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CHEMICAL BONDING
Ionic Bond or Electrovalent Bond
An ion is an atom or group of atoms which has acquired charge due to the loss or gain of one or more
electrons. When an atom gains an electron to form a negative ion (anion), it will increase in size. On the
other hand, when an atom loses an electron to give positive ion (cation), it will contract. The electron
lost or gained is always from the outermost shell.
When two atoms, one of which can lose one or more electrons to attain a noble gas configuration and
the other can receive these electrons and thereby acquire a noble gas configuration, they are said to be
bonded by an ionic bond. Since the loss and gain of electrons by atoms results in the formation of ions,
ionic bond is formed when two ions interact with each other and are thus held together by electrostatic
attraction. The formation of potassium chloride (KCl), is illustrated below.
K (1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 4s1 ) loses
K (1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 )
1 electron
gains
Cl (1s 2 2s2 2p6 3s 2 3p5 ) Cl (1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p6 )
1 electron (Ar configuration)
From the above illustrations, it is clear that the formation of an ionic compound is obviously related to
the ease of formation of the cations and anions from the neutral atoms which depends on two main
factors:
(i) Ionization energy: Lower the value of ionization energy of an atom, greater will be the ease of formation
of the cation from it.
(ii) Electron affinity: Higher the electron affinity of an atom, greater the ease of formation of the anion
from it.
Lattice Energy
When one mole of an ionic solid is formed from its constituent gaseous ions, the energy released is
called the lattice energy.
Energetics of Formation of Ionic Substances: The energy included in the formation of an ionic compound
from its constituent elements may be considered as shown by the Born-Haber Cycle for the formation
of one mole of sodium chloride from sodium and chlorine.
Na (s ) Sublimatio Na (g ) e
n Na ( g )
S I
1 of e -
Cl 2 (g ) Dissociati
on
Cl ( g ) Addition
Cl (g )
2 1 / 2 D* E A
Na (g ) Cl (g ) Crystal
formation
NaCl (S)
U
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
More the negative value of the heat of formation, greater would be the stability of the ionic compound
produced. Thus on the basis of the above equation, formation of an ionic compound is favoured by
a) low ionization energy (I) of the metal.
b) high electron affinity (EA) of the other element.
c) higher lattice energy (U) of the resulting compound.
Formation of Ions with Higher Charges: Formation of a cation with unit positive charge is easy if the first
ionization energy is low as in the case of alkali metals. Alkaline earth metals ionizes in two successive
steps.
+
Mg Mg + e
Mg+ Mg + e
2+
But energy needed to ionize alkaline earth metals are higher than alkali metals.
However, bipositive ions like Mg2+, Ca2+, Sr2+ and Ba2+ are quite common. Formation of a tripositive
ion like Al3+ requires much more energy (= 5138 kJ) which is not available ordinarily. Successive
ionization energies of aluminium are:
Al E1
Al e E1=577kJ
E2
Al Al2 e E2=1816kJ
E3
Al2 Al3 e E3=2745kJ
It is on this account that most of aluminium compounds are covalent. In solution, however, aluminiumis
known to give hydrated ions [Al.6H2O]3+. This is possible because of the high heat of hydration of Al3+.
The energy liberated during hydration of ions is sufficient for ionization.
Similarly, anions with unit negative charge (e.g. Cl1, Br, I) are very common. This is because the
electron affinity of these atoms is positive and quite high. Formation of anions carrying two units of
negative charge (e.g. S2, O2) is not so easy as their electron affinities are negative i.e., energy is
needed to add second electron. Formation of anions carrying three units of negative charge (e.g. N3,
P3) is almost rare.
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
H H Cl Cl
Hydrogen molecule Chlorine molecule
(Both formed by equal sharing of H F
electrons between the atoms, i.e., by
non-polar bonds)
d
In the case of hydrogen fluoride the bond is polar as the electron pair is unequally shared. Fluorine has
a greater attraction for electrons or has higher electronegativity than hydrogen and the shared pair of
electrons is nearer to the fluorine atom than hydrogen atom. The hydrogen end of the molecule, therefore,
appears positive with respect to fluorine.
Bond polarities affect both physical and chemical properties of compounds containing polar bond. The
polarity of a bond determines the kind of reaction that can take place at that bond and even affects the
reactivity at nearby bonds. The polarity of bonds can lead to polarity of molecules and affect melting
point, boiling point and solubility.
Dipole Moment: It is vector quantity and is defined as the product of the magnitude of charge on any of the
atom and the distance between the atoms. It is represented by .
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
Illustration 1: The dipole moment of KCl is 3.336 1029 Cm. The interatomic distance K+andCl
ion in KCl is 260 pm. Calculate the dipole moments of KCl, if there were opposite
charges of the fundamental unit located at each nucleus. Calculate the percentage ionic
character of KCl.
Solution: From the given data
q = 1.602 1019C
r = 260 pm = 260 1012 m = 2.6 1010 m
Magnitude of dipole moment for 100% ionic character
|| = qr = (1.602 1019) (2.6 1010) = 4.165 1029 Cm
Actual dipole moment = 3.336 1029 Cm
3.336 10 29
% of ionic bond = 100 = 80.1%
4.165 10 29
The bond is 80.1% ionic.
In general a polar bond is established between two atoms of different radii and different electronegativities
while positive centres (nuclei) of different magnitudes combine to share an electron pair. Greater the
values of the dipole moment, greater is the polarity of the bond.
The following points may be borne in mind regarding dipole moments:
i) In case a molecule contains two or more polar bonds, its dipole moment is obtained by the vectorial
addition of the dipole moments of the constituent bonds.
ii) A symmetrical molecule is non-polar even though it contains polar bonds.
For example, carbon dioxide, methane and carbon tetrachloride, being symmetrical molecules, have
zero dipole moments.
Dipole moment of methyl chloride is a vectorial addition of dipole moments of three C H bonds and
one C Cl bond.
H Cl Cl
H F C C C
H H Cl Cl H H
1.75d
H Cl H
0D 0D 1.86D
Dipole moment gives valuable information about the structure of molecules. For example, carbon dioxide
is assigned a linear structure since its dipole moment is zero.
We have seen that in a polar covalent bond between two atoms (say A and B), there is a partial
separation of charge. This bond is, therefore, said to have a partial ionic character. Greater the difference
of electronegativity between A and B, greater is the degree of ionic character (or polarity measured by
dipole moment of AB) of the bond. Pauling gave a fairly accurate rule by which the nature of the bond
can be predicted. According to this rule, If the difference on the electronegativity scale between
the two atoms is 1.9, the bond is 50% ionic in character. When the difference is greater than 1.9,
the bond is correspondingly more ionic. For example, when the electro negativity difference is 0.8,
1.2, 2.2 and 2.6, the corresponding partial ionic character is 12%, 25%, 61% and 74% respectively.
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
Conductivity: Covalent substances (whether of the molecular lattice or giant molecule type) do not conduct
electricity in the fused state since there are no free electrons or ions to carry the current. However,
substances like graphite which consists of separate layers conduct electricity because the electrons
have a passage in between the two flat layers.
Solubility: The characteristic solubility of covalent compounds in non-polar solvents such as benzene and
carbon tetrachloride can be described to the similar covalent nature of the molecules of solute and
solvent (i.e., like dissolves like). Covalent compounds in solution react more slowly as compared with
the ionic compounds which react instantaneously in solution. The solubility of covalent compounds is,
however, very much dependent upon the size of the molecule. Thus covalent substances having
giant molecules are insoluble in virtually all solvents due to the big size of the molecule unit.
Fajans Rules
When two oppositely charged ions approach each other closely, the positively charged cation attracts
the outermost electrons of the anion and repel its positively charged nucleus. This results in the distortion
or polarization of the anion followed by some sharing of electrons between the two ions, i.e., the bond
becomes partly covalent in character.
i) Charge on Either of the ions: As the charge on the cation increases, its tendency to polarize the anion
increases. This brings more and more covalent nature in the electrovalent compound. Whereas with the
increasing charge of anion, its ability to get polarized, by the cation, also increases.
For example, in the case of NaCl, MgCl2 and AlCl3 the polarization increases, thereby covalent character
becomes more and more as the charge on the cation increases.
Similarly, lead forms two chlorides PbCl2 and PbCl4 having charges +2 and +4 respectively. PbCl4
shows covalent nature. Similarly among NaCl, Na2S, Na3P, the charge of the anions are increasing,
therefore the increasing order of covalent character.
NaCl < Na2S < Na3P
ii) Size of the cation: Polarisation of the anion increases as the size of the cation decreases i.e., the
electrovalent compounds having smaller cations show more of the covalent nature. For example, in the
case of halides of alkaline earth metals, the covalent character decreases as we move down the group.
Hence melting point increases in the order of
BeCl2 < MgCl2 < CaCl2 < SrCl2 < BaCl2
iii) Size of anion: The larger the size of the anion, more easily it will be polarized by the cation i.e., as the
size of the anion increases for a given cation, the covalent character increases. For example, in the case
of halides of calcium, the covalent character increases from F anion to I anion i.e.
2 CaF CaCl CaBr CaI
2 2
2
increasing covalent character
Similarly, in case of trihalides of aluminium, the covalent character increases with increase in size of
halide anion i.e.
AlF3 AlCl3 AlBr3 AlI3
Covalent character increases as the
size of the halide ion increases
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
iv) Nature of the cation: Cations with 18 electrons (s2p6d10) in outermost shell polarize an anion more
strongly than cations of 8 electrons (s2p6) type. The d electrons of the 18 electron shell screen the
nuclear charge of the cation less effectively than the s and p electrons of the 18-electron shell. Hence
the 18-electron cations behave as if they had a greater charge. Copper (I) and Silver (I) halides are
more covalent in nature compared with the corresponding sodium and potassium halides although
charge on the ions is the same and the sizes of the corresponding ions are similar. This illustrates the
effect of 18-electron configuration of Cu+ (3s2, p6, d10) and Ag+ (4s2, p6, d10) ions.
Illustration 4: The decomposition temperature of Li2CO3 is less than that of Na2CO3. Explain.
Solution: As Li+ ion is smaller than Na+ ion, thus small cation (Li+) will favour more covalent character in
Li2CO3 and hence it has lower decomposition temperature than that of Na2CO3.
BRAIN TEASER 1:
SnCl2 is solid whereas SnCl4 is liquid, why?
Hydrogen Bonding
In 1920, Latimer and Rodebush introduced the idea of hydrogen bond to explain the nature of
association in liquid state of substance like water, hydrogen fluoride, ammonia, formic acid etc. In a
hydrogen compound, when hydrogen is bonded to highly electronegative atom (such as F, O, N) by a
covalent bond, the electron pair is attracted towards electronegative atom so strongly that a dipole
results i.e., one end carries a positive charge (H-end) and other end carries a negative charge (X-end).
X H or X H
Electro-negative atom
If a number of such molecules are brought nearer to each other, the positive end of one molecule and
negative end of the other molecule will attract each other and weak electrostatic force will develop.
Thus, these molecules will associate together to form a cluster of molecules.
X H X H X H X H X H
The attractive force that binds hydrogen atom of one molecule with electronegative atom of the other
molecule of the same or different substance is known as hydrogen bond.
Hydrogen bonding is of two types:
a) Intermolecular hydrogen bonding: This type of bonding results between the positive and negative
ends of different molecules of the same or different substances.
Example
H H H H H
i) Ammonia N H N H N H N H N H
H H H H H
H H H H
ii) Water O H O H O H O H
O H O
iii) Acetic acid H3C CH3
O H O
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
This type of hydrogen bonding increases the boiling point of the compound and also its solubility in
water. The increase in boiling point is due to association of several molecules of the compound.
b) Intramolecular hydrogen bonding: This type of bonding results between hydrogen and an
electronegative element both present in the same molecule. This type of bonding is generally present in
organic compounds. Examples are o-nitro-phenol, o-hydroxy benzoic acid, etc.
O - O -
H H
O O
N
O O
o-Nitrophenol o-Hydroxy benzoic acid
This type of bonding decreases the boiling point of the compound. The solubility of the compound also
decreases. Hence compound becomes more volatile.
100 100
H2O
HF
Melting points (C) increasing
H 2Se
Boiling points (C) increasing
H2O
VIA
0 0
H 2Se H 2 Se SbH3
VIA NH3 H2S VA
H 2 Se VIIIA VIIIA
HI
H2S HI
NH 3 VA HCl
HBr SbH 3 HBr
HCl IVA
-100 HF -100 SnH4
PH3 GeH 4
AsH 3
PH3 SnH4 SnH4
IVA
GeH 4
CH 4 SnH 4 CH 4
-200 -200
Molecular weight increasing Molecular weight increasing
(a) (b)
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
ii) Ice has less density than water. The explanation of this fact is as follows: In the crystal structure of ice,
the O-atom is surrounded by four H-atoms. Two H-atoms are linked to O-atom by covalent bonds as
shown (by normal covalent bond) and the remaining two H-atoms are linked to O-atom by two H-
bonds shown by dotted lines. Thus in ice every water molecule is associated with four other water
molecules by H-bonding in a tetrahedral fashion. Ice has an open cage like structure with a large empty
space due to the existence of H-bonds. As ice melts at 0C, a number of H-bonds are broken down
and the space between water molecules decreases so that water molecules move closer together. The
density of water increases, from 0 to 4C, and at 4C it is maximum. Above 4C the increase in
kinetic energy of the molecules is sufficient to cause the molecules to begin to disperse and the result is
that the density decrease with increasing temperature.
H H
2.76 1.80
-
H Open cage-like tetrahedral crystal structure
of ice. Circles indicate oxygen atoms.
0.96
0.96
Bonds represented by solid line are normal
covalent bonds while those represented by
water molecule
H dotted lines are hydrogen bonds.
H H
H H
H
BRAIN TEASER 2:
Although HF forms stronger hydrogen bond than H2O, Hv of H2O is greater than that of HF why?
Coordinate Bond
It is a special type of covalent bond in which both the shared electrons are contributed by one atom
only. It may be defined as a covalent bond in which both electrons of the shared pair are
contributed by one of the two atoms. Such a bond is also called as dative bond. A coordinate or a
dative bond is established between two such atoms, one of which has a complete octet and possesses
a pair of valence electrons while the other is short of a pair of electrons.
xx xx
A + B xx A Bx or A B
xx xx x
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
i) Formation of ammonium ion: Hydrogen ion (H+) has no electrons and thus accepts a lone pair
donated by nitrogen.
H H
+
H N + H H N H
H H
ii) Formation of CO: Carbon has four valency electrons and oxygen has six. They combine to form two
double bond and a coordinate bond as to achieve their octet completed.
xx
C + xxOxx C Oxx
Acceptor Donor
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
In a similar way, SF6 has six bond pairs in the outer shell and is a regular octahedron with bond angles
of exactly 90. In BrF5, the Br also has six outer pairs of electrons, made up of five bond pairs and one
lone pair. The lone pair reduces the bond angles to 8430. Whilst it might be expected that two lone
pairs would distort the bond angles in an octahedral as in XeF4 but it is not so. Actual bond angle is 90,
reason being that the lone pairs are trans to each other in the octahedron, and hence the atoms have a
regular square planar arrangement.
Molecules with five pairs of electrons are all based on a trigonal bipyramid. Lone pairs distort the
structures as before. The lone pairs always occupy the equatorial positions (in an triangle), rather than
the axial positions (up and down).Thus in I 3 ion, the central I atom has five electron pairs in the outer
shell, made of two bond pairs and three lone pairs. The lone pairs occupy all three equatorial positions
and the three atoms occupy the top, middle, and bottom positions in the trigonal bipyramid, thus giving
a linear arrangement with a bond angle of exactly 180.
Effect of Electronegativity: NF3 and NH3 both have structures based on a tetrahedron with one
corner occupied by a lone pair. The high electronegativity of F push the bonding electrons further away
from N than in NH3. Hence the lone pair in NF3 causes a greater distortion from tetrahedral and gives
a F N F bond angle of 10230, compared with 10748 in NH3. The same effect is found in H2O
(bond angle 10427) and F2O (bond angle 102).
The effects of bonding and lone pairs on bond angles
Orbitals on Shape Number of Number of central atom
bond pairs lone pairs Bond angle
BeCl2 2 Linear 2 0 180
BF3 3 Plane triangle 3 0 120
CH4 4 Tetrahedral 4 0 10928
NH3 4 Pyramidal 3 1 10748
NF3 4 Pyramidal 3 1 10230
H 2O 4 Bent (V-shape) 2 2 10427
F2O 4 Bent (V-shape) 2 2 102
PCl5 5 Trigonal bipyramid 5 0 120 & 90
SF4 5 Trigonal bipyramid 4 1 10136 & 8633
ClF3 5 T-shape 3 2 8740
XeF2 5 Linear 2 3 180
SF6 6 Octahedral 6 0 90
BrF5 6 Square pyramidal 5 1 8430
XeF4 6 Square planar 4 2 90
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
Note: Thus PCl5 is highly reactive, and in the solid state it splits into [PCl4]+ and [PCl6] ions, which have
tetrahedral and octahedral structures respectively.
Cl
Cl Cl
P
Cl
Cl
Structure of PCl5 molecule
Chlorine trifluoride ClF3: The chlorine atom is at the centre of the molecule and determines its shape.
The electronic configuration of Cl is 1s22s22p63s23p5. Three electrons form bonds to F, and four electrons
do not take part in bonding. Thus in ClF3, the Cl atom has five electron pairs in the outer shell, hence the
structure is a trigonal bipyramid. There are three bond pairs and two lone pairs.
It was noted previously that a trigonal bipyramid is not a regular shape since the bond angles are not all
the same. It therefore follows that all the corners are not equivalent. Lone pair occupy two of the
corners, and F atoms occupy the other three corners. Three different arrangements are theoretically
possible, as shown in figure below.
The most stable structure will be the one of lowest energy, that is the one with the minimum repulsion
between the five orbitals. The great repulsion occurs between two lone pairs. Lone pair bond pair
repulsions are next strongest, and bond pair-bond pair repulsions are weakest. Groups at 90 repel
each other strongly, whilst groups 120 apart repel each other much less.
F F
F F F F
Cl Cl Cl
F F
F
I II III
Chlorine trifluoride molecule
Structure I is the most symmetrical, but has six 90 repulsions between lone pairs and atoms. Structure
II has one 90 repulsion between two lone pairs, plus three 90 repulsions between lone pairs and
atoms. These factors indicate that structure III is the most probable. The observed bond angles are
8040, which is close to the theoretical 90. This confirms that the correct structure is III, and the slight
distortion from 90 is caused by the presence of the two lone pairs.
As a general rule, if lone pairs occur in a trigonal bipyramid they will be located in the equatorial position
(round the middle) rather than the axial positions (top and bottom), since this arrangement minimizes
repulsive forces.
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
Sulphur hexafluoride SF6: The electronic structure of S is 1s22s22p63s23p6. All six of the outer electrons
are used to form bonds with the F atoms. Thus in SF6, the S has six electron pairs in the outer shell:
hence the structure is octahedral. There are no lone pairs, so the structure is completely regular with
bond angles of 90.
F
F F
F F
2p
2s 2px 2py 2p z
Electronic structure of
carbon atom - groun state
1s 2s 2p
Carbon atom - excited
state
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
CH4 molecule uses its three p-orbitals px, py and pz, which are mutually at right angles to each other, and
the s orbital is spherically symmetrical. Hence they form tetrahedral structure.
CH4 H C H = 10928
Molecular axis
b) s p overlapping
c) p p overlapping
head on
overlap
pz pz p-p overlap M.O.
2. Pi bond ( bond): The bond formed by the lateral overlapping of half filled atomic orbitals is known as
pi bond. The sidewise overlapping takes place to less extent. Therefore, bond formed is a weak
bond. bond overlapping takes place only at the sides of two lobes. A bond is formed when a
bond already exists between the combining atoms.
Example:
In A B molecule the bond formed is bond.
In A B, molecule there are one and one bonds
In A B, molecule there are one and two bonds
Thus, all the single bonds are bonds. Double bond has one and one bond. Triple bond has one
and two bonds.
Hybridisation
It is the mathematically fabricated concept that is introduced to explain the geometry/shapes of the
covalent molecules of polyatomic ions containing covalent bonds.
It is a process of intermixing of atomic orbitals with small difference in energy and belonging to the same
atom, at the time of bonding so as to give another set of orbitals with equivalent shapes and energies.
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
sp3 Hybridisation: In ground state, the electronic configuration of carbon is 1s2, 2s2, 2p2. It is proposed that
from 2s orbital, being quite near in energy to 2p orbitals, one electron may be promoted to the vacant
2pz orbital thus obtaining the excited atom. At this stage the carbon atom undoubtedly has four half-
filled orbitals and can form four bonds. In the excited atom, all the four valence shell orbitals may mix up
to give four identical sp3 hybrid orbitals. Each of these four sp3 orbital possesses one electron and
overlaps with 1s orbitals of four H atoms thus forming four equivalent bonds in methane molecule. Due
to the tetrahedral disposition of sp3 hybrid orbitals, the orbital are inclined at an angle of 109 28. Thus
all the H C H angles are equal to 109 28
2p 2p
Promotion sp3
Energy
of an electron Hybridisation
2s 2s
Ground State Excited State Hybridised State
H
H
109.5
C
H H
H H
H H
sp2 Hybridisation: When three out of the four valence obritals of carbon atom in excited state hybridize, we
have three sp2 hybrid orbitals lying in a plane and inclined at an angle of 120. If 2s and 2p, orbitals of
the excited carbon atom are hybridized, the new orbitals lie in the xy plane while the fourth pure 2pz
orbitals lies at right angles to the hybridized orbitals with its two lobes disposed above and below the
plane of hybrid orbitals. Two such carbon atoms are involved in the formation of alkenes (compounds
having double bonds). In the formation of ethene two carbon atoms (in sp2 hybridization state) form
one sigma bond by head-on overlap of two sp2 orbitals contributed one each by the two atoms. The
remaining two sp2 orbitals of each carbon form bonds with H atoms. The unhybridized 2p, orbitals of
the two carbon atoms undergo a side-wise overlap forming a bond. Thus the carbon to carbon
double bond in ethene is made of one bond and one bond. Since the energy of a bond is less than
that of a bond, the two bonds constituting the ethene molecule are not identical in strength. The
molecule is a planar one.
Pure p-orbital
2p 2p
Promotion sp2
Energy
of an electron Hybridisation
sp2 hybrid
orbitals
2s 2s
Ground State Excited State
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
pz pz
H H H
H
sp 2 C C sp 2 2
sp 2 sp
H sp 2 sp 2 H H
H
Types of hybridization and spatial orientation of hybrid orbitals: The geometry and shapes of various
species on the basis of VSEPR theory along with hybrid state of central atom is given below in tabular
form.
Types of atomic orbitals used Hybridisation Orientation of Examples
hybrid orbitals
1. one s + one p-orbital sp Linear BeF2 , BeCl 2 , C 2 H 2 , HgCl 2
2. one s + two p-orbitals sp 2 Trigonal planar BF3 , C 2 H 4 , NO 3 , CO 32
3. one s + three p-orbitals sp 3 Tetrahedral
Method of predicting the Hybrid state of the central atom in covalent molecules of polyatomic ions:
The hybrid state of the central atom in similar covalent molecule or polyatomic ion can be predicted by
using the generalized formula as described below :
Simple Molecule Polyatomic Anion Polyatomic Cation
1 1 1
X [V G] X [V G a ] X [ V G c]
2 2 2
In the above formulae,
V = Number of monovalent atoms or groups attached to the central atom
G = Number of outer shell electrons in ground state of the central atom
a = Magnitude of charge on anion
c = Magnitude of charge on cation
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
Calculate the value of X and decide the hybrid state of central atom as follows :
X 2 3 4 5 6 7
Hybrid state sp sp 2 sp 3 sp 3 d sp 3 d 2 sp 3 d 3
PF5 COCl 2 NH 4 ClO 4
X 12 [5 5] X 12 [2 4] X 12 [4 5 1] X 12 [0 7 1]
=5 =3 =4 =4
Hybrid state of P is sp 3 d Hybrid state of C is sp 2
Hybrid state of N is sp 3 Hybrid state of Cl is sp 3
NO 3 IF5 CO 2 XeF4
X 12 [0 5 1] X 12 [5 7] X 12 [0 4] X 12 [ 4 8]
=3 =6 =2 =6
sp 2 sp 3 d 2 sp sp 3 d 2
PCl 6 PH3 SF3 SF4
X 12 [6 5 1] X 12 [3 5] X 12 [3 6 1] X 12 [4 6]
=6 =4 =4 =5
Hybrid state Hybrid state Hybrid state Hybrid state
sp 3 d 2 sp 3 sp 3 sp 3 d
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
Bond order: It may be defined as the half the difference between the number of electrons present in the
bonding orbitals and the anti-bonding orbitals i.e.
No. of electrons in BMO - No. of electrons in ABMO
Bond order (B.O.) =
2
A positive bonding order suggest a stable molecule while a negative bond order or zero bond order
suggest an unstable molecule.
Magnetic Behaviour: If all the molecular orbitals in species are spin paired, the substance is diamagnetic.
However, if one or more molecular orbitals are singly occupied it is paramagnetic.
Illustration 2 Arrange the species O2, O2, O22 and O2+ in the decreasing order of bond order and
stability and also indicate their magnetic properties.
Solution: The molecular orbital configuration of O2, O2, O22 and O22+areasfollows:
O2 = 1s2, *1s2, 2s2, *2s2, 2px2, 2py2, 2pz2, *2py1 = *2pz1
10 - 6
Bond order = 2 , No. of unpaired electrons = 2
2
paramagnetic
O2 = 1s2, *1s2, 2s2, *2s2, 2px2, 2py2, 2pz2, *2py2 = *2pz1
10 - 5
Bond order = 2.5 , No. of unpaired electrons = 1
2
paramagnetic
O22 = 1s2, *1s2, 2s2, *2s2, 2px2, 2py2, 2pz2, *2py2 = *2pz2
10 - 8
Bond order = 1 , No. of unpaired electrons = 0
2
diamagnetic
O2+ = 1s2, *1s2, 2s2, *2s2, 2px2, 2py2, 2pz2, *2py1 = *2pz0
10 - 5
Bond order = 2.5 , No. of unpaired electrons = 1
2
paramagnetic
Now as the bond order decreases in the order O2+ O2 O2 O22
So, same will be the stability order of the above species because stability is directionally proportional to
bond order.
Note: Bond length is inversely proportional to bond order.
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
LEVEL- I
Q.1 Which of the following has zero dipole moment ?
(A) NH3 (B) H2O (C) BCl3 (D) SO2
Q.2 Which of the following has maximum bond energy ?
(A) H O H (B) H S H (C) H Te H (D) H Se H
Q.3 Which of the following statements is false ?
(A) there will be 25% s character in hybrid orbitals if the angle between two hybrid orbital is 105
(B) in HClO4. HClO3 and HClO2 . number of valance electrons will be 32.26 and 20. respectively
(C) bond length is inversely proportional to bond order
(D) dipole moment of CH2Cl2 is zero
Q.4 The bond present in CuSO4.5H2O will be
(A) ionic bond and hydrogen bond (B) covalent bond
(C) coordinate bond (D) all of the above
Q.5 Ionic compound is
(A) H2O (B) HCl (C) Csl (D) NH3
Q.6 If A (s) A+ (g) + e ................. 600 KJ mol1/2
1
B (g) + e B (g) .......... 260 KJ mol1
2 2
1
A (s) + B2 (g) AB (s) ....... 550 KJ mol1
2
then lattice energy of AB (s) will be
(A) 160 (B) 890 (C) 420 (D) + 360
Q.7 Which of the following ions gives cyanide ion in aqueous solution ?
(A) potassium ferrocyanide (B) potassium ferricyanide
(C) potassium cyanide (D) potassium cobaltcyanide
Q.8 Nature of bond between two nonmetal atoms will be
(A) Van der waals (B) covalent (C) ionic (D) all of the above
Q.9 If the formula of a compound is X2 Y5, then what will be the numbers of electrons present in the valance
shells of X and Y, respectively ?
(A) 5 and 6 (B) 6 and 3 (C) 2 and 3 (D) 5 and 2
Q.10 The compound with two lone pairs and two bond electrons is
(A) SCl2 (B) PH3 (C) NH3 (D) HF
Q.11 Which of the following has maximum melting point ?
(A) SiC (B) Al4Cl3 (C) CO2 (D) Cl2
Q.12 Covalent compound is
(A) K2O (B) Cl2O (C) CaO (D) MgO
Q.13 A molecule MX3 has zero dipole moment. The orbitals used by M in the formation of bond will be-
(A) pure p (B) sp2 (C) sp (D) sp3d
Q.14 Which of the following ions has an atom in a state of sp2 hybridisation ?
(A) BeF3 (B) NF3 (C) OF2 (D) H3O+
Q.15 Which of the following statements is false for BF3 ?
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
Q.39 What will be the ionic potential , when nature of the oxide of a metal is basic ?
(A) > 2.2 and < 3.2 (B) > 2.2 (C) > 3.2 (D) < 2.2
Q.40 Which of the following does not have sp3 hybridisation ?
(A) BF4 (B) H3O+ (C) OF2 (D) BF3
Q.41 Sulphur have maximum covalency
(A) 3 (B) 4 (C) 5 (D) 6
Q.42 Which of the following has least ionic character ?
(A) Cu2Cl2 (B) KCl (C) CsCl (D) BaCl2
Q.43 Which of the following are correctly matched ?
Compound Hybridisation
1. Graphite sp3
2. NH4+ sp2
3. XeF2 sp3d2
4. SF4 sp3d
(A) 4 (B) 3 (C) 2 (D) 1
Q.44 Formula of the phosphate of a metal is MHPO4. What will be the formula of its chloride
(A) MCl (B) MCl2 (C) MCl3 (D) M2Cl2
Q.45 The central atom of which of the following compounds has four bond pairs and two lone pairs
(A) SF4 (B) XeF4 (C) NH+4 (D) SF6
Q.46 Three soluble salts of three metals A (Atomic weight 7), B (atomic weight 27) and C (atomic weigh 64)
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
on electrolysis liberate 2.1, 2.7 and 9.6 grams of metals, respectively at the electrode. The valencies of
the metals are, respectively ,
(A) 1, 3 and 2 (B) 3, 1 and 2 (C) 3, 1 and 3 (D) 2, 2 and 3
Q.47 Incorrect information about Cl2O is
(A) angular structure (B) 110 bond angle (C) four lone pairs (D) two bonds
Q.48 Maximum energy is released from which process ?
(A) F + F F2 (B) N + N N2 (C) Cl + Cl Cl2 (D) O + O O2
Q.49 False statements about CO2 is that
(A) its dipole moment is zero (B) its solid form is called dry ice
(C) it is diamagnetic (D) hybridisation state of C and O is same
Q.50 What will be the energy of the system on bringing x and y atoms closer upto bond distance ?
(A) infinity (B) minimum (C) maximum (D) zero
Q.51 Bond angle of HCN is similar to all of the following except
(A) BeF2 (B) C2H2 (C) OF2 (D) CO2
Q.52 When a molecule breaks, then
(A) it absorbs energy (B) it transmits energy
(C) it neither transmit nor absorbs energy (D) it transmit as well as absorbs energy
Q.53 Which of the following statements in true for hybridisation ?
(A) sp3 hybridisation is found in SiF4. SnCl4. ClO4, SO42, NH4+ and NH3
(B) sp hybridisation is found in BeCl2, BeF2 , BeH2, Hg Cl2. ZnCl2, CO2, C2H2 and HCN
(C) sp2 hybridisation is found in BeF3, BCl3, BH3, C2H4 AlCl3, NO31
(D) all of the above are correct.
Q.54 Which of the following statements is true for [Cu(NH3)4]2+ ?
(A) tetrahedral configuration and all paired electrons
(B) square planar configuration and one unpaired electron
(C) square planar configuration and all paired electrons
(D) none of the above
Q.55 What is the reason that ionic compounds do not show stereo isomerism
(A) presence of ions (B) nondirectional nature of ionic bond
(C) brittle nature (D) electrostatic forces of attraction between ions
Q.56 In which of the following compounds, the coordinate bond is not present ?
(A) CuSO4 (B) H2O (C) BF4 (D) AlCl4
Q.57 Bond length of which of the following types of bonds is maximum ?
(A) sp2 sp2 (B) sp sp (C) sp3 sp3 (D) sp3 sp2
Q.58 Which of the following is correct for CO2 ?
(A) nonpolar with polar bonds (B) polar with nonpolar bonds
(C) polar with polar bonds (D) all of the above are wrong
Q.59 Which of the following statements is true ?
(A) there is H-bonding in aqueous hydrochloric acid
(B) dipole moment of NF3 is more than the dipole moment of NH3
(C) dipole moment of CCl4 is less than the dipole moment of CHI3
(D) positions of atoms get changed in resonance
Q.60 In a compound, 50% X (valency 1) and 50% Y (valency 1) are present, then the formula of the
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
compound will be
(A) X2Y (B) XY (C) XY2 (D) X2Y3
Q.61 Electronic configuration of an atom is ns2 np2 , which forms 2 and 2 bonds in a hydrocarbon, then
hybridisation state and bond angle of the atom will be
(A) sp, 180 (B) sp2, 120 (C) sp3, 109 28 (D) dsp2, 90
Q.62 Which of the following compound is not known ?
(A) OF2 (B) SF4 (C) SF6 (D) OF6
Q.63 Which of the following bonds should have higher polarity than the remaining three
(A) C F (B) C O (C) C B (D) C H
Q.64 Which of the following has maximum melting point ?
(A) ionic crystal (B) covalent crystal (C) metallic crystal (D) molecular crystal
Q.65 Inorganic graphite is
(A) boron nitrate (B) boron nitride (BN)
(C) boron carbonate (D) none of the above
Q.66 The type of bond between the layers in graphite is
(A) vander waals force (B) covalent
(C) coordinate (D) ionic
Q.67 Anhydrous HCl is
(A) an acid (B) a base (C) a salt (D) a covalent compound
Q.68 Which of the following has ionic and covalent bonds ?
(A) OF2 (B) KCl (C) AIN (D) KCN
Q.69 Which of the following oxides is most acidic ?
(A) MnO2 (B) Mn2O3 (C) Mn2O7 (D) MnO
Q.70 Which of the following has least bond energy
(A) C O (B) C = O (C) C C (D) C = C
Q.71 Which of the following has minimum bond energy
(A) O H (B) Cl H (C) C H (D) N H
Q.72 p p overlapping is not possible in
(A) Cl2 (B) O2 (C) N2 (D) H2
Q.73 A bond is formed O2 by overlapping of
(A) 2py 2pz (B) 2py 2s (C) 2pz 2s (D) 2pz 2pz
Q.74 Highest bond angle will be in
(A) H2O (B) H2S (C) H2Se (D) H2Te
Q.75 Which of the following ions has tetrahedral geometry
(A) Na+ (B) NH4+ (C) Mg+2 (D) CO32
Q.76 Which of the followin molecules has hybridisdation on central atom different from that on the remaining
three ?
(A) SiH4 (B) CH4 (C) BF4 (D) [Ni(CN4)2]
Q.77 Which of following has square planar geometry ?
(A) XeF4 (B) SiCl4 (C) NH4+ (D) BF41
Q.78 Molecule having zero dipole moment is
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
LEVEL - II
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
Q.55 The cation having ns2, np6, ndx configuration in which 2 + 6 + x = 9 to 18, are generally formed by
(A) alkali metals (B) alkaline earth metals
(C) transition elements (D) inner transition elements
Q.56 Total number of lone pairs in N2H4 should be
(A) 3 (B) 2 (C) 1 (D) 5
Q.57 Which of the following is angular molecule ?
(A) NO2 (B) HgCl2 (C) BeF2 (D) SO3
Q.58 A covalent compound is good conductor of electricity. Which of the following is true for this
compound ?
(A) single macromolecule (B) molecule formed by separate layers
(C) ionic molecule (D) all of the above
Q.59 Which of the following starred atoms does not have a lone pair of electrons ?
(A) (B) (C) (D)
Q.60 Which of the following cations is capable of maximum polarising the chloride ion ?
(A) Ca+2 (B) Zn+2 (C) Sr+2 (D) K+
Q.61 Most stable carbonate is
(A) CaCO3 (B) BaCO3 (C) SrCO3 (D) MgCO3
Q.62 Which of the following has highest bond energy
(A) C Cl (B) C Br (C) C I (D) C F
Q.63 Which of the following molecules is bent
(A) CO2 (B) O3 (C) N2O (D) none of these
Q.64 In hybridisation process
(A) hybrid orbitals have strong attraction between them.
(B) shape of hybrid orbitals is different
(C) orbitals of almost equal energy hybridise in a single atoms
(D) hybrid orbitals formed are nondirectional
Q.65 Molecular orbital is formed by theoverlap of two atomic orbitals. It will be called
(A) ionic bond (B) covalent bond (C) coordinate bond (D) hydrogen bond
Q.66 Number of coordinate bonds in SO3 molecule, will be
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4
Q.67 Which of the following has minimum energy ?
(A) bond (B) bond (C) ionic bond (D) hydrogen bond
Q.68 Which of the following compound is covalent ?
(A) H2 (B) CaO (C) KCl (D) Na2S
Q.69 Strongest bond in between
(A) NaCl (B) CsCl (C) both (D) none
Q.70 Which of the following has a linear shape ?
(A) B2H6 (B) BeF2 (C) AlCl3 (D) SO2
Q.71 In which of the following the angle between the two covalent bonds is greatest ?
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
(C) double bond is stronger than a sigma bond (D) covalent bond is stronger than hydrogen bond
Q.87 Which atomic orbital is always involved in sigma bonding only
(A) s (B) p (C) d (D) f
Q.88 Which involves breaking of covalent bond
(A) boiling H2S (B) melting KCN (C) melting SiO2 (D) boiling CF4
Q.89 Fluorine molecule is formed by the overlapping of
(A) s-p orbitals (B) s-s orbitals
(C) p-p orbitals by end to end manner (D) p-p orbitals by sides to sides manner
Q.90 Which does not apply to metallic bond
(A) overlapping (B) mobile valency electrons
(C) delocalised electrons (D) none
Q.91 Most covalent halide of aluminium is
(A) AlCl3 (B) AlI3 (C) AlBr3 (D) AlF3
Q.92 The number of lone pairs is same in PCl3 and
(A) BCl3 (B) NCl3 (C) CCl4 (D) PCl5
Q.93 Which does not show hydrogen bonding
(A) C2H5OH (B) liquid NH3 (C) H2O (D) liquid HBr
Q.94 Which of the following has unchanged valency
(A) H (B) Na (C) Fe (D) O
Q.95 A molecule in which sp2-hybrid orbitals are used by the central atom in forming covalent bond is
(A) He2 (B) SO2 (C) PCl5 (D) N2
Q.96 Iron is tougher than sodium because
(A) iron atom is smaller (B) iron atoms are more closely packed
(C) metallic bonds are stronger in iron (D) none of these
Q.97 The ratio of and -bonds in benzene is
(A) 2 (B) 6 (C) 4 (D) 8
Q.98 How many bonded electron pairs are present in IF7 molecule
(A) 6 (B) 7 (C) 5 (D) 8
Q.99 The octet rule is not followed in
(A) F2 (B) NaF (C) CaF2 (D) BF3
Q.100 In a crystal, cations and anions are held together by
(A) electrons (B) electrostatic forces (C) nuclear forces (D) covalent bonds
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
CHEMICAL BONDING
ANSWER KEY
LEVEL-I
Q ue . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans C A D D C B C B A A
Q ue . 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans A B B A D A C B B A
Q ue . 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans A B A C C A D A A, B A
Q ue . 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans A A D D B A A C D D
Q ue . 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
Ans D A A B B A C B D B
Q ue . 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans C A D B B B C A C B
Q ue . 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
Ans A D B B B A D D C C
Q ue . 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans B D D A B C A C C A
Q ue . 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
Ans B C A B B A A A C C
Q ue . 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 10 0
Ans A A C A C C A C A C
LEVEL-II
Q ue . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans D B D D A A D A A A
Q ue . 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans C A A A D B D B A D
Q ue . 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans B A A D B B D A B A
Q ue . 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans A A A B D B A B B C
Q ue . 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
Ans A C B B D A B A, D A A
Q ue . 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans D D B A C B D B C B
Q ue . 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
Ans B D B C B B D A B B
Q ue . 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans C C A B C C C A C D
Q ue . 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
Ans A C B B B B A C C A
Q ue . 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans B B D B B C C B D B
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
SUBJECTIVE - I
Q.1 Why the atoms of noble gases do not react with other atom to form compounds ?
Q.2 Why ? The ionic bond is called a non directional but covalent bond is called a direction bond.
Q.3 Why MgO is more stable than NaCl ?
Q.4 Why the NaCl is more stable than CsCl ?
Q.5 Why ionic compound do not conduct electricity when they are in the solid state ?
or
Q.6 Why the ionic solid conduct electricity when they are in water solution or in molten state ?
or
Q.7 Why the ionic solids are soluble in polar solvent like H2O. ?
or
Q.8 Explain the solubility of ionic solid in a polar solvent like water ?
or
Q.9 Why ? An ionic solid dissolve in polar solvent ?
or
Q.10 Explain why ionic solids are not soluble in non polar solvents ?
Q.11 Why elements show variable covalency ?
Q.12 Why the covalent compounds are consist of discrete molecules ?
Q.13 Why some covalent compounds ore good conductor of electricity ?
Q.14 Why covalent solid are soluble in non-polar solvents ?
Q.15 Why covalent solids having the giant molecules are insoluble in all the solvents ?
Q.16 Why the covalent compound neither hard not brittle ?
Q.17 Why the reaction of covalent compound are slow ?
Q.18 Why ionic compounds are not show isomerism but covalent compounds show this phenomenone ?
Q.19 Why an alloy is hard then pure metal ?
Q.20 Why metals are highly tensile ?
Q.21 Why metallic bond is weaker than a covalent bond ?
Q.22 Why only O, N and F are capable of forming H bonds ?
Q.23 Why NH3 is better electron donner than PH3, H2S & H2O ?
Q.24 Why metals have high density ?
Q.25 Why the alkaline earth metals are harder than alkali metals ?
Q.26 Explain the hardness sequence Li > Na > K ?
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
Q.27 In ordinary conditions water exist as liquid but H2Se and H2Te as gases why ?
Q.28 Explain the following sequence for boiling point ?
He < Ne < Ar < Kr < Xe < Rn
Q.29 Explain how can a molecule has less energy and high stability than isolated atoms ?
Q.30 Why bond is weak than bond ?
Q.31 Why a molecule is more stable in terms of energy than the uncombined atoms ?
Q.32 Why sodium chloride does not conduct electricity in solid state but does so in molten state ?
Q.33 Why H2O is liquid while H2S is a gas at ordinary temperature ?
Q.34 Why BCl3 and BF3 are non polar ?
Q.35 Why BeF2 and BF3 are stable though Be and B have less than 8 electrons ? Which one is more stable?
Q.36 Why the repusion between non bonded orbitals is greater than between the bonded orbitals ?
Q.37 Why Valency of oxygen is generally two whereas sulphur shows valency of two, four and six ?
Q.38 Why anhydrous HCl is bad conductor but in aqueous medium, it is good conductor of current ?
Q.39 Why diamond is a hard solid with a very high melting point but a non-conductor of electricity ?
Q.40 Why AlCl3 is largely covalent while AlF3 is largely ionic ?
Q.41 Arrange the following bonds in increasing order of strength
C C, Ge Ge, Si Si
Q.42 F2 and Cl2 are gases, Br2 is liquid and I2 is solid why ?
Q.43 CO2 is gas but SiO2 is solid. Why ?
Q.44 NH3 can be liquefied easily but PH3 is not. Why ?
Q.45 What is the increasing order of ionic character in HF, HCl, HBr and HI, Explain ?
Q.46 What is the increasing order of ionic character in H2O, H2S and H2Se, Explain ?
Q.47 What is the decreasing order of ionic character in NCl3 and PCl3, Explain ?
Q.48 NF3 is less stable than NCl3. Why ?
Q.49 Why is PCl5 unstable ?
SUBJECTIVE -II
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
Q.34 Which among the following has highest boiling point and why ?
H2, He, Ne, Xe, CH4
Q.35 At room temperature, NO2 gas is paramagnetic in nature. When it is cooled below 0C acquires
diamagnetic behaviour. Explain this observation on the basis of structure ?
Q.36 Explain why the super oxides KO2, RbO2 and CsO2 are paramagnetic ?
Q.37 NH4+ has bond angle identical to CH4 but NH3 has different bond angle; explain with proper reasoning ?
Q.38 Explain why ClF2 is linear but ClF2+ is bent molecular ion ?
Q.39 Ether and water have same hybridization at oxygen but they have not same
bond angle. Why ?
Q.40 In trimethylamine, the nitrogen has a pyramidal geometry whereas in trisilylamine N(SiH3)3 it has a
planar geometry. Account for this fact.
Q.41 Carbon has maximum covalency of four. Explain the covalency of carbon in given compound.
Q.42 Which among the following will have the highest melting point ?
PH3, NH3, (CH3)3N
Q.43 Discuss the hybridization and shape of the molecule . Indicate whether the
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
SOLUTIONS (SUBJECTIVE I)
Ans.1 Because the outer most electron configuration of the atoms of noble gas is a stable configuration of 8
electron which is also called octet.
Ans.2 Because in ionic bond, an ion can attract other opposite charged ions from any direction and extends
equally in all directions so the nature of ionic bond is non-directional, but on the other band a covalent
bond is formed by the proper overlapping of orbitals so it have directional character.
Ans.3 A/c to the force of attraction between constituent ions.
q1q 2 qq
F 2
1 2 2
d (rA rB )
The electric charge on doubly charged Mg+2 and doubly charged O2 ion in Mg+2O2 ionic crystal is 4
times greater than between monovalent Na+ and Cl ions in Na+ Cl
Ans.5 Because Na+ is smaller than Cs+ ion so the force of attraction between Na+Cl ion in NaCl is higher than
attraction between Cs+Cl in CsCl. So NaCl have high lattice energy then CsCl and have greater
stability.
Ans.6 Due to the following two reasons -
(i) Unstable configuration of the core (Kernal)
(ii) Inert electron pair effect.
Ans.7 Because in the crystal lattice the cation and anions are tightly held together with each other so the ions
therefore ; can not move freely to any large extent when an electric current is passed through the ionic
solids.
Ans.8 Because when the ionic compound goes in to the molten state. The kinetic energy of ions becomes so
high that the attractive forces acting between the ions are over come so the arrangement of ions in
crystal is destroyed and the ions become free to move in liquid medium.
Ans.9 The electrostatic force between cation and anions is reduced by the high dielectric constant value of
polar solvent. Ions are move freely and interact with solvent molecule to form the solvated ions.
Ans.10 The water molecule is a dipole and hence the positive end of water dipole interact with the negative ion
of the ionic solids and the negative ion of the ionic solids and the negative end of the dipole interacts with
the positive ion of the same ionic crystals.
Ans.11 For an ionic solid to dissolve in a polar solvent the solvation energy of the solvent must be greater than
the lattice energy of the ionic solid so that the solvation energy may overcome the lattice energy.
Ans.12 Because the force of attraction between adjacent covalent molecules is weak.
Ans.13 Because these compounds having the layer lattices (graphite) and they have a free electrons which are
good conductors of electricity. In such solids electrons can pass from one layer to the other and thus
current can be carried.
Ans.14 Due to the similarity in covalent nature of the molecule of the solute and solvent their solubility is based
on the principle like dissolves like.
Ans.15 This is due to the fact because due to their big size, are not able to interact with the solvent molecule.
Ans.16 Because there are weak forces holding the molecules in solid crystal. A molecular layer in the crystal
easily slips relative to other adjacent layer and there are no forces of repulsion between the other layers
like those in ionic compound.
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
Ans.17 Because there are no strong electrical force is present to speed up the reaction between molecules.
Ans.18 Because ionic bonds are not rigid and non-directional but covalent bond are region and directional.
Ans.19 Because if an alloying metal is added to a metal. The structural homogeneity of the principal metal is
disturbed and hence the resulting allow is hard and brittle.
Ans.20 It is due to the great attraction between the positive metal ion and the mobile electron.
Ans.21 Due to the presence of the delocalised, electron (mobile electron) the attraction force between valence
electron and the nuclei is weak but on the other hand is covalent bond due to the presence of localised
electron there is more attraction between valence electron and nuclei is develop and thus covalent bond
is stronger than metallic bond.
Ans.22 It is due to their high electronegativity and small atomic size.
Ans.23 It is due to the presence of vacant d-orbitals in PH3 and H2S. In H2O due to more electronegativity of
O than N. Electron losing capacity of H2O will be less than NH3.
Ans.24 This is due to fact that the metal bond keeps the metal atoms closely packed in the metallic crystal.
Ans.25 Because the strength of metallic bond increases with increase of valence electrons and we know that
alkaline earth metals have two and alkali metals have one valence electron.
Ans.26 Because the size of Li+, Na+ and K+ ion is in the order.
Li+ < Na+ < K+
Ans.27 Due to the high electronegativity of O-atom than S, Se and Te. H2O molecule associate to form a
polymerised molecule while H2S, H2Se and H2Te cannot do so.
Ans.28 With increase of vander wall forces the boiling point or melting point of a substance also increase.
Ans.29 Because the overlapping of orbital involves a release of energy. This show that the formation of cova-
lent bond is always accompanied by evolution of energy and thus stablilises the molecules.
Ans.30 Because -bond is formed by the side to side overlapping between two p-orbital which much less
effective than -bond which formed by the head to head overlapping between p-orbitals.
Ans.31 When the atoms combined together to form molecule there is always release of energy. Thus potential
energy of molecule is less than that of uncombined atoms and therefore, the molecule is more stable.
Ans.32 Because solid sodium chloride has crystalline structure in which the ions are not free to move the ion
become mobile when it is in molten state and thus the electricity can be conduct.
Ans.33 Because oxygen has high electronegativity than sulphur. As a result, H2S forms hydrogen bonding so
molecule of water come nearer to each other through hydrogen bonding. This results in higher boiling
point of water and hence it is a liquid.
Ans.34 Both are triangular and symmetrical molecules their dipole moment are zero.
Ans.35 The stability is explained by symmetrical linear structure of BeF2 and triangular planer structure of BF3.
BeF2 is more stable because of its greater bond angle (180).
Ans.36 The non-bonded orbitals relatively occupy space compared to the bonded orbitals and thus repulsion
are greater.
Ans.37 Because there are no d-orbitals in oxygen and hence it can not extend it/s covalency but vacant d-
orbitals are present in S are paired orbitals can be unpaired by shifting electrons to d-orbital so either
making four orbitals singly occupied or six orbitals singly occupied showing valency 4 or 5 besides ?
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
Ans.38 HCl is a covalent compound and in gaseous state it does not conduct current. In water however it react
to form ions, HCl + H2O H3+O + Cl and thus conduct current.
Ans.39 Because diamond is a giant molecule-three dimensional figure as every carbon is sp3 hybridised so one
carbon atom is linked to four other carbon atoms tetrahedrally. Due to continuous covalent bonding all
the atoms are held very closely are strongly as a result diamond is a very hard solid with a very high MP.
It is non conductor as free electrons are not available.
Ans.40 Due to large size of Cl ion than F ions there is greater degree of distortion in AlCl3.
Ans.41 Ge Ge < Si Si < C C
Bigger is the atomic size lower is the bond strength.
Ans.42 Intermolecular distance is high in gaseous state, low in solid state and inter mediate in liquid state. When
molecular weight increases, vander waal's forces also increases. So F2 and Cl2 are gases due to the
weak vander waals forces and I2 is solid.
Ans.43 CO2 has only weak vander waals forces but in SiO2, one silicon atom is surrounded by four oxygen
atoms tetrahedrally forming macromolecular string So SiO2 is solid.
Ans.44 Because H-bonding present in NH3, while PH3 is non polar due to same value of electronegativity of P
and H.
Ans.45 HI < HBr <HCl < HF.
It is because that the electronegativity difference is maximum in H and halogen atom.
Ans.46 H2Se < H2S < H2O. This is because the increasing electronegative difference between H atom and
O, S and Se atom.
Ans.47 PCl3 > NCl3, Because electronegativity difference of P and Cl is greater than N and Cl.
Ans.48 NH3 is more polar than NCl3 SO bond energy of N F will be higher.
Ans.49 String of PCl5 is unsymmetrical because the value of bond angles are different.
Ans.1 HF2 is formed by H-bonding which formes KHF2 with K+ while H-bond is not formed due to low
electronegativity of Cl thus KHCl2 is not exist
Ans.2 Increasing the nuclear charge in an atom tend to prevent the removal of electron from a lower energy
level. As Co atom forms Co+3 ion with great difficulty because 3d electrons are more firmly retained by
cobalt nucleus with positive charge equal to +27 which one unit higher than that on iron nucleus (= +26)
Fe(26) 3s2p6d6, 4s2, Fe+2(24) 3s2p6d6, Fe+3(23) 3s2p6d5
Co(27) 3s2p6d7, 4s2, Co+2(25) 3s2p6d7, Co+3(24) 3s2p6d6
Ans.3 Because in crystal lattice a large number of cation and anion attract each other due to electro static
force of attraction which extends in all directions. So in order to occupy minimum space the ions
arrange themselves systemetically in an alternating cation-anion pattern thus we see that an ionic crystal
consist of three dimensional solid string.
Ans.4 NaCl is ionic and SiCl4 is covalent bond.
Ans.5 According to their electronic configuration Cu+(3s2p6d18)have 18 electron in its valence shell but
Na+(2s2p6) have 8 electron in its valence shell so the d-electron of the 18 electron shell shield the
nuclear charge of cation less effectively.
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
Ans.13 The abnormal high boiling point of NH3, H2O and HF are due to the fact that the molecule are capable
of forming the associated molecule as (NH3)x, (H2O)x, and (HF)x by H-bonding between them.
Ans.14 This is because of this fact that glycerol with three OH group in its molecule can for any H-bond per
molecule. This result in greater attraction among the molecule of glycerol. Thus it is more viscous, have
high heat of vapourisation and high dielectric constant.
Ans.15 In ice, water molecule is associated with four other water molecule through hydrogen bonding in a
tetrahedral manner and form open-cage like structure. When ice melts the molecule come closer to
each other so the density of water in liquid state is more than in solid state thus ice floats on water.
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
O
Ans.16 The structure of molecule is CH3 C .
O H
The double bonded carbon oxygen bond is shorter than the other. A double bond between two atoms
is always stronger and shorter than a single bond between the same atoms and HCOO have same
bond length.
Ans.17 This is due to the presence of resonance in molecule
Each bond has part of the character of single bond and part of character of a double bond. The electron
are delocalised over the three atoms.
Ans.18 There are two lone pairs, but only one of them make a co-ordinate bond with an empty orbital on
hydrogen atom.
There are three bond in the H3O+ ion all the three are identical but two of them are covalent and one co-
ordinate is the dot and cross diagram is
+
H O H
H
Ans.19 In MgCl2, Mg is sp hybridised while in SnCl2, Sn is sp2 hybridised.
Ans.20 In Natom d-orbital are not present while in P-atom d-orbital are present and ns electron can be
shifted to nd orbital.
Ans.21 Due to inert pair effect lead prefer's form divalent compound.
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
Ans.22 Because the central atom in each of the three molecules CH4, NH3 and H2O undergoes sp3 hybridisation.
In CH4 no lone pair is present the. In NH3 one lone pair is present, while in water molecule two lone
pair are present. The lone pair and bond pair electrons repulsion changed the molecules shapes
Ans.23 Because the size of the I ion is bigger than F ion. In CaI2 therefor more polarisation is present thus
CaF2 is more ionic than CaI2.
Ans.24 Na+ ion is solvated by ion-dipole interaction while NH4+ ion is solvated by Hbonding which is a
stronger attraction force.
Ans.25 Since all the four valencies of carbon are identical, 2s electron is shifted to one of the vacant p-orbital
with the result four unpaired orbitals are present, these undergo hybridisation and form four hybrid
orbitals.
Ans.26 Because the size of nitrogen is less then the size of chlorine, therefore, electron density in nitrogen is
more than that of chlorine, so nitrogen forms H-bonding leading to association of molecules. Hence
NH3 is a liquid. H-bonding is not possible with chlorine.
Ans.27 CO2 has linear structure while SO2 and H2S have V-shaped string.
O
H H
= 1.84
N
F F
F
So according the structure the net dipole moment of NH3 is nearly zero by vector rule.
Ans.29 The carbonate ion exhibits resonance and all the three C O bonds are equal.
Ans.30 It is due to larger electronegativity of F atoms of NF3. The lone pair is most difficult to be donated.
Ans.31 In BaSO4, lattice energy is more than it hydration energy.
Ans.32 Because normal element acquire inert gas configuration in compounds so all the orbitals are double
occupied and thus compound are diamagnetic.
Ans.33 IF7 is exist because electro negative difference & size of iodine is big which is help to expansion of
iodine orbital is possible but not in Cl.
Ans.34 Xe, it has highest vander waal's force because of having more electron.
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
O
Ans.35 At room temp. N ; there is unpaired electron at nitrogen. On cooling dimer exists
O
Ans.36 KO2 has O2 ion; there exist odd electron bond as shown in structure as shown in structure. Odd
electron bond makes is it paramagnetic.
Ans.37 In NH4+ there are four bond pairs and no lone pair like NH3. However, NH3 has only three bond pair
and one lone pair, hence its bond angle is less due to lone pair-bond pair repulsion.
Ans.38 Chlorine atoms lies in sp3d hybrid state. Three lone pairs are oriented along the corners of triangular
plane.
Chlorine atom lies in sp3 hybrid state. Two lone pairs are oriented along two corners of tetrahedra.
[ClF2+]
Ans.39 In H2O, bond angle is less than 10928 due to lone pair and bond pair repulsion but in ether due to
strong mutual between two alkyl groups bond angle become greater than 10928.
Ans.40 In N(CH3)3; there is sp3 hybridisation at nitrogen but due to lone pair bond pair repulsion shape be-
comes pyramidal.
In tri silyl ammonia, there is vacant d-orbital at silicon hence, formation p d back bonding take
place and geometry becomes planar.
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
Ans.41 This molecule has bridged carbon with three centred bonding. Thus, covalency of carbon is maintained.
Ans.42 NH3, due to the presence of H bonding.
Ans.43
All fluorine atom do not lie in plane molecule is not symmetrical thus it will be polar.
Ans.44 Because H2O2 decomposes readily to H2O at room temperature
2H2O2 2H2O + O2
Ans.45 OF2 > ClO2
Because electronegativity difference in F O is greater is greater than in O Cl.
Ans.46 Because both the bonds, are physical bonds.
Ans.47 I is largest, so polarisation of I by Ag+ is maximum and the shared electrons are easily transferred to
higher energy level in visible light. So AgI is deep yellow, but in chloride; electrons are not transferrer
easily so AgCl is colourless.
Ans.48 In CCl4
(i) Octet of C is complete (ii) there is no electron pair on C
(iii) there is no vacant d-orbital.
so CCl4 neither donates nor accepts electron and thus does not react with water.
In SiCl4 due to presence of vacant d-orbital in Si. It accept electrons and thus reacts with OH of water
and forms Si(OH)4 (unstable) which gets converted to more stable SiO2 by loss of two water molecule.
Ans.49 Because oxygen is a second period element, so due to absence of 3d orbitals the valency of oxygen will
not be six. But in sulphur due to presence of 3d orbitals the valency of sulphur may be six
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
1988
Q 14. Give reason carbon oxygen bond lengths in formic acid are 1.23 A0 & 1.36 A0 and both the carbon
oxygen bonds in sodium formate have the same value i.e. 1.27 A0.
Q 15. Give reason that valency of oxygen is generally two whereas sulphur shows of 2, 4 & 6.
Q 16. The first Ionization potential of Na, Mg, Al & Si are in the order
(A) Na < Mg > Al < Si (B) Na > Mg > Al > Si
(C) Na < Mg <Al > Si (D) Na > Mg > Al < Si
Q 17. The species which the central atom uses sp2 hybrid orbitals in its bonding is
(A) PH3 (B) NH3 (C) CH3+ (D) SbH3
Q 18. The molecule that has linear structure is
(A) CO2 (B) NO2 (C) SO2 (D) SiO2
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
Q 19. The statements that are true for the long form of the P.T.are
(a) It reflects the sequence of filling the electrons in the order of sub-energy levels s, p, d & f
(b) It helps to predict the stable valency states of the elements
(c) It reflects trends in physical & chemical properties of elements
(d) It helps to predict the relative ionicity of the bond between any two elements.
Q 20. Arrange N2, O2, F2, Cl2 in increasing order of bond dissociation energy.
Q 21. Arrange CO2, N2O5, SiO2, SO3 is the increasing order of acidic character.
Q 22. Arrange HOCl, HOClO2, HOClO3, HOClO in increasing order of thermal stability.
1989
Q 23. Explain the first I.E. of carbon atom is greater than that of boron atom whereas the reverse is true for
the second I.E.
Q 24. The compound which has zero dipole moment is
(A) CH2Cl2 (B) BF3 (C) NF3 (D) ClO2
Q 25. Which of the following is paramagnetic
(A) O2- (B) CN- (C) CO (D) NO+
Q 26. The molecule which has pyramidal shape is
(A) PCl3 (B) SO3 (C) CO32- (D) NO3-
Q 27. The compound in which *C uses its sp3 hybrid orbitals for bond formation is :
(A) H*COOH (B) (H2N)*CO (C) (CH3)3*COH (D) CH3*CHO
Q 28. The C - H bond distance is the longest in
(A) C2H2 (B) C2H4 (C) C2H6 (D) C2H2Br2
Q 29. Which one of the following is the smallest in size
(A) N3- (B) O2- (C) F (D) Na+
Q 30. The number of sigma and pi bonds in 1-butene-3-yne are
(A) 5 sigma 5 pi (B) 7 sigma 3 pi (C) 8 sigma 2 pi (D) 6 sigma 4 pi
Q 31. Sodium sulphate is soluble in water whereas Barium sulphate is sparingly soluble because
(A) the hydration energy of sodium sulphate is more than its lattice energy
(B) the lattice energy of barium sulphate is more than its hydration energy
(C) the lattice energy has no role to play in solubility
(D) the hydration energy of sodium sulphate is less than its lattice energy
Q 32. All the Al - Cl bond in Al2Cl6 are equivalent
Q 33. Both potassium ferrocyanide & potassium ferricyanide are diamagnetic
1990
Q 34. Amongst the following the one having highest I.E. is
(A) [Ne] 3 s2 3 p1 (B) [Ne] 3 s2 3 p3 (C) [Ne] 3 s2 3 p2 (D) [Ar] 3 d0 4 s2 4 p3
Q 35. The valence atomic orbitals on C in silver acetylide is ________ hybridised
Q 36. The presence of polar bonds in a polyatomic molecule suggests that the molecule has non-zero dipole
moment.
Q 37. Write the two resonance structures of N2O that satisfy the octet rule.
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
1991
Q 38. The hybridisation of C atoms in C-C single bond of HC C - CH = CH2 is
(A) sp3 - sp3 (B) sp2 - sp3 (C) sp- sp2 (D) sp3 - sp
Q 39. The linear structure is assumed by :
(A) SnCl2 (B) NCO- (C) CS2 (D) NO2+ (E) SO2
Q 40. Nitric oxide, though an odd electron molecule , is diamagnetic is liquid state
Q 41. Arrange the following as stated.
(i) Increasing order of ionic size : N3- , Na + , F- , O2- , Mg2+
(ii) Increasing order of basic character : MgO, SrO, K2O, NiO, Cs2O
(iii) Increasing strength of H - bonding . (X...H - X) O, S, F, Cl, N
(iv) Increasing order of extent of hydrolysis CCl4, MgCl2, AlCl3, PCl5, SiCl4
Q 42. Write two resonance structures of ozone which satisfy the octet rule.
1992
Q 43. The statement that is not correct for the periodic classification of element is :
(A) The properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic number
(B) Non metallic elements are lesser in number than metallic
(C) The IE1 of elements along a period do not vary in a regular manner with increase in atomic
number
(D) For transition elements the d-subshells are filled with electrons monotonically with increase
in atomic numbers
Q 44. The type of hybrid orbitals used by the chlorine atom in ClO2- is
(A) sp3 (B) sp2 (C) sp (D) none
Q 45. The CN- & N2 are isoelectronic. But in contrast to CN- , N2 is chemically inert because of
(A) Low bond energy (B) Absence of bond polarity
(C) Unsymmetrical electron distribution
(D) Presence of more number of electron in bonding orbitals
Q 46. The maximum possible number of hydrogen bonds a water molecule can form is
(A) 2 (B) 4 (C) 3 (D) 1
Q 47. The species that do not contains peroxide ions are
(A) PbO2 (B) H2O2 (C) SrO2 (D) BaO2
Q 48. Which of the following have identical bond order
(A) CN- (B) O2- (C) NO+ (D) CN+
Q 49. The molecules that will have dipole moment are
(A) 2 , 2 - dimethyl propane (B) cis - 3 -Hexene
(C) trans - 2 - pentene (D) 2 , 2 ,3 , 3-tetra methyl butane
Q50. Amongst the three isomers of nitrophenol, the one that is least soluble in water is _______ .
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
1993
Q51. The decreasing order of E A of F, Cl, Br is F > Cl > Br.
Q52. Diamond is harder than graphite.
Q53. The basic nature of hydroxides of group 13 (IIIB) decreases progressively down the group.
Q54. The tendency for catenation is much higher for C than Si.
Q55. HBr is stronger than HI because of H-bonding.
Q56. The dipole moment of CH3F is greater than CH3Cl.
Q57. The D.M. of KCl is 3.336 10-29 Coulomb-metre which indicates that it is highly polar molecule. The
interatomic distance between K+ and Cl in this molecule is 2.6 10-10m. Calculate the dipole moment
of KCl molecule if there were opposite charges of one fundamental unit located at each nucleus. Calculate
the % ionic character of KCl.
1994
Q58. The kind of delocalization involving sigma bond orbitals are called___________.
Q59. The two types of bonds present in B2H6 are covalent and _________.
Q60. Explain PCl5 is formed but NCl5 cannot.
Q61. Using VSEPR theory, identify the type of hybridisation and draw the structure of OF2. What are
oxidation states of O and F.
1995
Q62. Explain why the dipolemoment of NH3 is more than that of NF3.
Q63. The experimentally determined N-F bond length in NF3 is greater than the sum of single bond covalent
redii of N and F. Explain.
1996
Q64. Explain why the dipole moment of NH3 is more than that of NF3.
Q65. The order of increasing thermal stabilities of K2CO3, MgCO3, CaCO3, BaCO3 is _____
Q66. Identify isostructural pairs from NF3, NO3, BF3, H3O+, HN3.
Q67. (i) The number and type of bonds between two C-atom in CaC2 are
(A) 1 sigma 1 pi (B) 1 sigma 2 pi (C) 1 sigma 1 and half pi (D) 1 sigma
(ii) Which is correct for CsBr3.
(A) it is a covalent compound (B) it contains Cs3+, Br ions
(C) it contains Cs+ and Br3- ions (D) it contains Cs+, Br and lattice Br2 molecule
Q68. Arrange in increasing order of dipole moment.
Toluene, m-dichlorobenzene, O-dichlorobenzene, P-dichlorobenzene.
Q69. When N2 goes to N2+, the N-N distance ________ and when O2 goes to O2+, the O-O bond distance
__________.
Q70. Explain the difference in the nature of bonding in LiF and LiI.
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
Q71. Compare qualitatively the Ist and IInd IP of Cu and Zn. Explain the observation.
Q72. Which is least stable and has doubtful existence?
(A) CI4 (B) GeI4 (C) SnI4 (D) PbI4
Q73. Which one of the following oxides is neutral.
(A) CO (B) SnO2 (C) ZnO (D) SiO2
Q74. The decreasing order of acid strength of ClOH, BrOH, IOH.
1997
Q75. The incorrect statement among the following is
(A) the IE1 of A1 is less than IE1 of Mg (B) the IE2 of Mg is greater than IE2 of Na
(C) the IE1 of Na is less than IE1 of Mg (D) the IE3 of Mg is greater than IE3 of Al
Q76. Among KO2, AlO2-, BaO2 and NO2+ unpaired electron is present in
(A) NO2+ and BaO2 (B) KO2 and AlO2-
(C) KO2 only (D) BaO2 only
Q77. Property of the alkaline earth metals that increases with their atomic number is
(A) IE (B) solubility of their hydroxides
(C) solubility of their sulphates (D) electronegativity
Q78. Among N2O, SO2, I3+ and I3-, the linear species are ________ and _________.
Q79. Among PCl3, CH3+, NH2- and NF3, __________ is least relative towards water.
Q80. The PPP angle in P4 molecule is _________.
Q81. Among the following compounds the one that is polar and has the central atom with sp2 hybridisation is
(A) H2CO3 (B) SiF4 (C) BF3 (D) HClO2
Q82. Which contains both polar and non polar bonds
(A) NH4Cl (B) HCN (C) H2O2 (D) CH4
Q83. The critical temp. of water is higher than that of O2, because the H2O molecule has:
(A) Fewer electron than O2 (B) 2 covalent bonds
(C) V shape (D) dipole moment
Q84. Which one has sp2 hybridisation
(A) CO2 (B) SO2 (C) N2O (D) CO
Q85. Compounds that formally contain Pb4+ are easily reduced to Pb2+. The stability of lower oxidation state
is due to ______________.
Q86. Arrange in order of increasing radii, Li+, Mg2+, K+, Al3+.
Q87. Arrange BeSO4, MgSO4, CaSO4, SrSO4 in order of decreasing thermal stability.
Q88. Anhydrous AlCl3 is covalent. From the data given below predict whether it would remain covalent or
become ionic in aqueous solution. [IE for Al = 5137 kJ/mol]
H hydration for Al3+ = 4665 kJ/mol; Hhydra for Cl- = -381kJ/mol.
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
1998
Q89. The geometry and the type of hybrid orbitals present about the central atom in BF3 is
(A) linear, sp (B) trigonal planar, sp2
(C) tetrahedra sp3 (D) pyramidal, sp3
Q90. State whether True of False:
(i) F atom has less negative E A than 1 atom.
(ii) LiCl is predominantly a covalent compound.
(iii) Al(OH)3 is amphoteric in nature.
Q91. Interpret the non-linear shape of H2S molecule and non planar shape of PCl3 using VSEPR theory.
Q92. Write electronic structure of ozone.
1999
Q93.
(i) The correct order of increasing C-O bond length of, CO, CO32-, CO2 is
(A) CO32- < CO2 < CO (B) CO2 < CO32- < CO
2-
(C) CO < CO3 < CO2 (D) CO < CO2 < CO32-
(ii) In the dichromate anion
(A) 4 Cr - O bonds are equivalent (B) 6 Cr - O bonds are equivalent
(C) all Cr - O bonds are equivalent (D) all Cr - O bonds are non equivalent
(iii) The geometry of H2S and its dipole moment are
(A) angular and non zero (B) angular and zero
(C) linear and non zero (D) linear and zero
(iv) In compounds type E Cl3, where E = B, P, As or Bi, the angles Cl-E-Cl for different E are in the order
(A) B >P = As = Bi (B) B > P >As > Bi
(C) B < P = As = Bi (D) B < P < As <Bi
2000
Q94.
(i) The correct order of radii is
(A) N < Be < B (B) F- < O2- < N3- (C) Na < Li < K (D) Fe3+ < Fe2+ < Fe4+
(ii) The number of P-O-P bonds in cyclic metaphosphoric acid is
(A) zero (B) two (C) three (D) four
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
(iii) The hybridisation of atomic orbitals of N in NO2+, NO3 and NH4+ are respectively.
(A) sp, sp3, sp2 (B) sp, sp2, sp3 (C) sp2, sp, sp3 (D) sp2, sp3, sp
(iv) The correct order of acid strength is
(A) Cl2O7 > SO2 > P4O10 (B) CO2 > N2O5 > SO3
(C) Na2O > MgO > Al2O3 (D) K2O > CaO > MgO
(v) Molecular shapes of SF4, CF4 and XeF4 are respectively
(A) the same with 2, 0 and 1 lp (B) the same with 1, 1 and 1 lp
(C) different with 0, 1, 2 lp (D) different with 1, 0, 2 lp
Q95. The IE1 or Be is greater than that of B.
Q96. Amongst H2O, H2Se and H2Te the one with the highest boiling point is
(A) H2O of H-bonding (B) H2Te of higher molecular weight
(C) H2S of H-bonding (D) H2Se of lower molecular weight
Q97. Write the M.O. electron distribution of O2. Specify its bond order and magnetic property.
Q98. Draw the molecular structures of XeF2, XeF4 and XeO2F2, indicating the location of l.p. of electrons.
Q99. Give reason why elemental nitrogen exists as a diatomic molecules where as elemental phosphorus is a
tetratomic molecule.
Q100. The set with correct order of acidity
(A) HClO < HClO2 < HClO3 < HClO4 (B) HClO4 < HClO3 < HClO2 < HClO
(C) HClO < HClO4 < HClO3 < HClO2 (D) HClO4 < HClO2 < HClO3 < HClO
Q101. The no. of S-S bonds in S3O9 is
(A) 3 (B) 2 (C) 1 (D) zero
Q102. The common features of the species CN, CO, NO+ are
(A) bond order three and isoelectric (B) B.O. = 3 and weak field ligand
(C) B.O. 2 and acceptor (D) isoelectric and weak field ligands.
Q103. Between SiCl4 and CCl4 only SiCl4 reacts with H2O.
Q104. SiCl4 is ionic and CCl4 is covalent.
Q105. The complex ion which has no. d e- in the central atom is
(A) [MnO4] (B) [Co(NH3)6]3+ (C) [Fe(CN)6]3 (D) [Cr(H2O)6]3+
Q106. The set representing correct order of IP1 is
(A) K>Na>Li (B) Be>Mg>Ca (C) B>C>N (D) Fe>Si>C
Q107. The correct order of hybridisation of the central atom in the following species NH3, [PtCl4]2-, PCl5 and
BCl3 is
(A) dsp2, dsp3, sp2, sp3 (B) sp3, dsp2, dsp3, sp2
2 2 3 3
(C) dsp , sp , sp , dsp (D) dsp2, sp3, sp2, dsp3
Q108. The correct order of radii is
(A) N<Be<B (B) F<O2<N3 (C) Na<Li<K (D) Fe3+<Fe2+<Fe4+
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
2001
Q 119. Draw the structure of Diborane.
Q 120. State hybridisation of Cr in [Cr(NH3)4Cl2]Br and [Cr(NH3)4ClBr] Cl. Calculate their magnetic moments
(spin-only).
Q 121. Specify the coordination geometry around and hybridisation of N and B atoms in a 1 : 1 complex of
BF3 & NH3.
(A) N : tetrahedral sp3, B: tetrahedral sp3 (B) N : pyramidal sp3, B: pyarmidal sp3
(C) N : planar sp3, B: planar sp3 (D) N : pyramidal sp3, B: tetrahedral sp3
Q 122. Identify the correct order to solubility of Na2S, CuS and ZnS in aq. medium
(A) CuS > ZnS > Na2S (B) ZnS > Na2S > CuS
(C) Na2S > CuS > ZnS (D) Na2S > ZnS > CuS
Q 123. Identify the correct order of boiling point of
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 OH; CH3 CH2 CH2 CHO; CH3 CH2 CH2 COOH
(A) 1> 2> 3 (B) 3> 1> 2 (C) 1> 3 > 2 (D) 3> 2 >1
Q 124. Identify the correct order of acidic acid strengths , CO2 CuO, CaO, H2O
(A) CaO > CuO > H2O > CO2 (B) H2O < CuO < CaO < CO2
(C) CaO < H2O < CuO < CO2 (D) H2O < CO2 < CaO <CuO
Q 125. Identify the least stable ion amongst the following
(A) Li- (B) Be- (C) B- (D) C-
Q 126. Which of the following molecular species has unpaired e-
(A) N2 (B) F2 (C) O2- (D) O22-
Q 127. The nodal plane in the -bond of ethene is located in
(A) a plane parallel to the molecular plane (B) the molecular plane
(C) a plane perpendicular to the molecular plane which bisects the Carbon-Carbon - bond at
right angle.
(D) a plane perpendicular to the molecular plane which contains the Carbon-Carbon - bond
ABHISHEK TUTORIALS
CHEMICAL BONDING
2002
Q128. Specify the coordination geometry around and hybridization of N and B atoms in a 1 : 1 complex of
BF3 and NH3
(A) N : tetrahedral, sp3 ; B : tetrahedral, sp3
(B) N : pyramidal, sp3; B : pyramidal, sp3
(C) N : pyramidal, sp3; B : planar, sp2
(D) N : pyramidal, sp3; B : tetrahedral, sp3
Q129. Which of the following molecular species has unpaired electrons(s)?
(A) N2 (B) F2 (C) O2 (D) O22
2003
Q130. Among the following the molecule with the highest dipole moment is :
(A) CH3Cl (B) CH2Cl2 (C) CHCl3 (D) CCl4
Q131. Which of the following represent the given mode of hybridisation sp2-sp2-sp-sp from left to right?
(A) H 2C CH C N (B) HC C C CH
(C) H 2C C C CH 2 (D)
Q132. Using VSEPR theory, draw the shape of PCl5 and BrF5.
2004
Q133. The number of lone pair(s) of electrons in XeOF4 is
(A) 3 (B) 2 (C) 1 (D) 4
Q.134 Which of the following has O O linkage ?
(a) H2S2O4 (B) H2S2O8 (C) H2S4O6 (D) H2S2O6
Q.135 Which is correct about O2+
(A) it is paramagnetic and has less bond order than O2
(B) it is paramagnetic and more bond order than O2
(C) it is diamagnetic and has less bond order than O2
(D) it is diamagnetic and has more bond order than O2
2005
Q.136 The number of radial nodes in 3s and 2p are respectively
(A) 2 and 0 (B) 2 and 1 (C) 1 and 2 (D) 0 and 2
Q.137 When three oxygen atoms of [SiO4]4 tetrahedral is shared then the nature of the silicate is
(A) Sheet silicate (B) Pyrosilicate
(C) Three dimensional silicate (D) linear chain silicate
Q.138 Thermodynamically most stable allotrope of phosphorus is
(A) Red (B) White (C) Black (D) Yellow
Q.139 In which of the following the maximum number of lone pairs is present on the central atom?
(A) [ClO3] (B) XeF4 (C) SF4 (D) I3
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SU BJEC TIV E
1. Name the principal ore of aluminium and describe how aluminium metal is extracted from this ore.
2. Explain why aluminium, though an electropositive metal, finds extensive use as a structural material.
3. Discuss the pattern of variation in the oxidation states of the following :
(i) Al to Tl (ii) Si to Pb and (iii) P to Bi
4. How is lighium aluminium hydride (LiAlH4) prepared ? What is its important use ?
5. Write balanced equaiton for the following reactions :
(a) aqueous sodium hydroxide is added dropwise to a soltuion of gallium chloride in water. A
precipitate is formed initially which dissolves on further addition of NaOH solution.
(b) SnO is treated with dilute HNO3
(c) Tin is heated with an excess of chlorine gas.
(d) Lead sulphide is heated in air.
6. Name the principal ores of tin and lead and described how these metals are extracted from their
respective ores.
7. What is the importance of ultra pure elemental silicon ? How is it obtained ?
8. What are silicates ? How are they classified ?
9. What are silicons ? How are they manufactured ?
10. How far do your agree with the concept of inert pair effect ? Justify your answer ?
11. State the difference in teh properties and structures of white and red phosphorus.
12. Write balance equation for the following reactions :
(a) Ca3P2 + H2O (b) P4O10 + H2O
(c) As4 + Cl2 (excess) (d) P4 + KOH + H2O
13. Describe a method for the isolation of elemental phosphorus from Ca3(PO4)2.
14. What is the oxidation stte of phosphorus in the following
(a) H3PO3 (b) PCl3 (c) Ca3P2 (d) Na3PO4 (e) POF3
15. Calculate the volume of 0.1 M NaOH soltuion required to neutralised the solution produced by dissolving
1.1 g of P4O6 in water.
16. Compare the structure ofwhtie phosphorus, P4O6 and P4O10.
17. Using VSEPR theory, predict the probable structures of SO32-, IF6-, XeF2, ClO4- ICl4- and IBr2-
18. Starting from elemental sulphur, how would your prepare
(a) H2SO4 (b) SCl2 (c) SF6
19. What are the oxidation states of S in the following compounds :
(a) PbS (b) SO2 (c) SF6 (d) Na2S2O3 (e) H2SO3
20. Describe the contact process for the manufacture of sulfuric acid.
21. Write balanced equaiton for the following reactions :
(a) Cu + conc. H2SO4 (b) SF4 + H2O
(c) H2S + SO2 (d) Te (s) + Cl2(s)
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SO LU T IO N S
1. The principal ore of aluminium is bauxite. It can extracted from bauxite in two stages. In first stage, pure
alumina is obtained from bauxite and in the second stage, electrolysis of Al2O3 in molten crystolite
(Na3AlF6) is carried out to obtained aluminium metal.
2. Due to its highly electropositive nature it readily reacts with oxygen to form a hard protectie layer of
Al2O3 which renders it passive. So for this reason it is used as a structural material.
3. As s2p1 grouping is present in the outermost shell of the group IIIa, the expected oxidising state Ar +3
and +1 . So +3 is more stable oxidising state for Al, Ga and In. But in higher p block element Tl
shows +1 stable oxidising due to inert pair effect.
4. LialH4 is obtained from the following
4LiH + AlCl3 Et O
2 4 LiAlH4 + 3LiCl
It is a reducign agent which is used in organic sysnthesis.
5. (a) GaCl3 + NaOH Ga(OH)3 + NaCl
NaOH
NaGaO2 or Na3GaO3
(b) SnO + HNO3
(c) Sn + (excess) 2Cl2 (g) SnCl4
(d) 2PbS + 3O2 2PbO + 2SO2
6. The principal ores of tin and lead are cassiterite (SnO2) and galena (PbS)
7. Silicates, Pyro, ortho
9. Silicates contains Si - O- Si linkage.
10. In higher P-block element the lower oxidising is more stable due to inert pair effect.
11. White P4 Red P4
(i) It is soft wary solid It is brittle powder
(ii) soluble in Cs2 insoluble in Cs2
(iii) chemically active less active
(iv) unstable stable
12. Ca3P + H - OH PH3 + Ca(OH)2
P4O10 + H2O H3PO4
As + Cl2 AsCl3
P4 + KOH + H2O PH3 + KH2PO2
13. Ca3(PO4)2
14. Oxidising state of phosphorus
H3PO3 +3
PCl3 +3
Ca3P 2 -3
Na3PO 4 +5
POF3 +5
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12 128
1 gm of P gives = g of HI
4 31
12 128
62 gm of P gives = 62 = 768 g of HI
4 31
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CHEMICAL BONDING
Structure of XeF2 :
Total electron pairs =5
No. of lone pairs =3
Type of hybridization = sp3d
Shape = Linear
XeF4
Total no. of electron pair =6
No. of lone pairs of electrons =2
Type of hybridization = sp3d2
Shape : square plan
XeF6
total no. of electron pairs =7
No. of lone pairs of electrons =1
Type of hybridization =1
Shape = Distorted octahedral.
27. XeO3 can be prepared by the hydrolysis of XeF4 or XeF6.
2XeF4 + 3H2O Xe + XeO3 + 6HF + F2
XeF5 + 3H2O XeO3 + 6HF
XeOF4 can be obtained by the partial hydrolysis of XeF6.
XeF6 + H2O XeOF4 + 2HF
28. AsH3 [Arsine] can be prepared by the reaciton of hydrochloric acid on Zn3As2 [Zinc arsenide]
Zn3As2 + HCl(aq) 2AsH3 + 3ZnCl2(aq)
(b) Preparation of H3PO3
(i) PCl3 + 3H2O H3PO3 + 3HCl
(ii) P4O6 + 6H2O 4H3PO3
(c) Preparation of HI
2I2(s) + N2H4(aq) 4HI(aq) + N2(g)
(d) preparation of HClO4 :
Anhydrous NaClO4 is treat with conc HCl .
NaClO4 + HCl NaCl + HClO4
It can also be prepared by the reaction fo Barium perchlorae Ba(ClO4)2 with conc. HCl. The free acid
HClO4 explodes above 365 K, but it can be distilled at low temperatures under reduced pressure.
29. (a) Molecular shape of SbF3 : Sb undergoes sp3 hybridization. Three of the 4 sp3 hybrid orbitals
from three s bonds (S-F) with 3 halogen atoms, while the 4th sp3 hybrid orbital contains the lone pair of
electrons. The shape of Sb3F3 is pyramidal.
(b) Molecular shape of SF4 : Sulphur undergoes sp3 hybridization. It has a trigonal bipyramidal
structure with one equatorial position occupied by lone pair of electrons which repls the axial bondspair
thereby decreasing the bond angles from 180C to 173.
(c) Molecular shape of BrF5 : Br shows sp3d2 hybridization octahedral geometry with are position
occupied by a line pair of electrons.
(d) Molecular shape of IF3 : Here I shows sp3d hybridization and shows trigonal bipyramidal
geometries in which two equatorial positions are occupied by line pairs electrons. Thus the actual shape
is a T-shaped molecule.
30. (a) I2 < F2 < Br2 < Cl2 (b) HF < HCl < HBr < HI
(c) M - F > M - Cl > M - Br > M - I (d) Ga2O3 < As2O3 < GeO2 < ClO2
(e) BiH3 < SbH3 < AsH3 < PH3 < NH3 (f) H2O < H2S < H2Se < H2Te
(g) HOCl < HOClO < HOClO2 < HOClO3 (h) HOI < HOBr < HOCl
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18. How can one nonpolar molecule inducea dipole in a nearby nonpolar molecule ?
19. What type(s) of intermolecualr forces exist between the following pairs ? (a) HBr and H2S (b) Cl2 and
CBr4, (c) I2 and NO3- and (d) NH3 and C6H6 ?
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CHEMICAL BONDING
(Hint : To identify intermolecular forces, it is useful to classify the species being considered as (1)
nonpolar molecules, (2) polar molecules, and (3) ions. Keep in mind that dispersion forces exist
between all species.)
SOLUTIONS
1. (a) 2py
(b) 3dz2
(c) 3dx2y2
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CHEMICAL BONDING
According to this
(i) in neutral atoms, a subshell with lower value of (n + 1), has lower energy
(ii) If two subshell have equal value of (n + 1), the subshell with lower value of n has lower energy
(a) out of 2s and 2p, 2s is filled first ; its n + 1 is lower or 2s has lower energy than 2p.
(b) Energy of 3p is lower than 3d
3p 3d
n=3 n=3
=1 =2
n+1=4 n+1=5
(c) 3s is lower in energy than 4s
3s 4s
n=3 n=4
=0 =0
n+1=3 n+1=4
(d) 4d is lower in energy than 5f
4d 5f
n=4 n=5
=2 =3
n+1=6 n+1=8
5. 4d6
Principal energy level = 4
Number of electrons = 6
Subshell = d
4 indicates the principal energy level. 4d indicates the d-subshell of the 4th valence shell. 6 indicated
the number of electrons present in 4d subshell.
6. Al = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
Here 3s2 3p3 is filled first before completing 2p subshell, which as to attain 6 electrons before electron
start filling 3s or 3p.
B = 1s2 2s2 2p1
Atomic no. of B = 5
F = 1s2 2s2 2px2 2py2 2p1
[ Atomic no. of F = 9]
7. (a) F = 9 = 2, 7
(b) P = 15 = 2, 8, 5
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8. For example if we take oxygen molecule both the oxygen atoms contains two porbitals.
If we take one porbital from one oxygen atom and another porbital from another oxygen atom then
If we take another set of p-orbitals each from each oxygen atom then
So we get 4 molecular orbitals from the combination of two p-orbitals from two atoms.
9. (a) From two sorbitals
The formation of molecular orbitals by linear combination of two s orbital is as shown below
(A + B)2 = A2 + B2 + 2AB
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Uncombined state
(A B)2 = A2 + B2 2AB
Nuclear nuclear repulsion will be more energy in more stability is less.
(a) Energy - Energy of the antibonding orbital is raised above the energy of the parent atomic orbitals
that have combined and the energy of the bonding orbital has lowered than the parent orbitals. The total
energy of two molecular orbitals however remains the same as that of the two original atomic orbitals.
(b) presence of node & (c) internuclear electron density - bonding molecular orbital most of the electron
density is located between the nuclei of the bonded atoms and hence the repulsion between the nuclei
is very low while in an antibonding molecular orbital, most of the electron density is located away from
the space between the nuclei, as a matter of fact there is a nodal plane (i.e., plane in which the electron
density is zero.)
11. The electronic configuration of Li is 1s22s1. The M. O. energy level diagram of Li2 is as follows
For Li2
1
Bond order = (Nb Na)
2
1 2
= (4 2) = = 1
2 2
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For Li2+ one electron should be removed from the bonding molecular orbital so bond order will be
1
= (Nb Na)
2
1 1
= (3 2) = = 0.5
2 2
for Li2 one electron should be added to the antibonding molecular orbital so bond order will be
1 1
= (4 3) = = 0.5
2 2
The greater the bond order of a diatomic molecule the more stable it will be
So in between Li2, Li2+, Li2 Li2 is more stable than both Li2+, Li2 stability order is Li2, Li2+, Li2
In Li2+, the positive charge is more that is the nucleus will attract the electrons so size will be less than
Li2 & stability is more.
12. The electronic configuration of Be is 1s22s2 so the M. O. diagram is as follows
1
Here the Bond order = (Nb Na)
2
1
= (4 4) = 0
2
If the bond order is zero i.e., the molecule doesnt exist.
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CHEMICAL BONDING
1
15. Bond order = (Nb Na)
2
A positive bond order means a stable molecule while a negative (or) zero bond order means an unstable
molecule. Bond length decreases bond order increases.
Yes bond order can be used for quantitative comparison of the strength of the chemical bonds.
16. The highest occupied energy bond is valence bond while the lowest unoccupied energy bond is conduction
band. The energy gap between the top of the valence bond and the bottom of the conduction band is
called the energy gap (Eg). In case of insulators the energy gap is very large and in case of semiconductor
the energy gap is very small and in case of conductors the energy gap is zero.
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18. If in an atom the electrons are moving at some distance from the nucleus. At any instant it is likely that
the atom has a dipole moment created by the specific position of electrons. It is instantaneous dipole
which lasts for just a fleeting moment and in the next instant the electron are in different positions and the
atom has a new instantaneous dipole and so on.
19. (a) HBr & H2S dipole-dipole interaction (keesen force)
(b) Cl2 & CBr4 Instaneous dipole-instaneous induced dipole (London force)
(c) I2 & NO3- dipole induce dipole
(d) NH3 & C6H6 dipole induce dipole
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