ORCHESTRATION 1

SOME BASIC POINTS REGARDING NOTATION

Ian Shanahan, 1995.

By bearing the following basic points in mind when doing your assignments, you will not
have to worry too much about notational considerations and therefore will be able to
concentrate upon musical matters. Consequently, you will produce better work (thereby
gaining higher marks), which will make life easier for me in assessing and correcting it! I
suggest that you actually have this document nearby when completing your assignments,
so that you can use it as a checklist.

1. BAR NUMBERS

Mark bar numbers clearly in a box every 5 bars, or at the beginning of each system.
Rehearsal letters may also be used, even in conjunction with bar numbers, being placed at
structurally important or logical places in the score. PS: It is also helpful to me if you
display the Assignment No.

2. TEMPO INDICATIONS

Always give a metronome marking (eg. minim = ca.77). Traditional terminology is

ambiguous on its own, and should be used only in conjunction with a metronome
marking.

3. DYNAMIC INDICATIONS

Make your dynamic intentions clear! If a whole passage is mf, write mf sempre and
give it again on each new page. For dynamic hairpins or wedges, a dynamic marking
should appear at the beginning and end of the wedge in every instance. BE SPECIFIC.

4. TRANSPOSING INSTRUMENTS

Always indicate initially whether the score is transposing or sounds as written (i.e. in
the score, transposing instruments are written as they actually sound). This is particularly
pertinent if there are no key signatures (as in much contemporary music): make your
intentions clear.

5. INSTRUMENTATION

It is most important to list clearly and accurately the instruments that you are utilizing in
your arrangement/composition at the beginning of the score. Furthermore, you should

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indicate the instrumentation to the left of each system (even if it seems obvious). This is a
good habit to get into (even for small ensembles), as it is absolutely crucial when writing
for a large and diverse set of instruments. (In a professional situation [which is what
youre being trained for!], this is of immense help to a conductor as a timesaver [NB:
always remember that time = money, etc.].) A list of acceptable and/or standard
abbreviations for orchestral instruments follows (in the order in which they appear from
the top of the score):

Winds Piccolo: Picc.; Flute: Fl.; Alto Flute: A.Fl.; Oboe: Ob.; Cor Anglais/English Horn:
C.A./Eng.Hn.; Clarinet: Cl. or Clar.; Bass Clarinet: B.Cl. or B.Clar.; Saxophone: Sax.;
Bassoon: Bsn. [Bass. (= double bass) is unacceptable.]; Contrabassoon: C.Bsn.

Brass Horn: Hn. or Horn; Trumpet: Tpt.; Trombone: Tbn. or Trbn. (= tenor trombone);
Bass Tuba: Tba. or Tuba

Percussion Timpani: Timp. [Note: the abbreviations for the panoply of other percussion
instruments will be discussed in due course!]

Keyboard Piano: Pft. or Pno.; Celesta: Cel.; Harpsichord: Hpschd.; Synthesizer: Synth.;
Organ: Org.

Harp Harp: Hp. or Harp

Strings Violin: Vln. or Vn.; Viola: Vla.; Cello: Vlc. or Vc.; Double Bass/Contrabass:
D.B./C.B.

6. COLOURISTIC INDICATIONS

Pizz., con sord., sul tasto, div., unis., 2, etc., and any expression marks always appear
above the stave. For the conductors sake, its often worthwhile to repeat them (in
parentheses) at the beginning of the next page (if applicable). BE SPECIFIC.

7. PAGE SET-UP

Do not cramp your work. Space it out nicely and legibly in both the vertical and horizontal
dimensions. Leave plenty of space between systems; and in divisi, use separate staves for
each part if these parts are fairly independent of one another. Choose manuscript paper
where there is sufficient distance between staves (eg. Alberts 20 or 24 stave if you can get
it!). Better still: make up a template and photocopy it.

8. CALLIGRAPHY

Your musical handwriting in ink should be as neat and clear as possible, in order to convey
maximum information in the minimum time. This is a primary consideration when
preparing a score, for conductor or player. Or use scorewriter software and a laser printer.

Further points specific to particular instruments and instrumental families regarding

notation etc. will be discussed in due course as they arise in your assignments, but for
advanced preparation, see the following reading list (all references should be in the Music
Library or Fisher Library):

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NOTATION Hugo Cole: Sounds & Signs (OUP); Kurt Stone: Music Notation in the
Twentieth Century (Norton)

INSTRUMENTATION Andrew Stiller: Handbook of Instrumentation (UCLAP)

ORCHESTRATION Samuel Adler: The Study of Orchestration (Norton); Gordon Jacob:

Orchestral Technique (OUP); Walter Piston: Orchestration (Gollancz); Reginald Smith
Brindle: Serial Composition (OUP)

These are a must for anyone who takes the subject at all seriously. Also, examine scores by
the following twentieth-century composers (and others): Crumb, Ravel, Messiaen,
Stravinsky etc. Consult staff, other students and professionals, and consult books on
modern/extended playing techniques for specific instruments. Go to as many concerts as
you can, of diverse musics (watch!); listen to good recordings while following the score ...

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 LECTURE 1

Course outline: 3 assignments (Woodwinds; Strings; Full Orchestra, with Brass and
Percussion/Keyboards)

Arrange or Compose a short work

Go through sheet

MS paper: templates in A3 (landscape or normal), ruled up, or based on commercial

paper. Do consider margins for binding purposes.

(types of binding)

pens (what I use)

Do not use pencil: use ink unless a photocopy is handed in

computers with scorewriter software (laser printed only no dot matrix printouts)

INSTRUMENTATION AND ORCHESTRATION

Instrumentation: i.e. capabilities of instruments

idiomatic writing (a basic concept to adopt or reject); both of these are period
dependent

instrumentation is a prerequisite to the art of orchestration

this course will focus mainly on instrumentation

Orchestration: i.e. the art of combining instrumental sonorities

historical factors

authentic instruments and ensembles

historical styles of orchestration

historical considerations of instrumentation

range, devices (flattement)

takes practice: keep a notebook of facts (ranges, difficult trills ...)

more facts will be on tap mentally the more you work

Go to concerts (with a score) and watch the players

Correlate what you see/hear with the appropriate notation

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 Take your notebook with you!

Repeatedly listen to good recordings, following a score

Talk to professionals (performers ...) e.g. percussionists at new music concerts

Look at the players parts themselves. What have they changed or added? Why?

Other issues and details will arise for discussion in due course.

Keep developing your aural imagination and technical adeptness

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 LECTURES 2 & 3: ORCHESTRAL WOODWINDS DETAILS

Note: much more detail can be found in Stiller, Adler, Piston, etc.

General Considerations

4 groups: Fl, Ob, Cl, Bsn. [Cl is single-reed; Ob, Bsn are double-reed]

Woodwind [WW] section of the orchestra: 3 basic formulas:

(1) 2; 2; 2; 2 [double WW]

(2) 2, Picc; 2, CA; 2, BCl; 2, CBsn [triple WW] = the standard 20th-century orchestra

(3) 3, Picc; 3, CA; 3, BCl; 3, CBsn [quadruple WW]

TONE PRODUCTION

vibrating air-column of variable length, controlled by fingering of keys (fundamental

register).

overblowing through various modes of vibration, assisted by vents, i.e.

register/speaker/octave keys, embouchure, etc.

NB. Cl has a conical bore, closed at reed end overblows through odd-numbered
partials only.

One is strongly advisable to become familiar with each instruments fingering-system

and register breaks, so as to avoid awkward (or impossible) trills, etc.

ARTICULATION

The player can attack with various phoneme-types. Plosives (t, d) are most commonly
employed. They are used whenever no specific articulatory symbol is specified (such as a
slur, stacc., etc.)

fast, reiterated single tonguing cannot be sustained very long, as it fatigues the player.
The solution is to deploy rests; mixing slurred with tongued notes is also helpful.

when articulations are too rapid for single tonguing, double tonguing (tktk) or
triple tonguing (ttk, tkt) is employed. These are very easy on Fl; not entirely satisfactory
(due to unevenness of attack) for other WW, as k is uvular and out of contact with the
reed. Multiple tonguing can be used as a textural device (slash[es] through stem): tongue
tremolo.

soft tonguing (gentle attack) traditionally indicated by slurred staccato or slurred

tenuto (even mushier). They signify an imitation of stringed-instrument bowings notated
in the same way!

fluttertonguing [rolling the tongue-tip (alveolar fluttertonguing); or gargling (uvular

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fluttertonguing; notation: Flz with 3 or 4 slashes through the stem] is easy on Fl, OK on Cl,
but often problematic on double-reeds. It yields a whirring effect much loved by Ravel [La
Valse, Alborada Del Graciosa] and the Second Viennese School.

legato (two or more notes under a slur, played with uninterrupted breath-flow). A
legato leap over a wide interval is easier ascending than descending (due to air-column
inertia); the latter is more secure if tongued. Wide tremolos (> P5) risk losing the lower
note. NB. a slur mark does not indicate phrasing; dont use phrase-marks.

phrase-length is dictated by breath supply; where to breathe should be left to the player.
In fast passages, it is better to omit notes in order to give the performer an opportunity to
breathe, rather than to force the player to snatch a breath.

REGISTERS

WWs form a heterogeneous group, each with a distinctive timbre and persona: excellent
for presenting melodic material.

within each instruments overall range, there are wide colour variations between
different registers (consult texts for details; listen to solos, etc.).

in order to orchestrate effectively, intimate knowledge of registers characteristics is

indispensable. A rule-of-thumb: the highest register is most problematic and least flexible
for the majority of techniques and applications (at this basic level).

SCORE MARKINGS

2 parts can be written on 1 stave (if similar). If they are different rhythmically, or cross
over regularly, etc., then use separate staves.

part 1 = stems up; part 2 = stems down; articulation is notated at the end of stems.

if part 1 = part 2, use either 2, or a common notehead.

if part 1 (say) is solo, use either rests for 2, or mark single part 1.. Similarly for part 2.

DO NOT use terms like divisi or unis.: these are reserved for the strings.

TRANSPOSITION

explain it; give an example.

VIBRATO

normally employed by all WW except Cl. If non-vibrato is desired, then specify it with
senza vibrato.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

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FLUTE

Range (B foot, C D F)

Characteristics of registers: B G rich but weak (= easily covered); A G sweet; A G

brilliant and clear; beyond this its rather shrill.

Very agile, but also effective in sustained melodies.

Takes a lot of breath.

Difficult/impossible trills: C-De; De-Ee; [low]B-Cq; C-Ee.

Tremolos: 1st register < P5; higher registers < P4.

Harmonics: discuss, notation.

OBOE

Range (Be G A up)

Needs less breath than other WWs; can play lengthy passages in one breath. But requires a
lot of control and stamina, as breath is expelled very slowly. Therefore, rest periods are
mandatory.

Characteristics of registers: Be B honky and loud (never pp); C F thick and heavy; G
A warm and reedy; B E thin but clear; beyond this its pinched and intense.

Essentially a lyrical instrument.

Rapid single-tongued staccato is idiomatic; but multiple-tonguing is very tricky.

Awkward trills: Be-B; C-De.

CLARINET

Transposing instrument in Be or A. Choose according to the musics key (if any): Be for
flat keys; A for sharp keys. Clarinet in A is gradually becoming obsolete a pity.

Written range (E A C)

The break: explain; be aware of it when dealing with amateurs.

Characteristics of registers: E Fq Chalumeau register deep and rich, like molten

chocolate; G Be throat tones pale; B C clarino register bright, incisive, expressive;
beyond this its intense, piercing and shrill.

Widest dynamic range: pp to ff in all registers.

Extremely versatile: effective in many contexts.

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*Staccato more rounded than that of Ob, but more articulate than Fls.

Mostly employs single-tonguing, but can bear multiple-tonguing.

Best at non-tongued dal niente attack (and its converse); give notation.

No problematic trills; 1st-register tremoli are effective.

BASSOON

Range (Be Ee [tenor clef, can read treble clef])

Incisive stacc., like Ob; performs lyrical melodies well.

Characteristics of registers: Be G dark, strong and sonorous [in this register, good at
doubling Vlc and DB in unison, for extra support {Vlc predominates}]; A D sweet,
subdued, expressive; [tenor clef] E Be thin, intense; beyond this its very pinched and
weird, almost saxophone-like [Stravinsky: Rite of Spring, opening solo].

Excellent solo instrument; it tends to be swallowed up and blend with others in a group,
particularly up high.

Mostly employs single-tonguing, but can very occasionally bear multiple-tonguing.

Large upward leaps are fine; downward ones are cumbersome.

Lowest P5: difficult attain pp. Requires a firm attack.

Highest register must be lightly accompanied.

Awkward trills: Be-Ce; Be-C; B-C; Cq-D; Cq-Dq; E-Fq; (Gq-A).

Tremoli are cumbersome; always < P4.

Further details in books are listed in the Bibliography. Check this out before next class.

State that a period for students questions will be provided at the beginning of each class
from now on.

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 LECTURE 4: WOODWINDS IN COMBINATION

Question time.

Complete unfinished material from previous class, if necessary.

Assignment 1 Due Wednesday, April 12, 1995.

Select a short, appropriate piece and arrange it for at least double WW: 2,2,2,2 (or
compose your own work...). Use other instruments as you wish, but not the piano.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Common functions of orchestral WW (Adler, etc.).

harmonic background to string foreground.

pedal points (long sustained tones behind moving harmonies).

solo passages (melody or melodic fragments).

contrasting timbre (local contrast, or for structural clarity).

doubling for tonal reinforcement (unison, in octaves; of strings).

creation of novel articulations or inner textural manipulation of melody. e.g. oboe plus
muted trumpet in unison, Tpt sustained while oboe gently articulates in quavers: a subtle
inner pulsation results.

contrapuntal texture.

homophony (wind choir). This course will cover homophonic WW only; Orchestration 2 will
deal with the rest.

HOMOPHONY

if homophony is an accompaniment, then one must be able to hear the foreground

[melody] clearly. i.e., an appropriate balance is to be achieved.

if homophony is the foreground, then one must consider the following factors:

(a) shade (light or dark quality)

(b) dynamic level

(c) spacing of chord

(d) harmonic factors (inversion of chord/triad, voice leading, etc.)

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Double WW may be voiced in 4 ways: [Adler, p.220; see also Jacob, Ch.4]

juxtaposed: superposed one pair upon another.

interlocked
enclosed
overlapped
Draw a bracket diagram for each; draw Adler, p.220 1st ex. on board

Juxtaposition

a very common voicing. Ensure that the most prominent melody-note is in a

good/strong register for the instrument to which it is assigned.

Interlocking

this is more imaginative (as it mixes colours) but carries registral dangers. Draw Adler,
p.220 2nd ex. on board.

this voicing is best for timbral blending: homogeneity.

Fl plus Ob or Cl must be treated carefully. Traps: Ob.I or Cl.I may be too high and thin;
Fl.II may be too low and weak.

Enclosing

similarly problematic in regard to registration: achieving a good balance between

strong and weak registers. Draw Adler, p.220 3rd ex. on board.

NB [M9 above middle C] D [Cl]; F, A [2 Ob]; D [Fl] best, as Cl is stronger on this note
than Fl. Plus theres extra colouristic interest.

Overlapping

an older device (not so commonly used now). But standard practice in full orchestral
tutti.

Chords with each tone a different instrument/timbre

difficult to balance and tune correctly.

if the chord is widely spread, balance is more easily achieved because each instrument is
able to play in its best, strongest, most characteristic register. Draw Adler, p.221 1st ex. on
board.

Spacing

note that usually the most resonant results are achieved whenever the interval is widest
in the bass [cf the intervallic pattern of the harmonic series].

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 treat 1st inversions carefully. Double the 3rd (bass) towards the bottom of the chord
rather than the top. Then its characteristic colour is preserved. Draw Adler, p.221 2nd ex. on
board.

bright or dark chordal hues arise from specific choice of instrument and/or the chords
position. Draw Adler, p.222 3rd ex. on board.

Triple/Quadruple WW

same 4 voicings used as for double WW. But demands great care, that pitches are well-
assigned regarding instrumental register for balance or melodic clarity.

Voice-leading

this cant be ignored: one must consider the movement and voice leading of each
individual part (horizontal as well as vertical dimension).

A modern device. Much inner movement can be achieved by having WW instruments

leaping widely from one chord-tone to the next, event the resulting successive chords may
themselves proceed smoothly.

Chordal imbalance

there can be good reasons for this: one (inner) tone may be highlighted for harmonic or
melodic purposes. e.g. the chorale-like passage from Messiaens Chronochromie
(orchestral tutti of non-tonal chords): the tuba (an inner voice) cuts through prominently
it shouts! because the tuba is in its highest register; it defines an inner melody.

One last device: linear overlapping.

Explain. Overlap for greater melodic continuity (or not). e.g. Messiaens Et Exspecto...,
2nd movement: slow Ob melody goes below range, so Messiaen overlaps it with C.A., and
it almost sounds like a single instrument. See also Holst: Planets Suite, 3rd movement
(Mercury).

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 LECTURES 5, 6 & 7: ORCHESTRAL STRINGS DETAILS

Question time.

Standard orchestral line-up nowadays.

Violins 1: 16; Violins 2: 14; Violas: 12; Cellos: 10; Contrabasses: 8

Written 16,14,12,10,8

These numbers are variable, according to the work in question.

* Until around 1945, the string section was the dominant element of the symphony
orchestra. Why?

String players are essentially tireless (relative to winds).

Strings can play almost all types of music.

They possess great dynamic and pitch ranges.

Their timbre is basically homogeneous from bottom to top.

String instruments are extremely versatile in producing a vast array of different types of
sound.

They produce rich timbres, and so all manner of close and open chord-spacings are
practicable. Therefore...

Their sound does not quickly become tiresome or a pall to the ear. This is reflected in the
fact that there is a long-established genre of music for string orchestra, with a sizeable
repertoire e.g. Vaughan Williams Fantasia on a Theme by Thomas Tallis.

Tunings of open strings (write on board)

Violin: G D A E, treble clef

Viola: C G D A, alto or treble clef
Cello: C G D A, bass, tenor, or treble clef
Contrabass: E A D G, sounds an octave lower than written; use bass, tenor, or treble clef with a
small 8 below

Each string is designated by a Roman numeral, from highest to lowest string thus: sul I,
sul II, sul III, sul IV. Alternatively, one can specify the string by name: e.g. (Vlc) sul D;
(Vln) sul A, etc.

NB. For Vln and Vla, the lowest-pitched string is on the left relative to the player,
whereas its on the right for Vlc and CB.

Fingering [Piston, pp.4-6 or Adler, for greater detail]

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 LH: first 4 fingers, usually (i.e. index, middle, ring, pinky).

A basic concept: for a given pitch-interval, the distance to be traversed on the string
diminishes as the bridge is approached. Thus, larger intervals may be obtained up high;
and an interval producible near the bridge might not be playable towards the nut.

A number of fixed hand positions are defined, such that all strings can be accessed
without shifting the hand unnecessarily. e.g.:

Vln, sul A: 1st pos.: A B C D E (open string 0, then fingers 1 4); 2nd pos.: C D E F (fingers
1 4); 3rd pos.: D E F G (fingers 1 4); etc.

Chromatic pitches of the same name (e.g. Be) are stopped with the same finger as that
used for the diatonic pitch (here, B).

Double stops, Triple stops, Quadruple stops

Define: chords of 2, 3, 4 tones on different strings.

Much greater detail will be given when we look at individual string instruments. Here
follows some basic points:

One can stop tones on two adjacent strings so that the bow activates and sustains both
tones at once.

For triple and quadruple stops, not all strings can be kept vibrating simultaneously. (A
square bracket [ can be used to show which two tones should be sustained.)

Divided strings

Chords of 2 notes [diads] are customarily divided between two players from the same
desk [1 desk = 2 players]. Score and parts are marked divisi or div.. The RH player takes
the higher pitch. Divisi is cancelled by unis. (for a return to single pitches played by all).

If instead one wants double stops, write non-div.. (A square bracket [ can reinforce this
message; it is particularly useful for div. in 2 when there are >2 notes, showing who is to
do the double stops etc.)

For division into more than two parts, write div. in 3, etc. (The parts will show who
plays what; or the composer may indicate this.)

Sometimes for the sake of legibility separate staves are required for each part.

For complex parts (and for tuning complex atonal chords well), it can be better to
divide by desks. Write div. da leggii. Odd-numbered desks take the higher tones.

Gli altri

A good trick for tuning complex atonal chords well: have adjacent players/desks play
consonant intervals. Give an example on the board.

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 If only half the members of a string section are to play, mark the score la met. The LH
player on each desk will be silent, until tutti is called for.

Vibrato

(Normal) vibrato is executed with the LH, for timbral richness, and involves a very
slight pitch-oscillation. (The LH wobbles.)

Vibrato is used automatically on all stopped notes. For an open string, it is effected
through sympathetic resonance: the vibrato is carried out on the pitch one octave higher
upon the next highest string. Corollary: the highest open string can never be played with
vibrato.

Accents can be done with the bow or with the LH, the latter involving a sudden
heightening of vibrato intensity.

If vibrato is not wanted, then you must mark the score senza vibrato or non-vibrato. e.g.
Aaron Copland: Rodeo Suite, opening of the Hoe-Down [fiddles tuning up].

Bowing [for greater detail, consult Stiller {who de-mythologizes the subject}, Adler and
Piston; study scores; talk to string players; etc.]

Bow anatomy: upper part = point; lower part (held by the RH) = heel.

Dragging from heel to point = downbow, notated . (It is generally associated with a
downbeat).

Dragging from point to heel = upbow, notated V. (It is generally associated with an
upbeat).

Alternate and V occur if no slurs are marked; i.e. bow changes direction for each note.

If a slur is indicated, all notes under the slur are executed in one bow, with no change
of bow-direction: legato.

For a vigorous attack on a long note, followed by a downbow chord or accent, use V
on the long note a downbow changing immediately to an upbow. (The bow-change
shouldnt be heard, if properly done.)

There is a natural tendency for a crescendo in V and a diminuendo in .

Obviously, V and must traverse the same length of bow-hair. So if upbow and
downbow motions are of unequal duration, then the bow has to move at different speeds,
making it difficult to maintain an even dynamic level. (This is at least a consideration for
the careful orchestrator.) In *legato*, changes of bow direction i.e. how many notes can
be played in one bow are determined by many factors: intensity, dynamic, tempo,
length of the bow, etc. Often, there are numerous ways to bow a phrase effectively in
*legato*, so that even the classics are bowed differently from one orchestra to the next.

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 Non-legato (detach). One can detect a bow-change on each note; yet the articulation is
not staccato. Detach usually occurs at the middle or upper part of the bow. One can mark
the score punta darco (at the point) for extra lightness (p dynamic, or less), or al tallone (at
the heel) for extra weight (f dynamic, or more).

For added emphasis or aggression, one can ask for a series of s, al tallone, the bow
being lifted and re-positioned between notes. e.g. Stravinsky: Rite of Spring stamping
chord (near the start).

Lour: a combination of legato and non-legato. There is a slight break of sound without a
change of bow-direction. Notation: tenuto plus legato.

Staccato: there are two types on the string and off the string. The latter involves a
bouncing bow, whereas for the former, the bow never really loses contact with the string.

Off-the-string staccato: in moderato (p mf), the bow is dropped onto the string at the
middle of the bow with a type of semicircular motion. The bow rebounds but is lifted as
well. This is termed spiccato or saltando. Notation: just use a regular staccato dot . . At a
faster tempo, the bow will bounce automatically.

Arpeggiando: another type of spiccato. A triple or quadruple stop is held in the LH,
while a slurred arpeggio is executed across 3 or 4 strings. When this is done quickly, the
bow jumps or bounces across all of the strings. e.g. Rimsky-Korsakov: Scheherezade (solo
Vln).

Another type of off-the-string staccato is jet: the bow is dropped near its point and
permitted to bounce. Groups of 2 6 notes may be played in this manner, usually with an
upbow. Notation: staccato plus legato (with the terms jet or saltato).

On-the-string staccati, or slurred staccato: the bow is held firmly upon the string, and
sharp stops are made by the wrist. Notation: as for jet.

Martellato (meaning hammered) is another on-the-string staccato, carried out with a

very abrupt bow-action.

Much specialist study of bowing is required before it can be sublimated, plus lots of
trial and error. It is also very edifying to study printed string parts in order to discover
what has been added (in pencil) or changed by the performer.

Often, it is best to indicate bowing only when a specific effect is desired. Otherwise,
leave it to the string players who regularly alter composers directives anyway.

Bow position relative to bridge and fingerboard: a timbral parameter

sul tasto (abbr. s.t.): bow towards the fingerboard, yielding a soft, floating, mellow
quality. Sul tasto on the Vlns E-string may be impractical, as the Vlns body can get in the
way.

sul ponticello (abbr. sul pont. or s.p.): bow close to the bridge, yielding a glassy,
metallic sound that emphasizes the upper partials. e.g. Messiaen: Sept Haikai, 4th mnt.

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(Gagaku) 8 Vlns imitate the sound of a Japanese sh. Sul pont. is often combined with a
bowed tremolo (a device well-loved by Webern).

Transitions from sul tasto to sul pont. (or vice versa) are possible. Also, both or either can
be exaggerated: molto sul tasto or molto sul pont..

Sul tasto and sul pont. are both cancelled in the score by pos. ord., modo ord., or naturale
(nat.).

Col legno: activating the string with the wood of the bow

col legno battuto (abbr. c.l.b.): a clicky, dry, off-the-string staccato effect, achieved
through the bow tapping the string. e.g. Gustav Holst: Planets Suite, opening of the 1st
movement (Mars, the Bringer of War). NB. A very brief strike tone results, whose pitch
varies according to the location on the string where the wood strikes. (This pitch derives
from the string length between the strike site and the bridge.) Also, because players can be
rather uppity about their expensive bows, there is normally a reluctance to execute this
effect with their favourite bow: a cheap bow, or a length of wooden dowelling will suffice.

col legno tratto (abbr. c.l.t.): the string is dragged (i.e. bowed) primarily with the
wooden part of the bow. A very soft, ethereal effect results, as there is little friction to grip
the string. Col legno tratto might be useful in bowed tremoli.

Col legno battuto and col legno tratto are both cancelled in the score by arco, modo ord.,
or nat..

Pizzicato (abbr. pizz.): plucking the string

Pizz. is cancelled in the score by arco.

The RH index finger plucks the string over the fingerboard (while the bow is also held
in the RH). For extended pizz. passages, the bow can be put down entirely; allow plenty of
time to discard and pick up thence re-position the bow.

On Vlc and CB, one can pizz. with the thumb especially for chords arpeggiated bottom
to top.

Arco to pizz. requires some time, depending on the bow-position. More time is needed
if the pizz. follows a downbow (and is punta darco), whereas a pizz. can be delivered almost
instantaneously after an upbow which is al tallone. Pizz. to arco is even more awkward
and time-consuming.

Pizzicato sound is naturally short-lived, but less so for Vlc and CB. Moreover, open
strings are more resonant in pizz. than stopped strings.

Pizz. timbre varies according to the place of plucking (sul tasto, normale, or sul pont.),
which part of the finger is used, and the pitch. Pizz. high up on the string yields a very dry
quality.

Rapid passages in pizz.: velocity is limited by the difficulty of plucking with one finger

~ 17 ~
(although some players can even do a pizz. tremolo by alternating two RH fingers). Other
factors here include the dynamic level, the size of instrument, changes of string, etc.

LH pizz. is also possible. Its normal usage is on an (open) string in an arco passage
(when the RH is not free to do any plucking). e.g. Peter Sculthorpe: Requiem (solo Vlc).
The sound is usually somewhat more feeble than the ordinary RH pizz.. Notation: + .

Pizz. chords of 3 or 4 notes are arpeggiated from bottom to top (unless otherwise
marked). A sequence of these might be better executed with back-and-forth movements;
use appropriate arrows in the notation (plus the appellation quasi guitara, for
emphasis). The sound of pizz. chords arpeggiation can be minimized through a rapid RH
action. For extended passages of quasi guitara chords, Vlns and Vlas may even be invited
to hold their instruments like a mandolin!

Pizz. dyads (on adjacent or non-adjacent strings) can be plucked simultaneously,

without arpeggiation. Notate with a [ to the left of the dyad.

A modern device is the snap pizzicato (as frequently employed by Bartk: e.g. in his
Music for Strings, Percussion and Celeste, and String Quartets Nos. 4, 5, 6, etc.). The
string(s) is lifted upwards, so that when released, it snaps against and rebounds
percussively off the fingerboard. Notation: an o cut at the top by a small ictus not to be
confused with thumb position (Vlc and CBs), which uses this notation, but upside-down.
(NB. In neither case is it necessary to use the term pizz.!)

There is also a gentle fingernail pizzicato, in which the string is plucked with a
fingernail. Notation: a moon crescent curving upwards.

Harmonics

Explain the harmonic series in frequency terms [draw one, say for Vln G-string, on the
board] and then draw a picture of a string in its different vibratory modes, invoking terms
such as node, etc.

To obtain a natural harmonic, the open string is touched lightly not stopped at one
of the appropriate nodes. Notation: a -diamond notehead (for the pitch of the node), plus
a small circle over the resultant pitch (if its at all notated). Its often a good idea to
designate the string as well. [Show where all the nodes are up to the 8th partial, explaining the
principle for finding them; and observe that charts of harmonic nodes also exist in Stiller, Adler and
Piston, etc.]

Harmonics yield a very different timbre to ordinary stopped tones, because their
spectra include only those partials with a node at the point touched.

Artificial harmonics: a LH finger stops the string in order to provide a fundamental,

while another LH finger touches the string lightly at the desired nodal point. Vln and Vla
use fingers 1 to 4; Vlc and CB often uses the thumb to stop the string. The best or rather,
the most usual node for an artificial harmonic is a P4 above the stopped pitch, sounding
two octaves higher than it. [But now show the other artificial harmonic nodes plus their
resultants P5 {necessary for when a particularly low-pitched (art.) harm. is required: e.g. F an
11th above middle C can only be obtained as a harmonic on Vln by stopping its lowest Be and

~ 18 ~
touching the node a P5 higher (at F above middle C)}, M3, m3, etc. Thence observe the
correspondence to their natural harmonic counterparts.]

Trills

A LH device: the lowest note of the trill is stopped, and another finger carries out the
trilling action.

Trills are effective everywhere on string instruments, but less so (due to timbral
imbalance) if the lowest pitch is an open string.

In an orchestra, when many players will be executing the trill, there is little chance of
precise coordination of trill-tones; hence the effect is rather fuzzy much more so than
for a trill on a single woodwind instrument.

Tremoli

There are four types:

(a) A (LH) trill over an interval >M2. Use tremolo notation, with the term tremolando if
a fast unmeasured alternation is wanted.

(b) When the tremolo interval is greater than the extension of fingers on one string, the
two notes are held as a double stop (on adjacent strings) and the tremolo is achieved with
an undulating bow-motion, activating adjacent strings alternately. The sound is rather
different to the previous type.

(c) A bowed tremolo, arising from a series of rapid upbow and downbow strokes, the LH
holding its note(s), as usual. This is a very common and versatile textural device. Notation:
>3 slashes through the stem.

(d) A measured bowed tremolo: repetition of detach bow strokes on a series of notes.
Again, a textural device that increases the energy and volume of string tone. e.g. Michael
Smetanin: Strip (for string orchestra). Shorthand notation: the correct number of slashes
through each stem.

Muted strings

Con sordino (abbr. con sord., or even c.s. [mention pictographs used by string players]).
Remove mute: via sord.; without mute: senza sord..

There are various types of string mute (including the practice [or wolf] mute). All add
weight to the bridge and absorb vibrations prior to them being transmitted to the
instruments body. The older type of mute is a 3-pronged device that clips over the bridge;
a more recent innovation is a permanent fixture of the instrument which is pushed against
the bridge a device that has the advantage of being quick to bring into effect and to
remove.

Muted strings do lose some of their dynamic intensity, but the effect of muting is
primarily timbral.

~ 19 ~
 Allow sufficient time for placing and removing mutes.

Gradual transitions between muted and unmuted tone can be achieved by requesting
the players to put on or take off mutes one-by-one or by desks. Indicate in the score the
point at which all players are muted or unmuted.

Glissando and portamento

Glissando (abbr. gliss.): in legato, slide a finger along the string such that all intervening
pitches are heard. Notate with a connecting line (or curve) between the glissandos
extremities.

Very large glissandi (necessitating the crossing of a string) are not true glissandi
although the player will try to smear the string-crossover as much as possible.

Portamento (abbr. port.) is a natural connection of tones resulting from a change in LH

position. This device an effect suggesting sentimentality can be introduced by writing
port. and/or using a short connecting line.

Scordatura: the deviation from normal tuning of the strings

Often the scordatura is downwards no more than a tone, usually in order to access
lower pitches. An upward scordatura will physically stress the instrument, and the string
will probably go out of tune (flatten) fairly quickly.

A timbral change is to be expected. e.g. Mahler: Symphony No.4, mnt.2 the solo Vln
is tuned up a tone to A E B Fq, sounding like a cheap fiddle.

Scordature also permit the sounding of new natural harmonics. e.g. Michael Smetanin:
Strip each instrument has a different scordatura.

Scordatura is actually very inconvenient and disruptive to achieve in performance. If

a second pre-scordatured instrument is unavailable, do allow plenty of time to tune thence
re-tune the one instrument.

~ 20 ~
 LECTURE 8: VIOLIN, VIOLA, CELLO AND DOUBLE BASS SPECIFICS

Question time.

Assignment 2 Due Wednesday, May 10, 1995.

Select a short, appropriate piece and arrange it for string orchestra (i.e. a string ensemble
the size of that within the modern symphony orchestra). Do specify the number of
instruments in each of the 5 subgroup.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

* For each type of string instrument, see Piston or Adler (and Stiller) for explicit details
regarding fingering.

Violin

Range (for orchestral parts): G E (15ma above open E-string), not including harmonics.
NB: Classical music did not go much beyond 7th pos. A an 11th above E str. Also, low G
Cq and high B are only available on one string.

Open strings possess a distinctive sound: all are more resonant, but less controllable, than
stopped pitches, and can militate against timbral homogeneity in slow passages.

G str.: thickest string, so most sonorous and lugubrious, becoming intense and stringent
in high positions.

D str.: least powerful of the four, with a warm, subdued quality (in contrast to the G
str.), becoming mellower in higher positions.

A str.: strong in 1st pos., losing its brilliance in the higher positions.

E str.: most brilliant of all, with great carrying power; but can be very soft and ethereal.

Multiple stops: see Adler, pp.55-57 and Stiller (for a chart of maximum interval stretches
between fingers in various positions).

It is best to use only the easiest multiple stops in orchestral contexts, especially for
secco effects or particularly sonorous textures.

Harmonics

Natural: up to the 6th is OK.

Artificial: (P4 node) can use up to (stopped) E an octave above the E str.

Solo Vln: played by the concertmaster a totally different sound to tutti strings. e.g. Holst:
Planets Suite, 2nd mnt. (Venus, the Bringer of Peace). NB: solo Vln can be treated
virtuosically.

~ 21 ~
Wide skips can be problematic: treat carefully.

Viola

Range (for orchestral parts): (alto clef) C (treble clef) high A (15ma above open A-string),
not including harmonics.

Some characteristics, relative to Vln.

Thicker and heavier bow.

Heavier strings, so that lighter bowings are more difficult to produce.

Harmonics are easier to play and more secure on the Vlas thicker strings. NB: artificial
harmonics (P4 node) are seldom used beyond 3rd pos. D on A-string, in orchestral
circumstances.

Vlas fingering system is the same as that of the Vln, only down P5.

Characteristics of strings.

C str.: only one not on Vln, therefore the most characteristic of the Vla sombre, austere.

G and D str.: least characteristic, but dark, gentle and unobtrusive; often found in
accompanimental figurations.

A str.: although not as brilliant as the Vlns E-string, quite piercing, gritty and nasal in
quality; combines well with the WW, soft Tpts and Tbns. Because of its projection, it has
been used a lot in solo Vla passages.

Multiple stops: see Adler, pp.67-68 and Stiller (for a chart of maximum interval stretches
between fingers in various positions).

Pizzicato: slightly rounder, more resonant, less dry and short than Vln pizz in comparable
register. High pizz notes on A-string sound hard and wooden.

Cello

Range (for orchestral parts): (bass clef) C tenor clef (treble clef) high A (15ma above
open A-string), not including harmonics.

Because of its size, Vlc uses a slightly different fingering system to that of Vln and Vla.
The main point is that the LH thumb can be used to stop strings compulsory above 7th
pos. [octave above open string]. Notation: an o cut at the bottom by a small ictus not to
be confused with snap pizz, which uses this notation, but upside-down.

Characteristics of strings.

C str.: sonorous and rich.

~ 22 ~
 G str.: least strong; carries least well; timbrally somewhat akin to C-string.

D str.: most captivating; warm and lyrical, smooth and unobtrusive; less nasal than the
A-string.

A str.: brilliant, piercing, expressive.

Multiple stops: see Adler, pp.76-77 and Stiller (for a chart of maximum interval stretches
between fingers in various positions).

Pizzicato is especially sonorous and vibrant, frequently used. Pizz. bass line imparts body
and transparency to the accompaniment. Above A (above middle C), pizz becomes quite
wooden. Pizz. harmonics 2nd and 3rd only sound harp-like.

Harmonics are all very secure.

Natural: up to 8th is OK.

Artificial: (P4 node) played with thumb and 3rd finger over the whole range.

Vlc section frequently used in divisi for rich textural effects.

Sul tasto tremolo on C and G-strings: a unique, mysterious effect.

A regular duty of the Vlc section is to play bass parts (alone or with CB [often in
octaves]). When sounding in unison with CB, a more concentrated sonority results.

Contrabass

Written range (for orchestral parts) sounding an octave lower: (bass clef) C E
[mechanical mechanism, with keys; or 5-string CB] tenor clef (treble clef) high D (9th
above middle C), not including harmonics. NB: if C, Cq, D, Dq are unavailable, then these
pitches will be transposed up an octave.

Solo CB has a rather small sound thin and distant.

Larger and thicker strings mean that the CB tends to be slow-speaking.

CB has a unique fingering system: see Adler, p.85, Piston or Stiller for details.

Multiple stops: see Stiller (for a chart of maximum interval stretches between fingers in
various positions). They are risky, unless open strings are included but quite feasible in
higher positions. A rule-of-thumb: 3rds, 4ths and 5ths may be OK; still, use divisi wherever
possible.

Pizzicato is especially sonorous and vibrant, an excellent and commonly used device,
imparting lightness and transparency to the orchestral texture. B (M7 middle C) is rarely
exceeded.

~ 23 ~
Harmonics are all very secure: use only natural harmonics in orchestral situations, up to at
least the 9th. NB: Traditionally, CB natural harmonics in treble clef are written at sounding
pitch (to avoid the writing of too many ledger lines), although this practice is now slowly
disappearing. Such harmonics are increasingly being notated an octave above their
sounding pitch to be consistent with everything else.

Bowing: because of the relatively short bow, be careful to avoid excessively long slurs. For
long held notes, change bow ad lib is a useful directive.

Divisi: CB section is frequently divided in two. Be careful to avoid muddiness through

overemploying close intervals. Other uses: pizz. against arco; melody against
accompaniment.

~ 24 ~
 LECTURE 9: ORCHESTRAL BRASS GENERAL DETAILS

General Considerations

Modern brass instruments are subject to few of the limitations of their predecessors,
and so are now among the most agile and versatile members of the modern orchestra.

Brass section: standard orchestral line-up of four types of instrument.

4 Hns, 3 Tpts, 3 Tbns, ([contra]bass) Tba 4,3,3,1. This can be augmented, with more of
the same, or including auxiliary instruments such as flugelhorns, cornets, tenor tubas (=
euphonium), Wagner tubas, saxhorns, alto Tbn, contrabass Tbn, etc.

The brass section is more homogeneous than WW, but, in practice, falls into a bipartite
division of Hns and the rest. Why?: basic differences in bore profile and mouthpiece.

Transpositions

Transposing instruments: Hns, Tpts.

Non-transposing instruments: (Tpt in C), Tbns, Tbas.

Tone production and Articulation

Lips pressed against a special mouthpiece are set vibrating with air-flow. The lips are
less tense for low notes and tighten as the player ascends into higher registers.

The size and shape of the mouthpiece is a timbral determinant: the shallower the cup
[explain], the more brilliant/less mellow is the tone-colour. So, Tpts are much more
brilliant-sounding than Hns, which possess a funnel-shaped mouthpiece.

Tonguing: problems and capabilities are similar to those of WWs.

The main attack phoneme is T.

All tonguing variants and attacks are available, and multiple-tonguing (TK; TKT, TTK)
is feasible for all brass instruments. Certain difficulties occur in extremes of register.

sfz:p (+ cresc.) is very effective, as is fluttertonguing [notated as for WWs].

One must be careful to notate precisely the type of accents required.

Overblowing

Different pitches are obtained by overblowing through the harmonic series. Various
harmonic series (based upon distinct fundamentals) are available through bringing to bear
different tube-lengths either with valves or with a slide (Tbn only). The embouchure
isolates individual tones within each harmonic series.

The 16th partial is the practical upper limit, usually.

~ 25 ~
 Certain harmonics are noticeably out of tune with respect to the equal-tempered scale:
harmonics 7, 11, 13 and 14. This state of affairs is not necessarily undesirable, and can even
be exploited as a positive attribute. e.g. Britten: Serenade for Tenor, Horn and Strings (Hn
solo).

Amateurs may find the fundamental pedal tone hard to produce.

Classical composers seldom went above the 12th partial unlike Baroque composers,
whose treatment of brass instruments was quite virtuosic in demanding both agility and
access to very high partials. e.g. J. S. Bach: Brandenburg Concerto No.2, 1st mnt (Tpt solo).

NB: a wide bore facilitates the production of higher partials, whereas a narrow bore
favours the production of higher partials.

Valves, Fingering and Intonation

Normally, Tpts and Hns possess 3 valves (1st valve is closest to the player); Tbas have
4 or more valves.

With 3 valves, brass instruments become fully chromatic, with maybe a gap only
between the highest pedal tone and lowest 2nd-partial tone.

Fingering: valve 1 lowers the pitch by a tone; valve 2 lowers the pitch by a semitone;
valve 3 lowers the pitch by a minor 3rd.

Number of semitones lowered

Fingering

0 semitones 000
1 semitone ~2~
2 semitones 1~~
3 semitones ~~3 or 12~
4 semitones ~23
5 semitones 1~3
6 semitones 123

Fine tuning is achieved with a (global) tuning slide, plus slides for the tube-lengths
controlled by each valve. In performance, some brasses Tpts use a compensating
slide to avoid sharpness in the low register when using various valve combinations
[explain].

Breathing and Phrasing

Brass instruments need much more breath than WWs. Because they are physically
more taxing, do allow sufficient rests so that the players can catch their breath and rest
their lips.

Do not put too many loud notes under one slur in slow tempo: louder tones consume

~ 26 ~
more air.

Dynamics

The brass section commands enormous dynamic power. Because they are able to
obliterate the rest of the orchestra, care must be taken in the orchestration itself to achieve
proper dynamic balance, without necessarily resorting to the obvious expedient of
marking down the brasses dynamic indications.

Most orchestration texts claim that brass instruments cannot be played as softly as
WWs or Strings. I strongly refute this although brass instruments average dynamics
are louder. Furthermore, the pianissimo of the (non-muted) brass choir is a uniquely
beautiful and effective orchestral device.

Mutes for Brass

In your score: use the same directives as for Strings (con sord., via sord., etc.).

All brass instruments can be muted by inserting a specially designed mute into the
bell. This can yield an extremely soft pp; but the main acoustic factors altered are timbre
and spatial projection (because the brass instruments spectrum is filtered and new
formants are created). Thus like Strings muting is requested for colouristic purposes;
indeed, loud muted brass is a quite normal orchestral effect.

Mutes may affect the viability of extreme pitches with respect to their production and
tuning, due to the mutes own resonance properties.

Allow sufficient time several seconds to insert and remove mutes.

Whilst there are only 2 different types of mute for Hn and (realistically) only 1 for
Tba, there are numerous forms of mute for Tpt and Tbn. Therefore, one must be fastidious
in specifying mute-types in score and parts for these instruments.

Types of mute for Tpt and Tbn: these must be experienced and mentally retained
before expertise will be acquired in handling them:

(a) straight mute (metal or fibre). This is the most common mute, employed whenever
only con sord. is indicated. It has a wide dynamic range, although the fibre mute is not as
penetrating as the metal straight mute in ff.

(b) cup mute [describe its shape]. The cup mute yields a rounder sound than the straight
mute, yet nasal and ethereal. NB: the cup itself can be moved on its cork slide. If the cup is
to be hard against the bell, write tight cup or cup tight against bell; this makes the
timbre darker and more muffled (also useful for amplified brass and solos).

NB: for these mutes, some air bypasses the mute.

(c) Harmon mute: by far the most sophisticated mute of all. [See also Stone, pp.200-202.]
[Describe its anatomy; draw a picture; source of its name?]

~ 27 ~
 A large variety of sounds are achievable through adjusting the stem (cookie cutter)
of the Harmon mute all the way in; extended fully; removed altogether and/or by
manipulating the hand over the stem: open; partially closed; to fully closed (potentially
imitating the vowel sounds of human speech [Erickson]).

extended stem of the Harmon mute (open) enhances higher partials, so that the sound
is even more nasal.

removal of the Harmon mutes stem changes the timbre completely: this could
virtually be called the Miles Davis mute, as Harmon mute minus the stem was a
favourite of his.

notation (of RH, activating the Harmon mutes stem): + = closed; + inside o = half
closed; o = open. And transitions are possible: + -------- o, etc.

Players must watch their tuning in the lower part of their instruments range when
using a Harmon mute (particularly if the stem is absent); and some very low pitches may
be hard to procure with a Harmon mute.

(d) whispa mute (= practice mute).

a whispa mute is essentially a straight mute stuffed with sound-absorbing material:

by far the softest sounding of all brass instrument mutes.

whispa-muted brass is almost inaudible when played softly; rattles occur (but sounds
at most mp!!) when the instrument is blown very hard.

Whispa mute is excellent for lontano (distant, offstage-sounding) effects.

Adler claims that high whispa-muted pitches can be difficult to produce, but this is
not so: the lowest pitches seem to be the most adversely affected.

NB: for these mutes, ALL air passes through the mute.

(e) other mute-like devices (plunger, Derby hat, hand on/in bell, playing into the music
stand, cloth in bell ...): see Adler, p.252 and Stiller.

Harmonic arpeggio, produced through varying the lip-tension. e.g. Stravinsky: Rite of
Spring.

Harmonic arpeggio is most effective in the upper register, where elements of the
harmonic series are intervallically closer together. It is easier ascending than descending
although jazz trumpeters and trombonists are expert at in both directions. On Tpt and
Hn: a sweeping and exciting gesture (not too vulgar); but more difficult on Tba (due to
inertia of its air-column).

Trills and Tremolos

There are 2 types: lip-trill and valve-trill. This rather complex subject shall be dealt with
in more detail when individual instruments are examined.

~ 28 ~
Score Presentation

Staves for the brasses are below WWs, in the order Hn, Tpt, Tbn, Tba [top to bottom].

4 Hns etc. on 2 (or more) staves; 3 Hns, 3 Tpts and 3 Tbns likewise; Tba(s) on 1 stave (or
more).

NB: often, the key signature is omitted for Hns and Tpts. (This is a vestige of the
Classical-period practice of writing crooked brass in the key of C.)

~ 29 ~
 LECTURE 10: ORCHESTRAL BRASS SPECIFICS

I was unable to continue typing my hand-written notes into this word processor, because the
briefcase containing them (the sole copy, alas) was stolen from my car, which was itself stolen
from the University of Sydney by some of the local Aboriginal youths (who were caught on
video stealing fuel for my car, but were never apprehended by the NSW Police).

~ 30 ~