kg/m depending on the application. Lighter density products may be cut into
 different sizes. While the product is
considered a form of concrete (with
air bubbles replacing aggregate), its
high thermal and acoustical
insulating qualities make it a very
different application than
conventional concrete.

Advantages
Weight reduction of superstructure using CLWB concrete walls: less steel reinforcements
required for slabs, columns, beams and foundation due to lesser load.
Earthquake-resistant due to lesser weight of building built using CLWB concrete walls in
multi-storey buildings
Suitable for buildings in hurricane, cyclone and flood affected areas as the damage caused by
foam concrete walls and roofs are minimal compared to conventional concrete based
structures.
Reduced cost of raw materials: By adding air, enclosed in foam bubbles, the volume of
concrete can be increased at very low cost.
Environmentally-friendly/Energy savings: In comparison to autoclaved aerated
concrete (AAC/ gas concrete), air curing is possible for foam concrete. This saves up to 9 m
of gas for curing one cubic meter of AAC and therefore protects our environment.
Cost reduction for transportation and storage: Less raw materials, very efficient foam
concentrate.
Faster construction using cast-in-situ application
Improved thermal insulation: Foam concrete can achieve the same insulation results as
normal concrete with only 20% of the weight and 10% of raw materials
Improved fire protection: A wall of 13 cm thickness and 1,250 kg/m can withstand a fire for
5 hours. A wall of 10 cm thickness and only 400 kg/m achieves the same result, due to the
air enclosed in the cellular concrete.
Easy to use/ produce/ handle
Low investment: Just one simple machine required
High flowing capability: Can fill hollow spaces
Low water absorption: Only 1015%