1.

Introduction

The Potwar Basin is the main source of petroleum hydrocarbons in northern

Pakistan. A number of small and medium-sized oil and gas fields have been
discovered from both terrigenous and marine source rocks in the basin. These oil
fields are in Precambrian to Tertiary aged reservoir units. The Paleocene Patala
Formation type II and III kerogens have been assumed to be the primary source of
hydrocarbons in the area, but other potential source rocks may have also contributed
to different parts of the petroleum systems within the basin (Wandrey et al., 2004;
Fazeelat et al., 2010). The oldest potential source rocks are from the Precambrian Salt
Range Formation with a mixture of clastic, carbonate and evaporite dominant
sections. Similarly, Permian Tobra. Dandot, Sardhai, and Chhidru formations have
significantly higher total organic carbon (TOC) contents and are possible source rocks
(Quadri and Quadri, 1997). In the past, a limited number of studies have been carried
out mainly based on RockEval pyrolysis data (Ahmed and Alam, 1990; Fazeelat et
al., 2010) and studies of the saturated hydrocarbon (HC) distributions (Fazeelat, 1994;
Ahmed and Alam, 2007) from the area. Recently, a biodegraded oil seep and a crude
oil from the Potwar Basin have been correlated based on their biomarker distributions
(Fazeelat et al., 2011). Organic geochemical data, particular biomarkers from
potential source rocks in the Potwar Basin, have never been reported, nor has a
detailed oiloil correlation ever been undertaken. Biomarkers (based on structural
grounds) in bituminous organic matter (OM) can provide valuable information on: (i)
the source of their natural product precursors (i.e. Eukaryotes, Prokaryotes and
Archaea), (ii) paleoenvironmental depositional conditions (marine, lacustrine,
hypersaline or fluvio-deltaic), (iii) lithology of potential petroleum source rocks
(carbonate versus shale), (iv) relative thermal maturity of potential source rocks and
(v) extent of biodegradation of petroleum HCs. However, many of the above factors
are often interrelated and have been considered collectively for correlation studies
(e.g. Murray and Boreham, 1992). Variation in biomarker abundance has been used
successfully for oil correlation between source rocks and/or other oils (e.g. Jiang and
Li, 2002; Obermajer et al., 2002; Pasadakis et al., 2004; Zhang and Huang, 2005). In
the current study, organic geochemical parameters based on biomarker distributions
of saturated HC fractions have been used to investigate the source and thermal
maturity of OM, depositional paleoenvironment, lithology and extent of
biodegradation of HCs from the Potwar Basin (Upper Indus Basin, Pakistan). Heavy
to light crude oils have been identified in a small region of the Potwar Basin. The
causes for these differences in physical properties are presently unknown. The
possible reasons for these different crude oil types are related to the complex geology
of the area and/or differences in the source of OM and its environment of deposition.

Figure 1.1. Map showing location of the Study Area

2. Previous literature

Adhi is a salt-cored typical pop-up structure bounded by thrusts, which rather

circumvent the popped-up core. The three main reservoirs are Sakesar carbonates
(Eocene) that produce oil of varying API gravity ranging from 22-40, and Tobra
conglomerates (Permian) and Khewra clastics (lower Cambrian) which produce
52 API condensate from the core area. However, Adhi 14 which was drilled
outside the core area tested 40 API condensate from Tobra and 26 API oil from
Khewra. The Eocene to Cambrian package is about 450-500 m thick, which
overlies Salt Range Formation (Infracambrian). In Adhi-13, which was drilled at
the apex of the core, the top Eocene was encountered at about 2200m. In Adhi-14,
 so far the deepest well and the first to be drilled across the thrust north of the core
area, top Eocene was encountered at about 2,950 m. The Sakesar is found to be
water bearing on the flanks of the core and across the thrust. The salt served as the
decollement surface and has played the major role in the present structural
geometry.

3. Regional Geology

The geological structure of the Potwar Basin is very complex due to the result of
the Tertiary Himalayan collision between the Eurasian and Indian plates (Farah et al.,
1984). This intense tectonic activity has significantly overthrust the Himalayan in the
north and northwest and a series of faulted and unfaulted anticlines developed as the
result of the multiple detachments of deep surfaces from Cambrian. The Potwar Basin
contains mostly carbonate reservoir rocks of Precambrian to Tertiary ages. The basin
infill started with thick Precambrian evaporite deposits overlain by relatively thin
Cambrian to Eocene age deposits followed by thick MiocenePliocene deposits. The
Precambrian salt deposits provided an easy detachment of Eocene-to-Cambrian (EC)
sequences as a result of intense tectonic activity during Himalayan Orogeny during
the Pliocene to middle Pleistocene. This EC sequence in the Potwar Basin affected
by compressional forces has generated a large number of folds and faults in the area
(Aamir and Siddiqui, 2006). These folds and faults have formed many small
reservoirs and thus crude oils discovered in the Potwar Basin have shown to be
derived from a range of geological formations. The generalized tectonic map of
Pakistan is shown in Fig. 2 and generalized Stratigraphic column map is shown in Fig.
3
Figure 2. Generalized tectonic map of Pakistan.
Figure 3. Generalized Stratigraphic column of the study area.
 4. Petroleum System

Source Rock

Based on Petroconsultants well and field data (Petroconsultants, 1996).

hydrocarbons from multiple sources making further subdivision more difficult. The
Paleocene Patala Formation appears to be the primary source of hydrocarbons, but
other potential source rocks may be contributing in different parts of the basin. There
are several potential source rocks in the Potwar geologic province. These include the
Late ProterozoicLower Cambrian Salt Range; Permian Wargal, Sardhai, and
Chhidru; Paleocene Lockhart; and Eocene Patala Formations (OGDC, 1996; Quadri
and Quadri, 1996. The oldest potential source rocks are in the Salt Range Formation,
which consists of a clastic-dominated lower section, carbonate-dominated middle
section, and an evaporite dominated upper section. Potential source-rock intervals are
found primarily in the upper evaporite sequence. The Permian Sardhai and Chhidru,
although sandy, have sufficiently high total organic carbon (TOC) values to have
source-rock potential (Quadri and Quadri, 1997). The shallow marine shales of the
Eocene Patala Formation, ranging in thickness from 20 to 180 m, are the probable
predominant oil source in the Potwar Basin (OGDC, 1996, oral commun.). Patala
TOC ranges from 0.5 per- Cretaceous, 0.5 to 0.9 percent for Jurassic, and 0.65 to 0.95
percent for Permian rocks (Tobin and Claxton, 2000). North of the main boundary
thrust fault, maturities are higher. In the northern and probably central basin,
Cretaceous rocks are in the 1.0 to 1.6 percent Ro range. Dry gas generation begins
near 1.3 percent Ro. Generation and Migration Generation of hydrocarbons most
likely began in Late Cretaceous time for Cambrian through Lower Cretaceous source
rocks and again from Pliocene time to the present for younger source rocks (OGDC,
1996). Burial-history plots by Law and others (1998) (fi g. 20) start at about 30 Ma
and there vertically into adjacent reservoirs and through faults and fractures
associated with plate collision and thrusting.

Reservoir Rocks

Reservoir rocks include Miocene alluvial sandstones, Paleogene shelf

carbonates, Jurassic and Permian continental sandstones, and Cambrian alluvial and
shoreface sandstones (Shah and others, 1977; Iqbal and Shah, 1980). On the Potwar
Plateau, oil or gas has been produced from the following formations: Cambrian
Kherwa, Kussak, and Jutana; Permian Tobra, Amb, and Wargal; Jurassic Datta;
Cretaceous Lumshiwal; Paleocene Khairabad, Lockhart, Patala, and Nammal; Eocene
Bhadrar, Chorgali, and Margala Hill Limestone; and Miocene Murree (Khan and
others, 1986; Petroconsultants, 1996) (fi g. 5). Production from more than one of
these reservoirs (in one case five reservoirs) was reported at 12 of the 22 fields in the
database (Petroconsultants, 1996). More than 60 percent of the producing reservoirs
(by field) are of Cenozoic age (fi g. 21), with the majority of those being Eocene
carbonates. Sandstone porosities range from less than 5 percent to 30 percent and
average 12 percent to 16 percent. Permeability ranges from less than 1 millidarcy
(mD) to greater than 300 mD, with the average ranging from 4 to 17 mD (Khan and
others, 1986). At the Dhurnal field and probably elsewhere in the basin, hydrocarbons
in the carbonate reservoirs are primarily from tectonically induced fracture porosity
on strike with structural trends (Jaswal and others, 1997). Approximately 60 percent
of the identified producing reservoirs are carbonates (fi g. 22). Because oil and gas
production volumes are reported by field rather than reservoir in the database used
(Petroconsultants, 1996) and 12 of 21 fields reported production from more than one
reservoir, no attempt was made to assign volumes of oil and gas to reservoirs, ages, or
lithologies.

Traps and Seals

Most of the fields discovered in the Potwar geologic province to date are either
overturned faulted anticlines, popup structures, or fault-block traps. Many of these
folded structures are amplified, or they are only present above a detachment zone in
Eocambrian salts. The latest trap-forming thrust events began at approximately 5 and
2 Ma (Jaswal and others, 1997). Seals include fault truncations and interbedded shales
and the thick shales and clays of the Miocene and Pliocene Siwalik Group.
 5. Objectives of study

This work will help to figure out the future exploration activities for this entity. This
study has the following objectives.

1. To perform Geochemical analysis for Permian Formation to investigate its Organic

richness, thermal maturity, type of kerogen and types of hydrocarbons generated.

2. To study the Biomarkers study for determination of age and environment of

deposition.

3. To carry out an Isotopic study for evaluation of organic matter type and correlation
with crude oil.

6. Data requirement

1. Well cuttings (8)

3. Well logs (1)

4. Crude oil sample

7. Methodology

The methodology of this study is comprised of field and laboratory studies.

7.1 Field work

The field work includes section measurement (using clinometers, brunton

compass, Jacobss staff and measuring tape), lithologic logging, and rock samples
collection of the formation. The rock samples will be collected for geochemical
analysis along the north face exposure to minimize the effect of weathering from
direct sun light. All the rock samples will be properly numbered, located and then be
packed in polythene bags.

7.2 Laboratory work

The laboratory-work includes various analyses (e.g. TOC, Rock Eval

Pyrolysis, Vitrinite Reflectance, Gas chromatography (GC), Gas chromatography-
mass spectrometry (GCMS) and Isotope Analysis). The investigation of geochemical
data will help to determine the source rock prospectivity of the Permian Formation.
The laboratory work is summarized as follow.

7.2.1 Sample preparation

Sample preparation includes washing, crushing, grinding, polishing,

pulverization, contamination removal, drying and de-asphalting for various
geochemical analysis.

7.2.2 Total Organic Carbon (TOC)

TOC describes the amount of organic carbon present in a rock sample in

percent (%) and is a direct measure of its organic richness. For a source rock of a
petroleum play its minimum value is 0.5% and it shows that sufficient amount of
organic matter must be present in a sedimentary rock to be considered as a potential
source rock for hydrocarbon generation. TOC analyzer will be used for TOC analysis
of the collected rock samples. In TOC analysis the rock sample is heated in analyzer,
and as a result CO2 is liberated by combusting organic matter present in the source
rock. The amount of CO2 released is proportional to the carbon content of source
rock. TOC does not tell us about the current potential yield of a source rock for this
purpose Rock-Eval Pyrolysis is carried out.

7.2.3 Rock-Eval Pyrolysis

Rock-Eval Pyrolysis is used to know thermal maturity of organic matter in a

source rock and also to investigate hydrocarbon generation potential of a source rock.
The Rock Eval-Pyrolysis involves heating of a small sample (100 mg) in pyrolysis
oven at constant temperature. This determines the free hydrocarbon present in the
sample and hydrogen and oxygen containing compound present in kerogen. The
pyrolysis oven is kept isothermally at 300C for 3 minutes and free hydrocarbons are
volatilized and measured as the S1 peak. The temperature is then increased up to
550C and hydrocarbons released during this process are measured as the S2 peak.
The temperature at which S2 reaches its maximum depends on the nature and
maturity of the kerogen and is called Tmax. The CO2 issued from kerogen cracking is
trapped in the 300-390C range. The trap is heated, and CO2 is released and detected
on a TCD during the cooling of the pyrolysis oven and is marked as S3 peak.
7.2.4 Organic Petrography (Vitrinite Reflectance)

The crushed sample is mounted in a liquid polystyrene resin, allowed to

harden, ground on successively finer carborundum paper and then polished with
successively finer alumina powders. The samples are then viewed under reflected
light using a photometric microscope with reference to optical standards the samples
are examined in white & blue light using oil immersion objectives and a green filter
with a peak transmission of 546nm. The values are recorded as a percentage of light
reflected. Changes in reflectance values greater than Vr 0.1% are thought to be
significant. Reflectance measurements are particularly reliable above Vr 0.5%; below
this value other parameters are used. In immature rocks, the reflectance changes
erratically with increasing maturity.

7.2.5 Gas chromatography (GC-FID)/Whole Oil Gas Chromatography

Analyses are undertaken using a gas chromatograph equipped with a data

station and integrator. The capillary column is used for hydrocarbon analysis. The
oven temperature is held at 100C for one minute, and then raised to 320C at
5C/min. n-alkane distribution reveals the maturity of the precursor source rock or be
the result of subsequent alteration. Whole oil gas chromatography is performed on the
same basis but using the diluted samples and adopting split mode of sample injection.

7.2.6 Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS)

Mass spectrometry is used to identify characteristic compounds found in oils

and source extracts which have been inherited by the living organisms of that time
period. It is a considerably more powerful and specific technique than GC FID.
GCMS set up has a Quadrapole mass analyzer instrument coupled to a GC. The
instrument is operated in both the full scan and selected ion mode. The sample is
introduced using on Column Technique. When the instrument is operated in single ion
monitoring mode it is set to monitor ions specific to certain classes of biomarkers.
Both aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons are monitored. At present the aliphatic
groups are monitored: triterpenoidal hydrocarbons (m/z 191, 123); steroidal
hydrocarbons (m/z 217, 218); bicylics (m/z 123) are also monitored. The aromatic
fraction is monitored for phenanthrenes (m/z 192 & 178), naphthalene and the
methylated naphthalene compounds (m/z 142, 156, 170, 184). Ratios are calculated
for certain components (eg. sterane 20S:20R), whose stereochemistry depends on
maturity.

7.2.7 Carbon Stable Isotope Analysis

Carbon has two stable isotopes, C12 and C13 and one radioactive isotope
C14. Carbon isotope ratios are measured against Vienna Pee Dee Belemnite (VPDB).
Isotope geochemistry is an aspect of geology based upon study of the natural
variations in the relative abundances of isotopes of various elements. Variations in
isotopic abundance are measured by isotope ratio mass spectrometry and can reveal
information about the ages and origins of rock, air or water bodies, or processes of
mixing between them.
 8. Time frame

Work Flow Mar 17 Apr May June July Aug Sep

Synopsis
submission
Presentation
of Synopsis
Sample
Collection
Screening
analysis
Detail
geochemical
analysis
Isotopic
analysis
Thesis write
up
Thesis
submission

9. Expected outcomes

The expected outcomes of this research will be,

1. Organic richness of Permian Formation in the proposed study area.

2. Type of Kerogen and hydrocarbons type generated in the proposed area.

3. Thermal maturity, age and environment of deposition of Permian Formation.

4. Understanding of evaluation of organic matter type and correlation with crude oil,
by carbon isotopic studies.
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