Geophysics 424 September 2016

A : Overview of electromagnetic exploration methods

Electromagnetic (EM) methods are used in a wide range of applications, including :

hydrogeology, mapping aquifers and contaminants

mineral exploration
hydrocarbon exploration
geothermal exploration
tectonic studies

Understanding these powerful exploration methods can be hindered by their

mathematical complexity and the lack of a good textbook.

A1 : Basic physics
All EM methods have the following features in common:

(1) A primary electromagnetic (EM) field is incident on the Earth. This can
be man made or natural. The geometry can be that of a plane wave or
generated by a dipole transmitter (TX). The time variation can be a single
harmonic frequency or a pulse.

(2) The primary EM field generates secondary EM fields in the Earth (eddy
currents are induced, amplitude and phase of the signal is changed). To
first order, the Earth can be considered a conductor while the air is a
resistor. The total magnetic field that will be measured at the receiver
(RX) is the sum of the primary and secondary magnetic fields.
 Geophysics 424 September 2016

(3) Surface (or borehole) measurements of total E and/or H fields are made by
placing the RX at a line/grid of points. These measurements can be made
as a function of frequency or time.

A2 : Modelling and interpretation of data

Mathematical techniques are then used to infer the subsurface electrical resistivity
structure from surface measurements of electric and magnetic fields. This may
involve forward modelling (trial and error adjustment of the model until the data
is fit) or an automated inversion procedure.

Before the advent of fast computers, only very simple, idealized geometries could
be modelled for controlled source techniques. This worked well with a conductive
target in a resistive Earth. (e.g. on the Canadian shield in the search for massive
sulphide deposits).

However, the lack of realistic numerical modelling significantly delayed the more
widespread use of the electromagnetic method where things were more
complicated.

A3 : EM methods discussed in Geophysics 424

To make the approach simpler, we will gradually increase the complexity of the
configuration considered. Letters denote the section of the notes.

The methods will be covered in GEOP424 in the the sequence (D)-(G) which
corresponds to increasing frequency.

This also corresponds to the transition from EM signals travelling by diffusion to

travelling by wave propagation.

(D) Magnetotellurics (MT) : The primary electromagnetic field is a naturally

occurring, low frequency, plane wave. The time variation of this field is
sinusoidal, so mathematical analysis is relatively simple and only needs to
consider a single frequency at a time (frequency domain).

Most of my research uses MT, so we will discuss a number of examples in this

class. These include mineral exploration, tectonics, geothermal exploration and
volcanology.

In MT, the EM signals have a low frequency and thus diffuse in the Earth.
This is in contrast to wave propagation in seismic exploration.
 Geophysics 424 September 2016

(E) Loop-loop system, frequency domain systems. Primary magnetic field is

dipolar and generated with a small transmitter (more complicated mathematics
than for a plane wave). Time variation of the primary and secondary fields is
sinusoidal, so modelling only needs to consider a single frequency at once
(frequency domain).

(F) Time-domain EM (TDEM): Primary magnetic field is dipolar. Time

variation is typically a square wave, so analysis must include multiple
frequencies (Fourier transform).

(G) Ground-penetrating radar (GPR): This is technically an EM method, but the

high frequencies mean that the signals propagate as a wave in the Earth. Many
data analysis techniques from seismology can be applied, and I will point out
the key differences between seismic reflection and GPR that you should be
aware of.
Geophysics 424 September 2016
Geophysics 424 September 2016