ONLY QUIZ 1 CHAPTERS ARE INCLUDED IN THIS BOOK

Water Systems

1.1. INTRODUcnON
The five essential requirements (or human existence arc: (I)
air (it) ~ter (iil) food (iv) heat and (II) light Contamination of
these elements may cause seriQus health hazards not only to man
but also to "animal and plant life. Environmental Engineuing deals
with all these essential elements.
The use of water by man, plants and animals is universal.
Without it, there can be no life. Every living thing requires water.
Man and animals not only oonsume water, but they also consume
vegetation (or their food. Vegetation, in tum, cannot grow without
water. Growth of vegetation also depends upon bacterial action, while
bacteria need waler in 'o rder to thrive. The bacterial action can cooven
vegetable maner into productive soU. New plants, which grow in
this soil, grow by sucking nutrients through their roots in the form
of solution in water. Thus an eoologjcal chain is maintained. Water
maintains an ecological balance - balance in the relationship between
living "things and environment in which they live.
The use of water is increasing rapidly with our growing popula-
tion. Already there are acute shortages of both surface and under
ground waten in many ~rts of the country. Careless poUution and
contamination of tbe streams, lakes, reservoirs. wells aDd otber uDder
ground sources has greatly impaired tbe q~ty of available water.
This poUution results because of improper disposal of waster water
-both domestic as well as industrial. Organised community ute require
twin services of water supply and SCWBF 1Jisposal. Good sanitation
cannot be maintained without adequate water supply system. Without
(1)

uJP'l nljUIl ,
2 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEER ING

proper disposal, the wastes of a community can creale into lerable

~uisance. spread diseases and creaie other health hazards. The planning,
designing, financing and opera lion of waler and waste water systems
are complex undertakings, and they require a high degree o f skill
and judgement. The work of conslruction and maintenance o f water
supply .and waste water disposal systems is generally undertaken by
Government agencies - mostly through Public Health Engl.'neering or
Environmental ~ngineering Departments consisting of Civil Engineers.
1.2. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
Man's search for pure water began is prehistoric times. The
Story of water supply begins with the growth or ancient capital cities,
or religious and trade centres. In olden days, most of com munity
settlements througho ut the ~orld were made near sp rings, lakes
and rivers Crom where the water supply for drinking and irrigation
purposes was obtained. Rig Veda (4(XX) years S.C) makes a mentio n
of digging of wells. Similarly, Ramayana, Mahabhartha and Puranas
make mention of wells as the principal source of water supply. These
wells \lrr'Cre mostly of shallow depth, dug near river banks. Water
was lifted from the -wells through indegenous methods. However,
no water treatment or distribution works existed. Apart from India
(Bharat), other majo r civilisations of the World, such as Greece,
Egypt, Assyria etc. used wells for their settlements which were located
slightly away from springs, lakes and rivers. Joseph's well at Cairo
is one of the oldest deep wells excavated in rock to a depth of
about 300 feet. lbese \lrr'Clls, however, caused water s upply problems
during periods of drought. It became necessary, therefore, to store
water. Cisterns \lrr'Cre constructed for collecting rain waler while reser-
voirs were oonSlructed to start' water from streams and rivers during
monsoon period. lbe stored water was conveyed 10 towns through
masonry conduits a nd aqueducts. The earlier examples are the
aqueducts built by Appius Claudius in about 312 S.c. for water
supply to Rome. Lyons in Pa~, Metz i~ Germany and Segovia
and Serille in Spain tiuilt similar aqueducts and syphoRs for water
supply used for drinking, bathing and other pur~. Sextus Julius
FroDlinus, Water Commissioner of Rome (AD. ~~ported the
existence of nine aqueducts supplying water to Rome ail'd,~aryi n g
in length from 10 to over SO miles and in cross-section from ,)
to over SO sq. ft. , witb an estimated aggregate capacity of 84 mgd.
The great sewer, known 15 tbe clOOCil maxima and constructed to
drain tbe Roman Forum, is sliU in service.
lbere was p~Uy no improvement in water supply systems
ill the middle ages. Tbe earlier water supply structures got destroyp1
,
with the (aU of Rome. In the Dintb century, few impqrtant water

C JPYnghied mater~1
WATER SYSTEMS 3

s upply structures were constructed by the Moors in Spain. In the

twelfth century, small aqueduct was conslructed in Paris. In London,
spring water was brought by mea ns of lead pipes and masonry conduits
in the thirteenth century. In Germany. water works were constructed
in 1412 and pumps were introduced in 1527 in Hanover. Franciscan
monk constructed aqueduct of Zempola in Mexico in ihe middle
of 16th century. In 1582. a pump was erected 'o n Ihe o ld Londo n
bridge for the s upply of waler from the Thames. The water was
conveyed thro ugh lead pipes. In Paris, pumps operaled by water
power were erected in 1608. Pumps operating from steam were in -
Iroduced in the 18th century in London and Paris. In the United
States, spring water was conveyed by gravity to Boslon in 1652. Pumps
etc. were inlroduccd at Bethlehem in 1754.
However, purposeful quality control of waters upply is quite
recent in origin. The scientific discoveries and engineering inventio ns
of the eighteenth and ninetecth centuries created centralised industries
to which people fl ocked for employment. This caused serio us water
s upply and waste disposal problems in the industrial towns. No great 'II
schemes of water supply were started until the Indus trial Revolutio n
had well passed its first half century. The development o f the large
impounding reservoir was largely due to the necessity o f feeding
canals constructed during the first phase of the Industrial Revolutio n.
The fi rst water filter was constructed in 1804 by John Gibb
at Paisley in Scotland. It was a slow sand filter and worked in conjunctio n
with a settling basin and roughening filter. Next s uccessful filters
were constructed in 1827 by Robert Thorn at Greenock. In 1829,
James Simpson built sizable fillers for the Chelsea Water Company
to improve ils supply from the Thames river. By 1870, the mechanica l
fill er of the pressure type began to be employed, the earliest being
the Halliday filters installed at Crl.we (1888), Bridlington and elsewhere.
In 1894 pre-filters were successfully built. In the first decade of 20th
century, mechanical pressure filters were introduced, Hastings being
an early pioneer with Canndy filters built in 1900. In India, Calcutta
was the first city where a modern water supply system was constructed
in 1870.
The technique of clarification and filtration soon grew. By
1939, mechanically-sludged sedimentation tanks were in general use,' ;'''
The micro-strainer, fo r the removal of plankton (rom the impounded-
water was developed by Boucher, and was introduced by Glenfield
and Kennedy in 1945. Coagulation of water with sulphate of alumina
began experime~talJy in 1827, but was adapted practically only in
1881 to treat Bolton's water supply. Activated silica was introduced
by Bayliss in U.S.A during 1937. Tbefirst permanent useofchlorination
originated under tbe direction of Sir Alexander Houston at lincoln

G JPYnghtcd maknal
4 WA'reR SUPPLY ENG IN EERING

in 1905. In 19 17, Paterson Engineer.hg Company ins.alled the first

gaseous chlo rinator at (he Rye Common Works. Super-chlorination
and dechlorination was first applied in 1922 at the Deptford works
o f the Metropolitan Water Board. The art of softening water was
also first developed in Greal Britain. The first municipal softener
was ronstructed by Plumslead in 1854. Development o f the softener
took a novel tum in 1912 by- the construction, at the Hooten wo rks
of the West Cheshire Water Board, of a base exchange softener.
Since India was under British occupation, water supply schemes
in India were undertaken practically about the same lime as in England,
though with a slower rate. In 1870, a water supply system was co nst-
ructed at calcutta. Till Independence, only few cities had protected
water supply systems.
1.3. SOURCES OF WATER
The following are common sources of water
(i) Rain Water (ii) Surface water
(iii) Ground water (iv) Water obtained from reclamation.
1. . Rain Water

-
OVERFLOW [t'......--fi'iiF"- TO PUMP

10J FROM ROOF TOPS

PREPARED

- CATCHMENTS

tb) FROM PRPIIoRED

--
CATCHMENTS

AG. 1.1. DIRECT COlLECIlON OF RAIN WATER

ghled mater~1
WATER SYSTEMS l

(a) From roofs of houses and dweUings : Water is stored in small

underground tank or cistern, for small individual supplies (Fig. 1.1 a).
(b) From prtpGIftI caJdtmmls : The surface of catchments is
made impervious by suitable lining material, and suitable slope is
given so that water is stored in moderate size reservoirs. This water
is used for communal supplies. mostly for drinking purposes.
2. Surface Waler

~~E _."i--- --it

INTAKE ,
TOWER
TO
PURIFICATION
RIVER OR LAKE
WORKS

INTAKE PIPE

(0) CONTINUOUS DRAFT FROM STREAMS OR LAKES

""'0BANKS ~
jRlVER
DI VIDE
a WAlL
~ WATER SUPf'LY
-CANAL
~
MANNEL

(b ) FROM RIVER DIVERSION WORt(5

Ie J WATER FROM RESE.RVOIR STORAGE:

FJG. U. SOURCES OF SURFACE WA1CR

C ;.pvnghted malaria
6 WATER SUPPLY ENG IN EER ING

Surface water is the one which is available as run -off from

a catchment area, during rainfall o r precipitatio n. This runoff nows
either into streams or into undrained lakes. The runoff water Oowing
inlO st reams can either be stored in a reservoir by constructing a
dam across it, or be diverted into a water supply channe\. Thus.
depending upon the scheme of collection, we get surface water from
the fo llowing sources.

(a) From rillers b:~ conl;mwus draft: Water may be collected

directly from the river, without any diversion work (Fig
1.2 a).
(b) From river di~ion, A diversion work is conSlfucted across
a perennial river and water is diverted into a canal which
leads water to the site o f water purification wo rks (Fig.
1.2 b).
(e) From resert'o;, storage. Where supply is not ensured
throughout the year. dam may be constructed across the
rive r and water stored in the reservoir (Fig. 1.2 c).
(4) From direct wake from tulIural lakes. Wate r may also be
obtained through direct intakes from natural la kes which
receive surface run-off from the adjoining catchment (Fig.
1.2 a).

3. Ground Water
The largest available source of fresh water lies undergro und.
The term 'ground waler ' refers to this water, which is stored by
nature, unde r-ground in the water-bearing formation of earth's crust.
The total groun~ water potential is estimated to be one third the
capacity o f oceans. The main source of ground water is pr~ pitati on .
A portion of rain falling on the earth's surface irfftfrates into. ground,
travets down and when checked by im,ervious llIyer to travel further
down, forms ground water. The ground water ruervoir consists of
wate r held in voids within a geologic stratum. The ground water
can be tapped from the follO\\oing sources.
(a) From natural springs (Fig. 13 a).
J '" (b) From wells and bore holes (Fig. 1.3 b).
(c) From inflkraiWn galloUs, basins or cribs (Fig. 1.3 c).
(d) From wells and galleries with flows augmented from
some other sources :
(i) spread on surface of the gathering ground
(u) carried into charging basins or ditches, or
(m) led into diffussion galleries or wells.
(e) From river side radiJll collector wells (Fig. 1.3 d)

j maknal
WATER SYSTEMS 1.
DITCH

(0) WATfR FROM SPRINGS

TOP
SOIL TO~ TO RESERVOIR

CL ~\Y

,,.
.... ~

:. MIN. WATER LEVEL

--------- ---
Ibl) SHALLOW DUG WELL Ib_}' TUBE WL.L

_ ,. __ ... 0._'" -_ .....

.. WATER BEARING.. -.~. ~
..... .. . .
STRATA ~.
" - co t-
p .~ GAll
"
~. ~
'ERY
... ..

PIPE SY5TM
I e) INFILTRATklN GALLERY (4) RADIAL COLLECTOR WELL

F1G. 1.3.. SOURCES OF UNDERGROUND WATER.

4. Water obtained by redemetton
(a) lJa4IintJJion. Saline or brakisb water may be rendered
useful for drinking purposes by installing desalination
plants. The common methods used for desalination are:
distillation, reveI'5C osmosis, ek:arodialysis, freezing and
solar evaporation.
(6) ~ of In1IIII .....,. nUr. Eftlueot or waste water tan
be lreated suitably so lhat it may be re--osed. AD mmplc
of \be controlled indirect reuse-is the intentional aniflcial
recharge of ground water aquifers by adequately treated
waste water.

C JPYnghied mater~1
 Hydrology

2.1. THE WATER CYCLE

Hydrologj is the science which deals with the occurrence, dis
tribution and movement of watcr on the earth, including that in
the atmosphere and below tbe surface of the earth. Water occurs
in the atmosphere in the (orm of vapour, on the surface as water,
snow or ice and below the surface as ground water occupying all
the voids within a geologic stratum..

....
--
P! 1tC'OI,. ...TIOtI
- - __ _ __fi.'_H ....T.
~---
-.-
I I

"""0''''''''
GII'OUNO WATER !'"lOW
Iftt

0<",
FIG. 2.1. niE WATER CYCLE
Except for tbe deep ground water, the total water supply of
earth is in oonstant circulation from earth to atmosphere. and back
to the "earth. The earth's water circulatory s~(em . is known as the
W121U cycle or the hydroiq.* eyclt. Water circulates qaturally through
five principal realms-{I) oceans, (u}atmosphere. (ill) lakes and rivers,
( JO)

G JPYnghtcd maknal
HYDROLOGY II

(lv) ice caps and glaciers, and (v) underground. Hydrology concerns
waler and its behaviour in all these realms. Hydrologic cycle or the
water cycle is the process of transfer of moisture from atmosphere
to the earth in the form of precipitation, conveyance of the precipitated
water by streams and rivers 10 ocean and lakes etc., and evaporation
of water back to the atmosphere. Fig. 2.1 illustrates. diagrammatically.
the complete hydrologic cycle.
The hydrologic cycle consists of the following processes:
t. Evaporation and Transpiration (E)
The water from the surfaces of ocean, rivers, lakes and also
from the moist soil evaporates. The vapours are carried over the
land by air in the form of clouds. Transpiration is the process of water
being lost from the leaves of the plants from their porcs. Thus, the
total evaporation (E), inclusive of the trarnpiralion consists of :
(i) Surface evaporation
(1I) Water s urface evaporation
(a) From river surface
(b) From oceans
(iii) Evaporation from plants and leaves (transpiration)
and (iv) Atmospheric evaporation.
2. Pruipitation (P)
Precipitation may be defined as the fall of moisture from the
atmosphere to the earth surface in any form. Precipitation may be
in two forms:
(a) Liquid Precipitation : i.e. rainfall.
(b) Frozen Precipitation : This consists of
(I) Snow (ii) Hail
(iiI) Sleet (iv) Freezing rain.
3. Run--orr (R)
Run-off is that portion of precipitation that is nO( evaporated.
When moisture falls to the earth's surface as evaporation, a part
of It is evaporated from the water surface, soil and vegetation and
through transpiration by plant, and the remainder precipitation is
available as run off which ultimately runs to the ocean through
surface or sub-surface streams. Thus, run off may be classified as
follOM :
(1) Suif_ "'" off
Water flows over tbe land and is tint to reacII the streams
and rivers, which ultimately discbarJe the water to the sea.

,too IT rta
12 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

(1) InWfIow or sub-surfG rllII off

A portJon of precipitation infiltrates into surface soil and,
depending upon the geology of the basin, runs as sub-surface run
off and reaches the streams and rivers.
(3) Growul waler flow or IIan? flow
h is that portion of precipitation, which after infiltration , pcr-
colates down.and joins the ground waler fe5ClVOir which is ultimately
connected to the ocean.
Thus, the hydrologic cycle may be expressed by the following
simplified equation.
Precipitation = Evaporation + Run off
(P) = ()+ (R)
provided adjustment is made (or the moisture beld in storage al
the beginning and at the end of the period.
2.2. PRECIPITATION
To the hydrologist, precipitation is the general term for all
forms of moisture emanating from the clouds and falling to the
ground. The following are the essential requirements for precipitation
to occur :
I. Some mechanism is required to cool the air sufficiently
to cause condensation and droplet growth.
2. Condensation nuclii are also necessary for formation of
droplets. They are usually present in the atmosphere in adequate
quantities.
3. Large scale COOling is essential for significant amount of
precipitation. This is achieved by Hfting of ai!. Thus a meteorological
' phenomenon of lifting of air masses is essential to result precipitation.
Types of Precipitation
Precipitation is often classified according to the factors respon-
sible for lirting. Broadly speaking, there are four types of precipitation.
(1) Cyclonic precipitation.
(2) Convective precipitation ~...-
(3) Orographic precipitation
(4) Precipitation due to turbulent ascent.
i. Cyclonic Precipitation
Cyclonic precipitation results from lifting of air masseS con-
verging into low pressure area or cyclone. The cyclonic precipitation
may be divided into (lI) frontal precipitation, and (b) non-frontal
precipitation.

G JPYnghtcd maknal
138 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEER IN G

R.L of original water surface, before pumping Sianed = 122.0 ffi.

R.L of water in tbe well at constant pumping = 171.1 m

RL of wolter in the observation well = 121.3 m.
R.L of impervious layer = 92.0 m
Radial distance of observation well from the tube well =50 m
Determine: (a) the field permeability coefficient of the free aquifer,
and (b) radius of zero ?rawdown. [Ans. (a) 60.7 mJday (b) 157 m)
17. Design a tube well for the following data
(i) Yield required = 0.2 cumec
(ii) Thickness of confined aquifer= 40 m
(iiI) Radius of circle of influence = 300 m
(iv) Permeability coefficient = 80 m/day
(v) Drawdown =6 m lABs. 28 em, or say 30 em)
18. During a recuperation lest, the waler in an open well was depressed
by pumping by 2 m and il recuperale~ 1.5 m in I hoor. Estimate the yield
from a well of 2 m diameter under a depression head of 2 m silumed in
3
the same area. Derive the expression your use. [ADs. 8.7 m /hourj
19. A tube wetl penetrates fully a 8 m thick water bearing stratum
(confined) of medium sand having coefficient of permeability of 0.004 rnjsec.
The well radius is 15 em and is to be worked under a drawdown of 3
m 8t the well face. Calculate the discharge from the well. What will be
percentage increase in the discharge if the radius of the well .is doubled
? Take radius of zero drawdown equal to 400 m in each case.
3
IAIls. (i) 275 m /hour (li) 9.6%)
20. Design an open well in filJe sand to give a discharge of 0.005
cumecs when worked under a depression head of 3 metres. Take the value
of the specific yield for fine sand as 05 m3lhou r per square metre of area,
under unit depression head. lADs. Dia. 3.9 m I

G JPYnghtcd maknal
Water Demand and Quantity

S.l. INTRODUCTION
Before designing a proper water works project, it is essential
to determine the quantity of water thai is required daily. This involves
the determination of the following items.
1. PopullJlion determinaJion. Del~rminalion of population is onc
of the most important factors in the planning. if the project has
to serve the community for a cenain design period. Normally. a
design period 0(20 to 40 years is selected. What will be the population
at the e nd of the design period, is the basic question. This ca n
be achieved by using various methods for population forecast.
2. RaU 0/ demand. The water consumption in a city may
be convenienlly divided into the followin g categoric.<) : (i) domestic
(it) trade (iil) agricultural (iv) public and (v) losses. The 101a\ con-
sumption of water depends upon several factors, ,such as climatic
condition, cost of water, living standards of the inhabitants, pressure
in the pipelines, type of supply etc. The total quantity of water
required divided by the total population givespercapica water demand.
The accurate measurement of consumption is often very difficult
because standards of supply and maintenance vary widely.
S.2. DESIGN PERIOD
Generally, water supply projects are designed for a design
period of 20 to 40 years, after their completion. The lime lay between
the design and completion should not be more than 2 years. In
some specific components of the project, the design period may be
modified. Different segments of water treatment and distribution sys-
('39)

C JPYnghied mater~1
140 WATER SUPPLY EN"G IN EERING

terns may be approximately designed fo r differing periods of time

using diffcring capacity criteri a, so that expenditu re far ahead of
utility is avoided. Table 5. 1 gives the design periods far various com-
ponents o f a water supply projcci.
TARLE 5.1
DSIGN PERIODS FO R PROJ ECT COMroNEr'roTS

C-.ptHI~tfl f)~$ig,. period

(yN~)

, Storage by da ms SO
2 I"mlnu ion worb 30
3. Pump sets
(,) All prime moYen o:cqH electric motors 30
(il) Electric mOlon and pum ps IS
4. Wal e r treatmen t units IS
,. Pipe: co nnect ions the several trea tment units 30
"
and other small appun enanccs
6. Raw water and clear wa ter conveying maiM 30
7. Ocar water rescrvoin al the: head ""orb, IS
bal ancing tanks and service reservoirs (O\ler
head or ground level)

Distribution system 30

5.3. POPULATION FORECAST

The data about the present populatio.n or a city under quest ion
can always be obtained from Ihe records of the municipality or civic
body. However, a water supply project is designed to cate r the
needs of the community upto the e nd the design period which may
extend upto 2 to 4 decades, berorc the project is abandoned or
enlarged by reason of inadequacy. There are several methods for
population forecast, but the judgment must be exercised by the engineer
as to which method is most applicable fo r a panicular location.
The increase in populatio n o f city depends upon several facto rs such
3S living conditions of the city and its environs, industrial potential,
state o f development, loca tion with respect to road and rail links,
clima tic conditio ns etc. The entire population o f a city may not
be evenly distributed , due to variations in the land use pattern and
available facilities etc. The populalion density, indicating the number
of persons per unit area, and the distribution o f population sho uld
also be studied for efficient design of the distributio n system.
Following are some of Ihe important met hods of population
forecasts or population projections :

Of) r htedm na
WATER DEMAND AND QUANTITY 141

I. Arithmctical increase method .

2. Geometrical increase method.
3. Incremental increase method.
4. Decreased rate o f growth method .
5. G raphical extension method.
6. G raphical comparison method.
7. Zoning method o r master plan method.
S. Ratio and correlation rnClhod.
9. Growth composition an;llysis method.
1. Arithmetical Increase Method
This is .the most simple method of population forecast, though
it generally gives lower results. In this method, the increase in
population from decade to decade is assumed constant. Mathematically.
this hypothesis may be expressed as
dP =K ... (5 .1 a)
dt

where ~ is the rate of change of population and K is a constant.

From the census data of past 3 or 4 decades, the increase in population
fo r each decade is found, and from that an average increment is
found . For each successive future decade, this average increm~nt
is added. The future population P,. after n decades is thus given
by
P,. =P+nl ... (5.1)
where P,. = future population at the end of n decades
P = present population,
I = average increment for a decade.
This method should be used for forecasting population o f
those large cities. which have reached their saturatio n populatio n.
2. Geometrical Increase Method or Uniform Pert'entage
Growth Method
In this method, it is assumed that the percenloge increase in
population from decade 10 decade is constant. From the population
data of previous three or four decades, the percentage increase in
population is found and its average is found. If I, is the average
percentage increase per decade, or r,
is the increase per decade
expressed as ratio, the p?pulation P,. after n decades is given by

, .1
142 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

Pit =P (1 + 1& r= P (1 + r,l" ... (5.2)

Eq. 5.2 can be derived very easily as under :

Lei P be the present population and PI be the population
after one decade.

Then,

Similarly. population Pl after two decades is

P2 = PI + I PI = PI (I +-.&-I )'.= P (1+1&

100 I )' ... (ii)

Hence P.. = P ( I + 1& r

While the arithmetical average method is ana logous to the
'simple interest method', this method is analogous to the computation
of income by the 'compound interest method'. This method gives
higher results since the percent increase never remains constant but,
instead. decreases when the growth of the city reaches to saturation.
The value of " can be Jound from the expression

PO)"O -1
',= ( P ... (5.2 a)

Alternatively, " can be determined by computing the average

of growth rates of several known decades of the past

increase in population f h d d
r o riginal population or eae eca e.
Knowing r], rz ..... r" for each decade, the average value r, can
be found either by arithmatic average method or by geometric average
method :
(i) By arithmatic average method :

rl + rz + ...... r"
... (5.2/1)
" n
(b) By geometric average method

r,= (rl.r2 ...... r,,)IF" ...(5.2 c)

The field engineers use the arithmatjc average method for
computing r, (or I,) since it gives slightly higher (and hence safer)
WATER DEMAND AND QUANTITI 143

values. However, the Manual on water supply and treatment recom

mends to use the geometn'c mean method.
3. Inc~mental Increase Method
This method combines both the arithmetic average method
and the geometrical average method. From the census data for the
past several decades, the actual increase in each decade is first found.
Then the increment in increase for each decade is found . From these,
an average increment of the increase.r (known as incremental increase)
is found. The population ~n the next decade is found by adding
to the present population the average increase plus the average in
cremelllal increase per decade. The process is repeated fo r the second
future decade, and so on. Thus the future population at the end
of n decades is given by :

Pit = P + nl + n (n + J) r ... (5.3)

2
where P = present population
I = average increase per decade
r = average incremental increase
n = number of decades.
. Eq. 5.3 can be easily derived as under
Let P be at the prc-<;em population. The poJiulation PI after
one decade will be
PI = P + I + I r ... {i)
Similarly, population p~ after 2 decades is
2(2+ I)
P, =P I +I+2r=P+21+3r=P+2/+ 2 r
Population P1 after 3 decades is
PJ =P, +I+3r=P+31+6r=P+31+
3 (3 +
2
I)
r
Hence, population Pit after n decades is
Pit = P + n 1+ n (n + 1) r
2
4. Decreased Rate of Growth MethOd or Logistic Method
It is found that the rate of increase of population never remains
constant, but varies. Fig. 5.1 shows a plot between the population
P and the time T for a developing city. The population of a city
will grow until it reaches a saturation"population wbich is established
by limit of economic opportunity. All populations thus grow according
to the logistic or $curve. The curve ABC (Fig. 5.1 a) starts with
'44 WATER SUPPLY ENG INEERIN G

a low rate o f growth, fo llowed by a high ralc and tben at a progressively

lower ra le 10 the saturation populatio n. Thus in Fig. 5. 1 (a) pa ri
AB has geometric increase while there is fi rst o rder increase from
B to C. From D to E, near point of inflection, there is straight
line increase. The curve abc is the first derivative cUlVe indicating
the rate of growth .

p
, SATURATION POpu"'ATION

PI _ p M C

.t
z B
E

p.
Q
,,
~
~

~
.
0
0

p'
'. ,
A 0

TIME T _
(O)B,

.t $ .-
',
~
.~
;lip p'
. "
9
c,

T IME T -
,.)
FIG. 5.1. INCREASE IN POPULATION wrrn 'n ME ; LOG ISTIC CURVE
It is seen that in the pari be of the curve, the rale of increase
decreases. Fig 5.1 (b shows the same plol in which the populatio n
is plo n ed on log scale. It is clear that for tbe part A I Ht. we have
increasing rale of growth while for the pan B\ Cit there is decreasing
rate of growth of population. Thus, as the city becomes large, a
decreased rate of growth may be expected. This facto r should be
taken into account while computing future population, as illustrated
in Example 5, I.

C JPYnghied mater~1
WATER DEMAND AND QUANTITY ' 45

Logistic curve analysis

The logistie curve used in modelling population trends has
S-shape, as shown in Fig. 5.1 (a). The Gomperlz curve and the
logistic curve arc both used in establishing long term population
trends of large population centres. Both of these curves are S-shapcd
and have upper and lower asymptotes. According to P.E Verhulst.
the logistic curve can be represented by the equation
lo~ (p,; P l- log ( PI;: PO)=_ KP, . t ... (5.4)
where P, = saluratio n population
Po = population at starting point A
P = population at any lime t from origi~ A.
K = constants
.. log. [(,;P) x (p,:-p,l] = -KP,I
or _p_x p,PoPo
P, - P _I
loge ( - KP, . t)

or ; = I + ( PI ;0Pol log; I(- K P, t)

P = P, ... (5.5)
1+ P' Po Po lO~-I(-KP,. I)
P -Po
Selecting ' P. m and - K . P, = n, where m and n are
constants, we get
P= p, ... (5.6)
1 + m log.e- I (nl)
If three pairs of characteristic values Po . Ph and P 1 at time
=
t = If), I II and I tl = =
21, are selected from the useful range of
census population data. the values of PI. m and n can be found
fro m the following simultaneous equations
P _2Pop,P l -n(PO +P2)
... (5.7 a)
,- Po P2 -P f
m = ~P'-'n--'P-" ... (5.7. b)
p,

n = !IOg. [P,(P, - P,)] ... (5.7 c)

II PI (P, - Po)
Eq. 5.6 can also alternatively expressed as
P P,
... (5.8)
l+e,,+bI

C JPYnghied mater~1
14' WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

PI> a and b may be dCJerminb:! from three successive census

populations and (he Eqs :
PI = 2 PaP I P 1 - pl (Po + P z) ... (5.9 a)
POP} - pl
p - Po
a = lo&c I . (5.9 b)
P.
b = ! 100-
~
Po (Ps - PI) ... (5.9 c)
n PI (Ps Po)
where n is the lime interval between successive censuses. The values
of PI> a and b so obtained may be substituted in Eq. 5.8 to estimate
the population for any period, beyond the base year corresponding
10 Po- Eq 5.8 in more useful for computation with the help of
electronic calculators. See example 5.4 for ill ustrat io n.
S. Graphical Extension Method
In this method, a curve is drawn bctween the popu latio n P
and lime T, with the help of census data of previous few decades,
so that the shape ,of the population curve is obtained - upto the
pr~e nt period. The curve is [hen ca refully exte nded from the present

eo
DSIGN POPULATION. 80 000 .
/' E;~r;,;O
10 Cl.fi\I[ -

60
/
00
, /
! V
Xl /
20 / PVIIOO

10 V
0
1931 $41 . 19~ 1961 19 7 1 1981 1911 2CX>I 2011
TIME T

FlG. j.2 GRAPHICAL EXTENSION MEnlOD.

; JPYnghied mater~1
WATER DEMAND AND QUANTITY 147

to the future decades. From the extended part of the curve, the
population at the end of any future decade is approximately determined.
6. Graphical Comparison Method
This method is a variation of the previous method. It assumes
that the city unde r consideratio n will develo p as similar cities developed
in thc past. The met hod consist of plotting curves of cities that;
o ne or more decades ago, had reached the present population o f
the city under consideratio n.
9 0 000

eo 000 V
70 000 l!6 ~
~
V
./
000 /'

40 000
/
V
000
1930 1940 19!tO 1960 1980 2000 (AI
1940 1960 (8)
YEAR
10:'. ' " , tel
""'.
1030
I96!S to)
1900 lEI
FIG. 5.3. GRAPHICAL COMPARISON METHOD
Thus, as shown in Fig. 5.3, the population of city A under
consideration is plo tted upto }970 at which its population is 62,000.
The city B having similar oonditiom, reached the popuJaUOa. of
62()(X) in 1930 and its curve is plo tted from 1930 onwards. Similar
curves are plotted for other cities C, D and E which reacbed tM
population of 62<XX> in 1925, 1935 and 1920 respectively. The cune
of city A can be then be continued (shown by dotted line). allowtD,
it to be influenced by the rate of growth of the larger atka. Ia
practice however. is is difficult to find identical cities with fCSpect
to population growth.
7. Zoning Method or Master Plan Method
This is probably a scientific metbod using tbe limitatiom lmposed
by tbe town planner in tbe increase in douily ofpopu/tJtion of various
parts of the city. For this, a master plan of the dty is prepared, ~
 148 WATER SUPPLY ENG INEER ING

dividing it into various zones such as industrial, commercial, resident ial

and ot her zones. Each zone Is allowed 10 develop as per master
plan only. The future population o f each zone. when (ully developed
can be easily found. For example, sector A of a residential zone
has HXX> plots. Allowing 5 persons per plot. the populat io n of
this sector, when (ully developed, will be 1(0) x 5 = 5(0) perso ns.
Similarly. the developme nt of each zone can be estimated. This met hod
is more advantageous because oflhe fact that the to tal water require me nt
of the city depends not only for domestic purposes, but also for
commercial, industria l, social health a nd other purposes.
Population de nsity is generally expressed as number of persons
per hectare, and their values may be estimated from data collected
on existing areas and fcom zoning master plans for undevelo ped
areas. Table 5.2 gives the values of common population densities.

,
TABLE 5.1.

1. Residential
..... - COMMON POPVUTION

Sinl le family units

Rc:OOenlial mulfiple family units.
DENSITl~

PWMN p' "'Ian

15 -80
80- 250
~.
Apanmenh 250 - 2500

Commerical area 40 - 75
S. Industrial area 15-40

8. RaUo and Correlation Method

The population growt h of a small town or area is rclatcd
to big towns or big areas. The increase in population of big cities
bear a direct relationship to the population of the whole stale or
country. In this method, the local to national (or sta te) population
ralio is determined in the previous two to four decades. Depending
upon conditions or other factors, even changing ratio may be adopted.
These ratios may be used in predicting the future population. This
method takes into account the regional and nat ional factors affecting
poPI,l~tio n growth. This method is useful for o nly those areas whose
population growth in the past is fairly consistent with that of state
or nation.
'f 9. Crowth eo.poslUon Analysis Method
The change in population of a cil)' is due to three reasons:
(i) binh, (u) death, and (iii) migration from .villages or other towns.
The population fo recast may be made by proper analysis of these
three factors. The .difference berween binh rate and death rate
gives Ihe MIUra} increase in tbe population. Thus,
, P. _ P + Nalural increase + Migration.
C JPYnghied mater~1
 ...
"

WATER DEMAND AND QUANTITY

The estimated natural increase is given by the following ex

pression:
,Natural inaease = T(/.i-JDP) ... (5.10)
where T "'" design (forecast) period.
P - present population.
I. = avera~ binh rate per year;
ID = average deltii. nte per yeuV '
5,4. FACTORS AFFECTING POPULATION GROWI'H
....
The population growth of a city depends upon rollowing (actors.
These factors affect considerably the estimated .population.
1. Economic factors. Such as development of new industries,
discovery of oil or other minerals in the vicinity of the cily.
2. Devtlopment programmes. Development of projects of na-
tional importance, such as river valley projects etc.
3. Social facilities. Educational , medical, recreational and other
sooal facilities.
4. Communication links. Connection of the town with other
big cities, and also to the mandies of agricuhural products.
5. Tourism. Tourist facilities. religious places or historical build-
ings.
6. Communi'Y life. Uving habits, social customs, and general
Cducat'ion in the communitf. . -- '.
7. Unforeseen faclors. Earthquakes, floods, epidemics, frequent
famines etc.
5.5. DETERMINATION OF POPULATION FOR INTERCENSAL
AND POSTCENSAL YEARS
Sometimes, it may be required to determine the population
for the intermediate portion of a censal period, from the available
data. This can be done with the help or arithmetical increase metbod
and the geometrical increase method. lei tIP be the increase in
population during a time period dT.

U ~= KA = . constant, then the growth wiU be arithmetic.

If :~= KG . P, where KG is the proportionality factor, then

the growth will be geometric. The values or the ractors KA aDd Ka
can be determined from the ronowing expressions :

C JPYnghied mater~1
ISO WATER SUI"PLY ENG IN EEKING

K.. = p, - h ... (5. 11)

TL T
and K,; = log. p, - log. p, ... (5. 12)
h T
where PL = population at the last census al data h
P f = population at the earlier census 31 dale h.
Now if the population PM is the desired midyear population
at a date TN. its value is given by the following expressio ns.
AriIJrmdiaU I"",,", MtI/wd
For inter censal period :
Pili =P + KA.(T/II- Te} ... (5. 13 a)

or Pill = PE + ~N,-- ~, (PL - Pc) ... (5.13)

For posl-censal period ,
PM = PL + ~ (T/II - Td
T/II-TL
or PII = PL + TL T (PL - PE) ... (5. 14)

GHrtdrical ;trCrf!4Se Method

For inter-censal period,
loge PM = loge PI: + KG(T/II - Te) ... (5.15 a)

or loglo P" = JogIOP! + ~N, -- ~E, (IOg10PL - logloP,e) ... (5.15)

For post-censal period :
10g. P. '" 10g.P, + KG(T.- T,) ... (5. 16 a)
or Joglo P", = IOgl,PL + ~.w, - ~L, (IOg10 PL - loglO P)
.
... (5.16)
ExaIIIple 5.1. The following is the population data of a city,
available from past census records. iNlmnine the population of the
city in lOll by (a) arithmetical incrwse method (b) geometrical increase
method (e ) incnmt!ntai increa.r~ , m~thod (d) graphical mdhod (~)
dnased rat~ of growth method.

r_ 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 19." 1991

.-, , I
I_ I"'" 26800 41'" S7S00 68000 74100
(PI

Solution :
The oomputations about increment, % increment and incremen
tal iDa"eae pe:- decade are arraned in Table 513 below :

Of) r htedm na
WATER DEMAND AND QUANTITY lSI

TAB LE 5.3.

y~ PoplI""ioII ItlDYtltlttli ... iflCTml~1II Itw:nrrI~trtal lhcrNu/"

, Z
,.~~ IH"d~ i~
, ... i1lC1Ytrl~'"
6
1931 1_
"00 37.50
194 1 16500 + '800
10300 62.42
1951 26800 +'400 7.57
14700 ".8S
1961 '1 500 +1300 16.30
16000 38.55
1971 "500 - 5S00 20.29
10.500 18.26
1981 68000 - 4400 9.29
' 100 8.97
1991 74100
Total 62,100 220.55 + 1600 53.45
AvetlIge
-,-
62, 100
-,-
220.55

.-,,,.-
1600 53.45
-'-,-
- 10350 - 36.76 - 13.36

In (he above table, percentage Increase fo r the first decade

(1931 10 1941)
= 16500 - 12000 100 = 4500 100 = 375 %
t21XX> x 12000 x . .
Similarly, % increment for other decades have been calculated.
1. AriJhmdicaI 1nct'lSe Method
P. = P + nl (Eq. 5.1)
where P = population in 1991 = 74,100
n "" number of decades 1991 - 1971 2
10
I :z average increase per decade= 10350
(from Table 5.3)
p. = 74100 + 2 x 10350
= 94Il00.
2. Gt:ontttricPl Incrrase Method

Here,
j>. = P [ I + 1& r
I, = average per cent increase per decade
.. (5.2)

= 36.76% (from Table 5.3)

G JPYnghtcd makrtaJ
152 WATER SUPPLY ENGIN EERI NG

p ~ 74100 ( I + 36.76 )'

100
~ 1,38,590.
The above computatio ns are based on the va lue o f Ix computcd
by arithmatic average mClhod. If, however, geomet ric average me lhod
is used, as recommended by the Manual, we have
I, = ( I, . 161' ..... J,II ) 1 / 11

= ( 37.50x62.42x54.85x38.55 x lS.26x8.97) II.

= 30.54 (against a value o f 36.76)

P. ~ 74100 ( 1 + ~~4 )' ~ 126272

3. IflCr'emenlal IflCnase Method

p" = P + "I + n (n + I) r ... (5.3)

2
where, I ~ 10,350
and r = average incremental increase
= 320 (from Table 5.3)

P. ~ 74 100 +2 x 10350 + 2 (2 t I ) x 320

= '5760.
4. GrapIaicGJ Extensiim Metlwd
Fig. 5.2 shows the plot between the population and the time.
The dotted portion o f the curve is the extended part fIOm 199 1
to 201 1, (ollowing closely irs trend. From the extended part. the
populalion al the end of 2011 = 8O,CXXl.
S. Decrm.sed 1We of Growl. Mdlwd
Column 6 of Table 5.3 give<; the decrease in the per cent
increment found in column 4. In the initial ponion of the census
reoords, there is no decrease in the percent increment, and hence
this period has nOI been included in Ihe computations. The total
decrease in percent increment for four decades comes out to be
53.45, giving an average rate of dtcrl!ase in the percentage growth
_ 53 45 - 13.36%
4
In column 4, the average increment rate per decade was found
to be 36.76%, but due to decrease in the rale of growth, Ihis figure
will be modified as under :

Of) r htedm na
WATER DEMAND AND QUANTITY
'"
Year Average"increment Average rate of Nel incremenl
per decade dl'crease in the rate (%)
increment
2001 36.76 13.36 23.40
2011 23.40 13.36. 10.04

Hence the population at the end of each decade will be as

under :
2001 74100 + 23,40% of 74100 = 91439
2011 91439 + 10,04% of 91439 = 100619
Example S.2. In a town, il has bun decided 10 provide 200
litres per head per day in the 21# century.
Estimate "the domestic water requirements of this town in the
year AD 2000 by projecting the population of the town by the increm.ental
increase method, from the data given below .
y~ PopMlIII..",

1940 2,s0.OOO
t950 4.80,500
1960 5,s0,300
1970 6,38,600
1980 6,95,200

Solution : The computallons about Increase In populat ion per

decade and incremen tal increase are done in Table 5.4 :

y- ,.....,.. TABLE 54
I~ ...

,.,"-h
,--,
1-

1940 250000
"""00
1950
""'00 ,- (-) 160700

1960 5S~ (+) 18500

88300
1970

1980
6l86OO

'''200
,- (-) 31700

Tou1
Avcrale
"'445200
200 _ 111300 (-) 173900
173900 -
(-r;=-(-)S7967
3

.1
154 WATER SUPPLY ENGIN EERING

Here, I = 111300 and r = - 57967

Expected population in the year 200JAD (ie. after 2 decades) is
P. = P + II J + n (n 2+ 1) r where n = 2

p ... = 695200 + 2 (111300) + 2 (22+ 1) I -57967 )

= 695200 + 222600 - 17390 1 = 743899

Hence water requirement in 2000 AD @ 200 IitTcs/head/day

= 743899 x 200 == 148.8 x U! lilres/day

= 148.8 million litres/day
Example 5.3. The population of city in successive decennial
census ;s given as 41500 and 57500. Assuming the census dale as
10th April,Jind the midyear population as Jdh July for (a) 3rd inter-censal
year, and (b) 6th post-censal year by the arithmetical increase method
and the geometn'cal increase method.
Solution:
(a) For 3rd inUr-censa1 year
TN - T = 3 + (101h July - 101/1 April)
= 3.25
TL - T = 10 years
TM - TE = 3.25 = 0325
TL T 10 .
Arithmetical Increase Geometrical Increase
PL = 57500 IOglOPL = 4.7597
p, - 41500 logloP = 4.6181
PL - PE - 16(1 IOglOPL -log1oP= 0.1416
0.325 (h - P,) 0.325 (IOgIOPL - logIOP)
=5200 = 0.0460
.. PM = 41500 + 5200 logloP.v= 4.6181 + 0.0460
= 46700. = 4.6641

(b) F., 6lh ,..,......,,/ "'"

T",- TL =6.25; TL - T = 10 years

G JPYnghtcd maknal
WAlCR DEMAND AND QUANTITY IS'
Arithmetical Increase Geometrical In crease
PL = 57500 loglo PL = 4.7597
P ... 41500 10gtoPE = 4.6181
PI. - P= 16(XX) logl'PI. - 10gl' P= 0.1416
0.625 (P, - Pd 0.625 (IOgt.PL - logtoP)
=10000 = 0.0885
P. = 57500 + 10000 10gto P", = 4.7597 + 0.0885
= 67500 = 4.8482
p", = 70500
Note. The geometric estimates are higher for post-censal years and
lower for inter<ensal years.
Example . 5.4. A city has following recorded population
1951 50000
1971 110000
1991 160000
Estimate: (0) the saturation population, aIId (b) expected popula-
tion in 20/1.
Solution:
Here n = 20 years
P. = 50,(0); P 1=I , IO,(XX); Pz= 1,60,lXK>
Hence [rom Eqs. 5.9 (a), (b) and (c)
P 2 x 50000 x II 0000 x 160000- (II 0000)'(50000 + 160000)
- 50000 x 160000 - (110000),
=1_

= - 0.0673
Hence the equation or the logistic curve is
P = 1'lO488
1 + e LI3J - ""7),
In 2011, t - 2011 - 1951 = 60 yea".
. 1'lO488
P.u = I + e LiIJ -"", . "
= 190488 _ 181500
I + 0.04954 .

C JPYnghied mater~1
IS. WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

5.6. WATER DEMAND

An average person may consume no more than 5 to 8 Iitres
a day in liquid and solid foods, including 3 to 6 litres in the form
of water, milk and other beverages. However, the per capita con
sumplion of Water drawn from public supply is quite large. Total
water requirements may be divided into the following five categories:
1. Residential or domestic use.
2. Institutional use.
3. Public or civic use.
4. Industrial use.
5. Water system losses.
1. Residential or domestic use
The residential or domestic use includes Water requirements
for drinking, cooking, bathing, washing of clothes, utensils and house,
and flushing ofwatercloscts. Provision is sometimes made for domestic
animals. IS : 1172-1957 recommends a per capita water consumption
of 13S Iitres per day. Table 5.5 gives the break up of water requirements
for domestic purposes, which forms about 50% of the total water
requirements per head per day, for all the five categories mentioned
above. Table 5.6 gives the water requirementS for domestic animals.
It should be noted that water required for lawn sprinkling and for
residential gardens is over and above the values given in Table 5.5.
TABLE 5.5.
WATER REQUIREMENTS FOR DOMESTIC PURPOSES

..u-... of -,,,, ill

S.No. Dot. Ph" Iibu",.".
-"'"
1 B.thinS
2 WlI$hini of clothea
"
20

3 FlU5hini of W.e. 30
, Wuhinl the house I.
S WubID, of utensils I.

7
Cootinl S
DrinkiD. S

T"," 135 .....

WATER DEMAND AND Q UANTITY IS7

TABLE 5.,.
CONSUMPTION OF WATER FOR DOMESTIC ANIMAlS AND LIVE-STOCKS

Wain" OOfU""."i_
51'10. AllimGls
,.....,
i"Iibv,- IIIU_'

I Cow and buffalo <W to 60

2 H~ <W to 50
3 Dog 8 12
4 Sheep or gool 5 to 10

The Manual on water supply and treatment, prepared by the

Ministry o( Urban Development (MUD) New Del.hi recommends
the following rates in Iitrcs per capita per day (Icpd) for domestic
and nondomcstic needs (Table 5.7) :
TABLE 5.7.
WATER FOR DOMESTIC AND NONOOMESTIC NEEDS

Dncri,4kM "'-"'o/W(lJn-
(/q<I)

l. For oomm unilic:s wil h popul ation 40 (min.)

.uplo 20,000
(a) Water su pply through stand post
(b) Water supply through house 70 10 100
scrvice connection
2 For commu nitie. with population 100 10 ISO
20,000 10 100,000
3. For communilies with population 150 10 200
above 100,000

2. Institutional Use
The manual on water supply and Treatment recommends the
values of water requirements for institutional needs as given in Table
5.7.
3. Public or Civic use
Water required for public or civic uses may be for the following
purposes : (i) Road washing, (iI.) Sanitati~ n, (iii) Public parks, and
(iv) Fire fighting. For road washing in the municipality area, a provision
of 5 Hires per head per day is made. Similarly. (or sanitary purposes,
such as cleaning public sanitary blocks, flushing sewer systems etc.,
a provision of 3 to 5 litres per head per day may be made. Water
required for maintaining public parks etc. may be 2 to 3 liues per
square metre per day,

G JPYnghtcd maknal
ISS WAlCR SUPPLY ENG INEER ING

TABLE 5.1
WATER FO R INSTITUTIONAL NEEDS

I MliluI_ Wilt"" rTfI"inmt!lII

(lilru F Jretllp"da,)

I. HO!ipi la ls (including laund ry)

(a ) No. of Ixi.b elIceeding 100 450 (per bed)
(b) No: of beds not acceding 100 340 (per bed)
2 Hotels . ISO (per bed)
3. HOIitels m
4. Nurse"s homes and mediCIIl m
quartc:~

S. boardi ng schoolstC:Ollegcs m
6. Restaurants 70 (per sea t)
7. Air pons and sea pon! 70
8. Junction slalions and 70
intenned iatc: sta tions where
mail and apress stoppage: (bot h
railways and bus slat ions) is
provided)

10.
Terminal slations
"
intermediate sl1llions
(o:cludin, mail and express
SlOps)
"
(cou ld be rcduttd 10 2S when:
bathing facil ites are not provides)
II . Day $Chools f<:OlIeces
"
12 Off=
"
13. Factories
"
(could be rnluccd \0 30 where
no bathing rooms arc req uired
to be provided )
Cinema, concert IS
14.
a nd theatres "'"
Fire demand
Water required-for nre fighting is usually known asflTt! demand.
It is treated as a function of population and may be compuled from
the fallowing formulae :
1 Kuichling's fonnuls
Q - 3182 v'P ... (5.17)
where Q ""' quantity of wate r in litres per minute
P = Population in thousands
2. Bwton~ fomuda
Q ~ 5663 v'P ... (5.18)
WATER DEMAND AND QUAJIITITY 15'

.l .Freeman's formula
Q= J136 ( ~+ 10 ) ... (5. 19)

and F=2.8VP ... (5.19 a)

where F = number of simultaneo us fire streams
4. NaJiotull Board oj Fire Underwrilers formula

Q = 4637 VP (I - om VP) ... (5.20)

Though the to tal demand of water for extinguishing firc is
usually vel)' small, the ratc o f consumption is vel)' high. It depends
upon bulk. co ngestio n and fire resistance of buildings. The minimum
limit of fire dema nd is the amount and rate of supply that would
extinguish the largest probable fire in the city. Fire hydrants of 15
to 20 em diameter are normally provided on all street corners, and
at suitable intermediate points. These are gene rally connected to
water supply mains. Whe n fire occurs, pumps installed on fire brigade
trucks are rushed to the site and connected to fire hydrants from
where they throw jet o f water under very high press ure. Thc pressure
varies between 1 to 2 kg/ cmz (0. 1 to 0.2 N / mm 2). For a fire of
moderate nature, three streams each of 1100 litres per minute are
required. For a city of o ne lac population, the fire flow, required
by National Boa rd o f Fire Underwriters (now known as 'American
Insurance Association) comes out to be 40,500 lilres/minute. Assuming
an average to tal consumption o f 150 litres per capita per day, tota l
water requirement comes o ut to be 150 lac litres per day or 10,417
litres/minute. Thus the rate of flow required-for fire demand, (i.e.
40,500 lilres/minute) is vel)' much higher than the tota l flow rate
required fo r other purposes. However, the provisio n for fire stream
is made o nly for 3 to 5 hours fire flow . The total quantity of water
calculated o n yea rly basis is usually very small because. fire breaks
o ut o nly few times in a year. Thus, for the city of population of
I lac, if fire breaks out 12 times a yea r, each of a duration of
4 ho urs, the per capita water demand
= Yearly requirement of Water
365 x Population
, = (I04l7 x60x4) 12 = 082 n
365 x HXXXXJ . I res.
Thus for Indian conditiOns, a proVISion of I lilre per head
per day will be sufficient ror fi re fighting. Each fire hydrant provided
for this purpose has three streams, and each stream discharges 1100
liues per head per day. "

"'.,
160 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

The above formulae for water demand do not take into account
the frequency of fire that may oa;ur. II may be determined from
the following expression :
4360 T o. m
Q= o.7S7 liucs/ minute .. .(5.21)
(I 12) +
where I = duration of fire in minutes
T = period of occurrence of fire, in yea rs.
The recommended minimum values for Ihe above formula arc:
I = 30 minutes and T = I year
The man ual on water supply and Treatment by MUD recom-
mends that a provision in kilo Htres per day based on Eq. 5.22,
where P is the population in thousands may be adoplCd for com-
munities larger Ihan SO,(XX) :
Q ~ IOOVP ... (5.22)
It is desirable that one third of the fire fighting requirements
form the part of service slorage. Thus, for a population of 100,000,
Q will be = 100 ViOO = 100 kilo litres per day.
4. Induslrial use
The presence of industries in or near the cily has great impact
on the water demand. The quantity of water required depends upon
the type ofindustry. For a ci1}' with moderate facloric~, a provision
of 20 to 25 percent of per capita consumption may be made for
this purpose. The fore cast for this demand will be based on nature
and magnitude of each industry and the potent ial for its expansion.
Table 5.9 gives data about the needs of" some industries.
TARtE 5.9. INDUSTRIAL NEED.

b"'_ Uttilof
~r:I"",
WAIn- nlllli,.",."",
kilolilns ",r 1Itti1
'II
1. Automobile Vellide 40
~ Dislillary I(jJo!jlre (proof alcohol) 122-170
3. Fertilizer Tonne 8<>-,..
100 .q (Ionne)
4.
S.
In'''''
p,,,,, T...,
4
200-400
Special qualily paper
7. Siraw board
Toone
Tonne
400-1000
71l-100


Petroleum refinery
SleeI.
10. Su,ar
11. Tcnile
Tonne (erode:)
T""~
Toone (cue crusbcd)
100 .. (Joodo)
-".
l.S-2.0

1-2
8-14

G ,jr J
WATER DEMAND AND QUANTtTY 161

5. Water System Losses

Losses from a water distribution system consists of (i) leakage
and over-now fro m service reservo irs, (ii) leakage from ma in and
service pipe connectio ns, (iii) lcakagea nd losses o n consu me r's premises
whe n they get un-metered house-ho ld supplies (ill) under-registration
of supply meters, and (II) large leakage or wastage from public taps.
Lusses in the supply lines are mainly doe to defect ive pipe joints,
cracked pipes, and loose valves and ril1ings. In the case of a well
maintained, and fully metered water distribution system, the losses
may hardly exceed 20% of the total consumption. In a system where
Ihe supply is partly metered lfor domestic connections) and partly
un-metered (for municipal taps), the losses may be upto 50% of
the tota l su pply.
Example 5.5. Compute the 'fire demand ' for a city hailing popula-
lion of J,40,OOO using various formulae.
Solution. P = population in Ihousands = 140.
t. Kuichling's formula
Q = 3182 yP = 3182 ~ = 37650 litres/ min..
= 0.627 cumecs.
2. Bus/on's formula
Q ~ 5663 .,rp ~ 5663 v'I4O ~ 67000 1;Ir<S/min.
= L 117 cumecs.
3. Freel'M/l's formula

Q ~ 1136 (f + 10 ) ~ 1136 ( '~ + 10 )

= 43168 lilres/min = O.719cumecs.
No. of fire st reams,
F~ 2.8 .,rp ~ 2.8 v'I4O = 33.
4. NaJional Board of Fire UndmvriUr's fonruda
Q~ 4637 v'I4O (I - 0.01 v'T4O)
= 48,374 Iitnslmin.= 0.806 cumecs.
5.7. FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF DEMAND
The average per capita water consumption varies widely in
Indian cities, the demand figures varying from 80 Htres to 160 Htres
Such variation depends upon a number of factors summarised below:
1 Sia tutd /JIM of COIftIrIIUIiJJ. The Ouctuations in demand
depends u"pon the size of the city. In a large city, the Ouctuations ,
162 WAltR SUPPLY ENGINEERING

in demand may be narrow. In a s.mall city. per ~pila water consumption

is to be expected to be small because there arc only limited uses
for water in a small town. The fiuclualion in usc in an industrial
community is normally much smaller than in a residential community.
2. Slandard of Jj~ing. The higher the Sianda rd of living is,
the higher Ihe demand and greater the va riation in demand.
3. CUma/ic condiJions. If the cOmmunity is loca led in h OI
climate, waler use will be increased by' bathing, lawn sprinkling and
use in parks and recTealion fields. Similarly, in extreme cold dimales,
waleT 'I11ay be wasted al the faucets to prevent freezing of pipes,
rcsuhing in increased consumption. Extremes of heal and cold cause
variations in demand.
4. QIlll/iJy oj waJer. Poor-quality waleT results in a reduction
in use.
S. Pressure in the supply. High pressure results in increased
use while low pressure results in d ecr~.ed usc.
6. System of supply. Water supply ~ay either be co ntinuo us,
(ie. for all the 24' hours) or inte rmittent. Generally. intermittent
supply will reduce rate of demand.
7. Sewerage. Use of water increases when sewers a re installed
in an area previously without the m.
8. Metering. Use of water decreases when the supplies are
metered.
9. Water rales. An increase in water rates will reduce con
sumption in metered areas.
10. Age of communily. Older, more stable communities use
less water than rapidly developing communities where new homes
are being constructed and owners are planting new lawns.
11. LaWII sprinkling. Enforcement of lawn sprinkling regula-
tions can reduce peak demands s ignificantly.
5.8. VARIATIONS IN RATE OF DEMAND
T he average daily per capita oonsumption is obtained by dividing
the quantity of water supplied during the year by the number of
days in the year and the number of persons served. This per capita
consumption or demand varies not ouly from year to yeal and from
season to ~n, but more important from day to day jlnd hour
to hour. These variations are "expressed as perceDtale of the annual
average daily consumption. Some common values are as under :.

Of) r htedm na
WATER DEMAND AND OUANTIIT 163

1. Maximum seasonal consumption. 130% of annual average

daily rate of demand.
2. Maximum monlhly COnswnplion. 140% of annual average daily
rate of demand.
3. Maximum daily consumption. 180% of annual average daily
consumption.
4. Maximum hourly consumption. 150% of average for the day.
A convenient formula for estimating consumption is given by
R.O. Goodrich :
p = 180,-0.10 ... (5.23)
where, P = percentage of annual average consumption for
time t days from ~ to 360.

Substituting t= I, we get p = ISO, i.f., the consumption for

maximum is 180% of the average.
Substituting t = 30 days, we get
p = 180 (30)-11.10 = 128%.

~ r:::::: ~
!
~
~

z
Q
"~. r-
~z
~ ;:::.

H
8 ,
HOURS OF THE DAY
I I
"
FlO. SA . VARIATIO N IN CONSUMPTION TIlROUOHOUT THE DAY.
Fig. 5.4 shows the variation in consumption throughout the
day. In most of the Indian cities, the peak demand occurs in the
morning and evening. During t~e night hours, the consumption is
below the average. The average consumption is shown by the dotted.
lines. A term Qbsofu/~ maximum hourly dmJand is used to indicate
the consumption of maximum hour on maximum day of maximum
month of maximum season. Let the annual average consumption
in a city be 150 litres per capita per day. The rate of COjlSumpIion
on maximum day will be = 150X.1.8 =270 litres. Muiln.m bourly

righted mak;nal
16' WATER SUPI'L Y EN(i]NEERING

consumption will be = 1: 0 x 1.8x 1.5= 16.9 litres!hour. The absolute

4
maximum hourly demand (adopting the monthly and seasonal factors
suggested above) will be = 1:0 x 1.30 x L40 x l.80x 1.50
4
= 'i40x
4.914=30.7 Iilres/houT (against an annual average of ~40 = 6.25 lilres
hour).
In order to cope with the hourly variations in the demand,
either the pumps may be run al variable speed (which is difficult
and cq.mbersome) or else the pumps may be run al average speed
and store the water during the period of less consumption. The
second alternative is generally followed. If the pumps arc run for
all the 24 hours, the rale of delivery by the pumps will be equal
to average demand. If they arc run only for r hours in a day, the
rale of pumping will be 24 limes the average consumpt ion. The
I
excess water during the slack demand period is slored in a service
reservoir, 10 be consumed during the" periods of peak demand,
EIfert of Variation in Consumption on Design
A waler supply system has several units, and design of each
unit should match with the hourly, daily and seasonal va riatio ns
in Ihe demand. The design principles laking into accounl Ihc effect
of variation in the consumption are given below :
1. Fillers and pumps. The filter units as well as pumping
units are designed for 1.50 times the average daily demand. For
example, if the annual average consumption is 150 lilres/capita/day,
and the population is 50,0CW), Ihe filter units are designed for
1.50 x 50,0CW) = 75,<XXJ litres capacity. Similarly, the pumps are desig-
ned to deliver 75,000 litres of water in 24 hours. If, howev!,:r, the
pumps are worked only for 12 hours, their hourly discharge will
'c 7~,.. 6250 titres per hour,
2. DistribIllitM"..;,u. Distribution mains are designed for
the maximum hourly demand of the maximum day. Adopting the
factors suggested above, the multiplying factor for the supply will
be = 1.8 x 1.5".,27.
l. Sedimmlalioa limb tutd water ratJnloirs. The sedimentation
tanks and the clean .water reservoirs are designed for Ute average
daily rate of consumption.

C JPYnghied mater~1
WATER DEMAND AND QUANTIfY 165

PROBLEMS
I. Explain in brief different methods used for prediction of fulure
population of a city, with reference to the design of a water supply system.
2. What do you understand by 'per capita demand' of water ? How
is it determined ?
3. Discuss various factors that affect the rate of demand,
4. Explain in brief various expressions used to determine the 'fi~
demand',
.s. Explain in brief various factors that affect population growth.
6. Write a note on variations in rate of demand. Explain clearly how
you take imo account these: variations in the design of various units.
7. The following data shows the variation in population of a town
from 1922 to 1972. Estimate the population of the city in the year 2002
Use various methods
Year 1922 1932 1942 1952 1962 1972
Popu lation 72,000 85,000 1,10,500 1,44,000 1,84,000 2,21,00Q
lAM. (i) Arithmetical increase method: 3,10,400
<ill Geometrical incr.... method , 4,35,000
(iii) Incremental increase method : '3,46,400
S. In two periods, each of 20 years, a city population grew from
30000 to 172000 to 292000. Find (a) saluration population (b) the coefficients
of logistic equation and (e) expected population in the next 20 yean.
(Au. (al 3, 12,800 (b) a = 2.243 b =- 0.122 (e) 310800

C JPYnghied mater~1