Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Metal
Working:
Series
of
opera+ons
that
involve
cu3ng,
bending
and
drawing
sheet
metal.
Sheet
metal
(from
0.4mm
or
1/64in
to
6mm
or
1/4in
thickness);
Plate
(from
6mm
upwards).
Opera+ons
are
usually
performed
as
cold
working.
Advantages
of
Sheet
Metal:
Thickness=
0.4
to
6
mm
(1/64
to
1/4
in)
Rela+vely
low
cost.
Good
dimensional
accuracy
and
good
surface
nish.
High
strength
Basic
Types
of
Sheet
Metal
Opera<ons
Cu3ng:
It
involves
processes
such
as
punching,
shearing
and
blanking.
Bending:
Deform
the
sheet
around
a
straight
axis.
Drawing:
Deform
the
sheet
into
convex
or
concave
shapes.
Mechanical
Proper<es
of
Sheet
Material
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nance.pipex.com
Shearing:
Shearing
of
sheet
metal
between
two
cu3ng
edges:
(1) just
before
the
punch
contacts
work
(2) punch
begins
to
push
into
work,
causing
plas+c
deforma+on;
(3) punch
compresses
and
penetrates
into
work
causing
a
smooth
cut
surface;
(4) fracture
is
ini+ated
at
the
opposing
cu3ng
edges
which
separates
the
sheet.
E.V.
crane,
Plas+c
Working
in
Presses,
John
Wiley
and
Sons,
Inc.,
New
York,
1948,
p.
36
Fineblanked surface of the same component as shown. (Courtesy of Feintool Equipment Corp., Cincinnati, OH.)
Clearance:
It
is
dened
as
the
distance
between
the
punch
cu3ng
edge
and
the
die
cu3ng
edge.
It
depends
on
the
hardness
and
thickness
of
the
material.
As
the
thickness
increases,
the
clearance
must
increase.
The
clearance
typical
values
ranges
from
4%
to
8%
of
the
thickness
of
the
material.
The
recommended
clearance
is
calculated
by:
c=a.t
where
c=clearance,
t=thickness
and
a=allowance
Metal
group
a
_
aluminum
alloys
(1100,
5052)
0.045
Die
size
determines
blank
size
Db;
punch
aluminum
alloys
(2024
and
6061);
brass,
0.060
size
determines
hole
size
Dh.;
c
=
clearance
so?
cold
rolled
steel,
so?
stainless
steel
cold
rolled
steel,
stainless
steel,
(hard
&
half-hard)
0.075
For
a
round
blank
of
diameter
Db
is
determined
as:
Blank
punch
diameter
=
Db
-
2c
Blank
die
diameter
=
Db
For
a
round
hole
(piercing)
of
diameter
Dh
is
determined
as:
Hole
punch
diameter
=
Dh
Hole
die
diameter
=
Db
+
2c
Forces
in
a
Punching
Opera<on
Angular
Clearance:
Allows
the
blank
or
the
slug
to
drop
L
=
Total
length
Sheared
o
easily.
Typical
values
t
=
thickness
ranges
from
0.25degrees
to
Force = 0.7 UTS t L 1.5
degrees
Forming
Proper<es
of
Sheet
Metal
Sheet
metal,
due
to
its
manufacturing
process
is
Typical
Range
of
Average
Normal
Anisotropy
(Ravg)
for
various
Sheet
Metals
not
an
isotropic
material.
Anisotropy
is
caused
by
the
thermal
processing
of
the
sheet.
Two
types,
Zinc
0.2
namely
crystallographic
anisotropy
and
mechanical
Hot
rolled
steel
0.8-1.0
bering.
Example:
Low
carbon
steel
exhibits
an
upper
Cold
rolled
rimmed
steel
1.0-1.35
and
lower
yield
strength.
As
a
result
during
Cold
rimmed
aluminumkilled
steel
1.35-1.8
deforma+on,
it
shows
stretch
strain
bands
Aluminum
0.6-0.8
(Lueders
bands).
These
can
be
eliminated
by
a
reduc+on
of
thickness
of
0.5
to
1.5%
by
cold
Copper
and
Brass
0.8-1.0
rolling.
Titanium
4-6
Example
Es+mate
the
force
required
for
punching
a
25mm
diameter
hole
through
a
3.2mm
thick
annealed
+tanium
alloy
Ti-6Al-4V
sheet
at
room
temperature.
Data:
UTS
=
1000MPa
Trimming:
Cu3ng
scrap
or
excess
material
for
a
fully
or
par+ally
shaped
part
Shaving:
Finishing
opera+on
of
a
previously
cut
edge
by
removing
a
minimum
amount
of
material.
Progressive
Stamping
Dies
Common
method
to
handle
complex
parts
Deep
Drawing
Complex
3D
shapes
can
be
made
out
of
sheet
metal.
Blanking
Deep Drawing
Re-drawing
Ironing
Doming
Necking
Seaming
Usually
a
cold
working
process.
A
punch
forces
a
at
sheet
metal
into
a
deep
die
cavity.
The
die
cavity
is
usually
circular
or
rectangular.
When
the
depth
of
the
product
is
greater
than
its
diameter,
it
is
known
as
Deep
Drawing
and
when
the
depth
of
the
product
is
less
than
is
diameter,
it
is
known
as
Shallow
Drawing.
The
sheet
metal
is
supported
on
both
sides
by
the
blankholder,
to
avoid
wrinkling
If
the
Hold-down
pressure
(blankholder
force)
is
too
high
the
www.endo-mfg.co.jp
sheet
will
tear
and
if
it
is
too
low
it
will
wrink.
Draw
beads
may
be
used
to
control
metal
ow.
Es<ma<on
of
the
Blank
Diameter
2 2
Do = d1 + d1h Do = d12 + 4d1h
4 4
Formability
Test:
Deforma+on
in
sheet
materials
are
carried
out
by
either
stretching
and/or
drawing.
The
ability
of
the
sheet
to
withstand
large
degrees
of
streching
or
drawing
deforma+on
(shape
change)
without
failure
is
known
as
formability.
Reduc<on:
Dblank Dpunch
The
value
of
the
reduc+on
(r)
should
be
less
than
0.5
for
reduction = r =
a
cylinder.
Dblank
The
star+ng
diameter
of
the
blank
must
be
of
the
right
size
for
the
nal
dimensions
of
the
cup
to
be
correct.
Assume
constant
volume
and
neglect
any
thinning
during
the
process.
Example:
Determine
if
the
following
is
feasible
for
manufacturing:
A
cylindrical
cup
with
an
inside
diameter
of
3.0in
and
height
of
2.0in.
Its
star+ng
blank
size
id
5.5in
and
its
thickness
3/32in.
Dblank 5.5
DR = = = 1.833 < 2
Dpunch 3.0
A
special
deep-drawing
steel
showed
a
30%
longitudinal
elonga+on
and
16%
decrease
in
thickness
when
it
is
subjected
to
a
tensile
test.
Es+mate
the
limi+ng
drawing
ra+o
(LDR)
for
this
steel.
l lo l
= 0.3 = 1.3 ln (1.3) = 0.26236
lo lo
w wo w
= 0.16 = 0.84 ln ( 0.84) = 0.1743
wo wo
R=
( w)
ln wo
=
( w)
=
ln ( 1 ln wo
0.84 ) = 1.98
ln ( h ) ln ( wl
wl )
o ln ( 0.84 1.3)
h o o
(! D $ +
Fmax = Dpt (UTS )*## b && 0.7-
*)" Dp % -,
Wrinkling
can
be
reduced
if
a
blankholder
is
loaded
by
maximum
punch
force
The
force
increases
with
increasing
blank
diameter,
thickness,
strength
and
the
ra+o
Bending
Some
sheet
are
bend
along
certain
lines
to
produce
a
desired
shape.
Bending
introduces
plas+c
deforma+on
to
the
part
and
it
should
remain
in
the
desired
shape
(angle)
aper
the
load
is
released.
Spring-back
is
the
part
of
deforma+on
(the
elas+c
part)
that
recovers
in
the
plas+cally
deformed
material
once
the
load
has
been
released.
Lb = ( R + kt ) = o ( Ro + kt ) = f ( R f + kt )
As
the
part
is
bended,
the
longitudinal
dimension
of
the
at
length
is
increased.
The
bend
allowance
is
the
amount
of
material
that
need
to
be
added
to
the
ange
dimensions
(leg
parts)
in
other
to
develop
a
at
paYern.
Example:
suppose
that
anges
lengths
of
2
and
3
with
an
inside
radius
of
0.250
at
90degrees
are
required.
Then
the
at
dimensions
are
(2-(0.25+0.125))
and
(3-(0.25+0.125)),
i.e
1.625
and
2.625
respec+vely.
The
length
of
the
at
sheet
(bend
allowance)
is
1.625
+
2.625
+
0.457
=
4.707
Bend
deduc<on:
It
is
the
amount
of
material
that
has
to
be
removed
from
the
sum
of
the
anges
to
obtain
a
at
paYern.
! 90 $
Lb = ( R + kt ) = # & ( 0.250 + 0.33 0.125) = 0.457
" 180 %
Springback
Aper
releasing
the
pressure
of
the
forming
tool,
the
deformed
work-
piece
experience
a
dimensional
change
(strain)
due
to
the
elas+c
recovery
of
the
material.
Sprinback
is
found
in
all
forming
opera+ons,
but
is
is
more
pronounced
in
bending.
As
the
yield
strength
of
the
material
increases
or
as
the
Modulus
of
elas+city
decreases
the
springback
deforma+on
increases.
A
0.0359in
thickness
sheet
(20-gage)
is
bent
to
a
radius
of
0.5in.
Calculate
the
radius
of
the
part
aper
it
is
bent
and
the
required
bend
angle
to
achieve
a
90o
bend
aper
springback
has
occurred.
Data:
Yield
Strength=40000psi;
E=29x106psi
3
Ro ! Ro yield $ Ro yield
= 4# & 3 +1
Rf " Et % Et
3
0.5 ! 0.5 40000 $ 0.5 40000
= 4# 6 & 3 6
+1 = 0.942
Rf " 29 10 0.0359 % 29 10 0.0359
R f = 0.531in
Lb = o ( Ro + kt ) = f ( R f + kt )
! 0.0359 $ ! 0.0359 $
o # 0.5 + & = 90 # 0.531+ &
" 2 % " 2 %
o = 95.4 o
Bending
Force
K L UTS t 2
The
bending
load
can
be
calculated
from
the
following
equa+on:
Fb =
Where
UTS
is
the
ul+mate
tensile
strength
of
the
material
(psi);
W
L
is
the
length
of
the
bent
part
(in),
t
is
the
thickness
(in);
W
is
the
width
between
the
contact
points
(in)
or
8t
for
V-bends
K
is
1.3
for
die
opening
of
8t,
1.20
for
die
opening
of
16t,
0.67
for
U-bending,
0.33
for
a
wiping
die
Example:
Es+mate
the
force
required
for
a
90
degrees
bending
of
a
St
50
steel
of
thickness
of
2mm
in
a
V
die.
The
die
opening
can
be
taken
as
eight
+mes
the
thickness.
The
length
of
the
part
is
1m.
Length
L
=
1.75,
and
the
length
of
the
part
is:
1.5
+1.00
+
BA.
R/t
=
0.187/0.125
=
1.5
<
2.0,
so
Kba
=
0.33
For
an
included
angle
A
=
1200,
then
A
=
600
! 60 $
Lb = ( R + kt ) = # & ( 0.187 + 0.33 0.125) = 0.239"
" 180 %
Length = 1.5 +1.0 + 0.239 = 2.739"
Force:
F=
(KbfTSLt2)/W
=
1.33
(65,000)(1.75)(0.125)2/1.0
=
2,364
lb
2
K L UTS t 1.331.75 65000 ( 0.125)2
Fb = = = 2364lb
W 1
Bending
and
Forming
Tubes
Stretch-Forming
The
form
die
is
pressed
into
the
work
with
force
Fdie,
causing
it
to
be
stretched
and
bent
over
the
form.
F
=
stretching
force.
It
is
used
extensively
in
the
aircrap
industry
to
produce
parts
of
large
radius
of
curvature.
The
materials
used
are
very
duc+le.
Spinning
Ideal
for
Lower
produc+on
volumes
Large
parts
Inexpensive
tooling
www.dissco.co.nz
www.ashfordmetalspinning.co.uk
www.tradi+onal-building.com
(a)
Schema+c
illustra+on
of
the
shear-spinning
process
for
making
conical
parts.
The
mandrel
can
be
shaped
so
that
curvilinear
parts
can
be
spun.
(b)
and
(c)
Schema+c
illustra+ons
of
the
tube-spinning
process
Roll
Bending
Large
metal
sheets
and
plates
are
formed
into
curved
sec+ons
using
rolls
A
pinched
aluminum
can,
produced
from
a
pulsed
magne+c
eld
created
by
rapidly
discharging
2
kilojoules
from
a
high
voltage
capacitor
bank
into
a
3-turn
coil
of
heavy
gauge
wire.
Source:
Bert
Hickman,
Stoneridge
Engineering.
Hydroforming