12

Non Destructive Testing

Course Contents
12.1 Non Destructive Test

12.2 Types of NDT

12.3 Liquid Penetrant Inspection

(DPT)

12.4 Magnetic Particle Inspection

12.5 Radiography of Metals

12.6 Ultrasonic Inspection

12.7 Eddy Current Inspection

12.8 Jominey End Quench Test

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Prof. A. J. Makadia

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12. Non Destructive Testing Material Science & Metallurgy (2131904)

12.1 Non Destructive Test:

A nondestructive test is an examination of an object in any manner which will not impair
the future usefulness of the object.
In most cases NDT test do not provide a direct measurement of mechanical properties,
they are very valuable in locating material defects that could impair the performance of
a machine member when placed in service.
Such test is used to detect faulty materials before it is formed or machined into
components parts, to detect faulty components before assembly, to measure thickness
of metal, and to discover defects that may have developed during processing or use.
Parts may be examined in service permitting their removal before failure occurs.
Non destructive tests are used to make more reliable, safe and economical.
During and just after world war-II the significance of imperfections to the useful life of
product assumed greater importance.
Example: In air craft design, in nuclear technology and in space exploration, high hazards
and costs have made maximum reliability essential.

12.2 Types of NDT:

1. Radiography
2. Fluorescent penetrant inspection (liquid penetrant inspection)
3. Ultrasonic inspection
4. Eddy current inspection

12.3 Liquid Penetrant Inspection (DPT):

The principle of the technique is that a liquid is drawn by capillary attraction in the
defects and after sub sequent development, any surface barking defects may be
rendered visible to the human eye.
In order to achieve good defect visibility the penetrating liquid will either be coloured
with bright and persistent dye or else contain fluorescent component.
In DPT the dye is generally red and developed surface can be viewed in natural or
artificial light but in the latter case the compound must be viewed under ultraviolet
light if indications of defects are to be seen.
DPT is an important to indicate the presence of defects such as cracks, laminations, laps
and zones of surface porosity in wide range of components. It is employed for the
inspection of wrought and cast products in both ferrous and non-ferrous metals and
alloys, ceramics glass and some polymer components.

Five steps in liquid penetrant inspection:

1. Surface preparation
2. Application of penetrant
3. Removal of excess penetrant
4. Development
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Material Science & Metallurgy (2131904) 12. Non Destructive Testing

5. Observation and inspection

Fig. 12.1 Major steps for in fluorescent-penetration inspection

The surface of a component must be free from oil, grease and other contaminants if
successful indication of defect is to be achieved.
After surface preparation, liquid penetrate is applied by brush, spray or immersion so as
to form a film of penetrate over the component surface.
Penetrant will seep in to fairly large flows in a few seconds but it may take up to 30 min
for the liquid to penetrate into very small defects and tight cracks.
After the penetration stage, it is necessary to remove excess penetrant from the surface
of the component. Some penetrant can be washed off the surface with water, while
other requires the use of specific solvents.
The development stage is necessary to reveal clearly the presence of any defects. The
developer is usually a very fine chalk powder. This may be applied dry, but more
commonly is applied by spraying the surface with chalk dust suspended in a volatile
carrier fluid. A thin uniform layer of chalk is deposited on the surface of component.
Penetrant liquid present within defects will be slowly down by capillary action in to the
pairs of the chalks. There will be some spread of penetrant within the developer and this
will magnify the apparent width of defect.
When dye penetrant is used, the dye colour must be sharp contrast to the uniform white
of the chalk covered surface.
Dye penetrant inspection is carried out in strong lighting conditions, while fluorescent
penetrant inspection is performed using ultraviolet light.

Advantage of DPT:
1. DPT is simple as no electronic system is involved.
2. It is cheaper than other NDT tests.

Limitations of DPT:
1. It can detect surface breaking defects only.

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12. Non Destructive Testing Material Science & Metallurgy (2131904)

2. This method is not suitable for naturally porous material such as unglazed ceramics and
some thermo plastic material as it affects by penetrant fluid.

Applications of DPT:
Aerospace, automotive and general manufacturing industries for the quality control of
production and by users during regular maintenance and safety checks.
Examples: Turbine rotor discs, blades, pistons, cast cylinder head wheel, forged
components. Weld assembly.

12.4 Magnetic particle inspection:

Magnetic particle inspection is a sensitive method of locating surface and some sub
surface defects in ferromagnetic components.
When discontinuity is open to the surface, the magnetic field leaks out to the surface
and terms north and south poles and that attract magnetic particles.
When a ferromagnetic material is magnetized, magnetic discontinuities that lie a
direction approximately perpendicular to the field direction will result in a formation of
strong leakage field. This leakage field is present at and above the surface of the
magnetized component, and its presence can be detected using finely divided magnetic
particles. The application of dry particles or wet particles in a liquid carrier over the
surface of the component results in a collection of magnetic particles at a discontinuity.
This magnetic bridge indicates the location, size and shape of the discontinuity.
When discontinuities are under the surface some parts of the field may still be deflected
to the surface, but the leakage is less and few particles are attracted, so that indication
obtained is much weaker. If the discontinuity is far below the surface, no leakage of the
field will be obtained and consequently no indication.

Fig. 12.2 Principle of magnetic flux test

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Material Science & Metallurgy (2131904) 12. Non Destructive Testing

Fig. 12.3 Methods of magnetic flux test

Fig. 12.4 Magnetic flaw detection

As shown in figure for longitudinal magnetization the magnetic field may be produced in
a direction parallel to the long axis of work piece by placing the piece in a coil excited by
an electric current so that the long axis of the piece is parallel to the axis of coil. Very
long parts are magnetized in steps by moving the coil along the length.
In case of circular magnetization, a magnetic field transverse to the long axis of the work
piece is readily produced by passing the magnetizing current through the piece along
this axis.
All machine parts that have been magnetized for inspection must be put through a
demagnetizing operation. If these parts placed in service without demagnetizing, they
will attract filing, grinding, chips and other steel particle which cause scaring of bearing
and other engine parts.

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12. Non Destructive Testing Material Science & Metallurgy (2131904)

12.5 Radiography of Metals:

Radiography of metals may be carried out by using X-rays or gamma rays short wave
length electromagnetic rays capable of going through large thickness of metals.
Gamma rays may be obtained from naturally radioactive material such as radium or
radioactive isotope such as cobalt-60
Gamma radiation is more penetrating than that of X-rays but the inferior sensitivity
limits its application.
X-rays are produced when matter is bombarding by a rapidly moving stream of
electrons. When electrons are suddenly stopped by a matter a part of their kinetic
energy is converted in to energy of radiation or X-rays.

Fig. 12.5 Schematic representation of the use of X-rays for examination of a welded plate

Fig. 12.6 Types of Radiographs

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Material Science & Metallurgy (2131904) 12. Non Destructive Testing

The essential conditions for the generation of X-rays are:

1. A filament (cathode) to provide source of electron proceeding towards the target.
2. A target (anode) located in the path of electrons.
3. Voltage difference between anode and cathode will regulate the velocity of
electrons striking the target and thus regulate the wavelength of X-rays produced.
4. A means of regulating tube current to control the number of electrons striking the
target.
X- Rays are potentially dangerous and adequate safe guards must be employed to
protect operating person.
Radiography is a shadow picture of a material more or less transparent to radiation. The
X-rays darken the film so those regions by lower density which readily permit
penetration appear dark on the negative as compared with region of higher density
which absorbs more of the radiation. Thus hole or crack appears as a darker area.

Fig. 12.7 A simple radiation thickness gauge

Radiography of metals has been used for inspection of casting and welded products; it
may be used to measure the thickness of materials also. Figure 1.30 shows a simple
radiation thickness gauge. The radiation from the source is influenced by the material
being tested. As the thickness increases, the radiation intensity reading the detector
decreases. If the response of the detector is calibrated for known thickness, the detector
reading can be used to indicate the thickness of the inspected material with a suitable
feedback circuit; the detector may be used to control the thickness between
predetermined limits.

12.6 Ultrasonic Inspection:

Introduction:
1. It is used to detect and locate defects such as shrinkage, cavities, cracks, porosity and
large metallic inclusions wall thickness can be measured in close vessel.
2. Ultrasonic vibrations can be used to locate defects in ferrous and nonferrous metals,
plastics and ceramics.
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12. Non Destructive Testing Material Science & Metallurgy (2131904)

3. Ultrasonic inspection for flow detection makes use of acoustic waves with frequency in
the range of 20 KHz and 20 MHz which can be transmitted through solids and get
reflected by subsurface defects.
4. The use of sound waves to determine a defect is a very old / ancient method. If a piece
of metal is struck by a hammer it will radiate certain audible/easy to hear notes, of
which pitch and clamping may be influenced by the presence of internal flows. However
this technique of hammering and listening is useful only for the determination of large
defects.
5. Here sound waves above audible range with frequency 1 to 5 million Hz (cycle/sec)
hence it is known as ultrasonic.
6. Ultrasonic is a fast, reliable, non destructive testing method which employs
electronically produced high frequency sound waves that will penetrate metals, liquids
and other metals at a speed of several thousand feet/sec.
7. Ultrasonic waves for NDT are usually produced by piezoelectric materials. These
materials undergo a change in physical dimensions when subjected to electric field.
8. This conversion of electrical energy to mechanical energy is known as piezoelectric
effect. If an alternating electric field is applied to a piezoelectric crystal, the crystal will
expand during the first half of cycle and contact when the electric field is reversed. By
varying the frequency of the alternating electric field, we can vary the frequency of the
mechanical vibration (sound wave) produced in the crystal. Quartz is a widely used
ultrasonic transducer. A transducer is a device for converting one form of energy to
another.
Ultrasonic test methods:
1. Through Transmission Method:
This method uses an ultrasonic transducer on each side of the object being inspected. If an
electrical pulse of the desired frequency is applied to the transmitting crystal, the ultrasonic
waves produced will travel through the specimen to the other side. The receiving transducer
on the opposite side receive the vibrations and converts them in to an electrical signed than
can be amplified and observed on the cathode ray tube of an oscilloscope, a meter or some
other indicator. If the ultrasonic wave travels through the specimen without encountering
any flow, the signal received is relatively large. If there is a flow in the path of the ultrasonic
wave part of the energy will be reflected and the signal received by the receiving transducer
will be reduced.

Fig. 12.8 The through-transmission and pulse echo methods of ultrasonic inspection

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Material Science & Metallurgy (2131904) 12. Non Destructive Testing

2. The Pulse Echo Method:

This method uses one transducer which serves as both transmitter and receiver. It is
same as the transmission method.
As sound wave enters the material being tested, part of it is reflected back to the crystal
where it is converted back to an electrical impulse.
This impulse is amplified and rendered visible as an indication or pip on the screen of the
oscilloscope. When the sound wave reached the other side of the material, it is reflected
back and shows a pip on the screen further to the right of first pip. If there is a flow
between front and back surface of the material, it will shows as a third pip on the screen
between the two indications for the front and back surfaces.

Fig. 12.9 Oscilloscope pattern for the pulse eco method of ultrasonic inspection

Fig. 12.10 Detection of crack with ultrasonic machine

Since the indications on the oscilloscope screen measure the elapsed time between
reflection of the pulse from the front and back surfaces, the distance between
indications is a measure of the thickness of the material. The location of a defect may
therefore be accurately determined from the indications on the screen.

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12. Non Destructive Testing Material Science & Metallurgy (2131904)

For larger parts, a film of oil ensured proper contact between the crystal searching unit
and test piece. Smaller parts may be placed in a tank of water, oil or glycerin. The crystal
searching units transmits sound waves through the medium and into material being
examined.
Close examination of the oscilloscope screen in the picture shows the presence of three
pips. The left pip indicates the front of the piece. The right pip the back of the piece and
the smaller center pip is an indication of flow.
Applications:
1. It is used to detect and locate such defect as shrinkage cavities, internal bursts or cracks,
porosity and large non metallic inclusions.
2. Wall thickness can be measured in a close vessel.

12.7 Eddy current inspection:

Current techniques are used to inspect electrically conducting materials for defects,
irregularities in structure, and variations in composition. In eddy current testing, a varying
magnetic field is produced if a source of a source of alternating current is connected to a
coil. When this field is placed near a test specimen capable of conducting an electrical
current, eddy currents will be induced in the specimen. The eddy currents, in turn, will
produce a magnetic field of their own. The detection unit will measure this new magnetic
field and convert the signal into a voltage that can read on a meter or a cathode ray tube.
Properties such as hardness, alloy composition, chemical purity, and heat treat condition
influence the magnetic field and may be measured directly by a single coil.

An important use for eddy current testing is sorting material for heat treat variations or
composition mix-ups. This application requires the use of two coils.(see fig.) A standard
piece is placed in one coil and the test piece in other coil. Acceptance or rejection of the test
piece may be determined by comparing the two patterns on the oscilloscope screen.

Eddy current testing may be used to detect surface and sub-surface defects, plate or tubing
thickness, and coating thickness.

Fig. 12.11 Eddy current test

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 Material Science & Metallurgy (2131904) 12. Non Destructive Testing

Fig. 12.12 Eddy Current Inspection

Table 12.1: Major nondestructive testing methods

Inspection When to use Where to use Advantages Limitations

method

Eddy current Measuring Tubing and bar High speed, False indication
variations in wall stock, parts of noncontact, result from
thickness of thin uniform automatic. many variables;
metals or coatings; geometry, flat only good for
detecting stock, or sheet conductive
longitudinal seems and wire. materials;
or cracks in tubing; limited depth of
determining heat penetration.
treatments and
metal compositions
for sorting.

Radiography:

x-rays Detecting internal Assemblies of

flaws and defects; electronic parts,
finding welding casting, welded
flows, cracks, vessels; field
seams, porosity, testing of welds;
holes, inclusions, corrosion
lack of fusion, surveys;
Provides permanent High initial cost;
measuring component of
records on film; power source
variations in nonmetallic
Works well on thin required;
thickness. materials.
sections; high radiation
sensitivity; hazard; trained
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 12. Non Destructive Testing Material Science & Metallurgy (2131904)

Gamma x-rays Detecting internal Forgings, fluoroscopy technicians

flaws, cracks, castings, tubing, techniques needed.
seams, holes, welded vessels; available;
inclusions, weld field testing adjustable energy
defects; measuring welded pipe; level.
thickness variations. corrosion
surveys.

Magnetic Detecting surface or Only for Economical, simple Material must

particle shallow subsurface ferromagnetic in principle, easy to be magnetic;
flaws, cracks, materials; parts perform, portable; demagnetizing
porosity, of any size, fast for production after testing is
nonmetallic shape, testing. required;
inclusions, and weld composition, or power source
defect. heat treatment. needed; parts
must be
cleaned before
finishing.

Penetrant Locating surface All metals, glass, Simple to apply, Limited to

crack, porosity, laps, and ceramics, portable, fast, low surface defects;
cold shuts, and lack castings, forgings, in cost; results easy surface must be
of weld bond, machined parts, to interpret; no clean.
fatigue, and and cutting tools; elaborate setup
grinding cracks. field inspections. required.

Ultrasonic pulse Finding internal All metals and Fast, dependable, Requires
echo defects, cracks, lack hard nonmetallic easy to operate; contact or
of bond, materials, sheets, lends itself to immersion of
laminations, tubing, rods, automation, result part;
porosity, forgings, castings, of test immediately interpretation
determining grain field and known; relatively of readings
structure and production portable, highly requires
thicknesses. testing; in service accurate, sensitive. training.
part testing;
brazed and
adhesive bonded
joints.

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Material Science & Metallurgy (2131904) 12. Non Destructive Testing

12.8 Jominey End Quench Test:

The usual method of purchasing steel is on the basis of chemical composition. This
allows a considerable variation in the carbon and alloy of the steel.
Example: AISI 4340 Steel
C = 0.38-.043% Ni = 1.65 2.0%
Mn = 0.60-0.80% Cr = 0.70 0.90%
Si = 0.20 0.35% Mo = 0.20 0.30%

Lets determine percentage variation in each alloying element.

For C
Difference between 0.43 and 0.38=0.05
So
.
= 12.5 %
( . . )/

So % variation for difference metal and alloy is given as.

Mn = 28.7% Ni = 19.1% Mo = 40%

Si = 53.8% Cr = 25%
This variation in chemical composition within a particular grade will cause a variation in
the critical cooling rate and in turn a variation in the response of the steel to heat
treatment.
Therefore buying a steel according to chemical composition is No assurance that full
hardness will be attained under certain quenching conditions. It is therefore necessary o
have a test that will predict he Hardenability of the steel.
In test has been standardized by ASTM, SAE & AISI. In conducing this test 1 round
specimen 4 long is heated uniformly o he proper Ausetnizing temperature. It is then
removed from the furnace on a placed on a fixture where a jet of water impinges on the
bottom face of the specimen. The size of the orifice, from the orifice to the bottom of
the specimen and temperature and circulation of water all are standardized. So that
every specimen quenched in this fixtures receives the same cooling rate. After 10
minutes on the fixture, the specimen is removed and two parallel surfaces are ground
longitudinally to a depth of 0.015 inch. Rockwell C scale hardness reading is taken at
1/16 interval from the quenched end. The results are expressed as a curve of Hardness
Vs Distance from the quenched end.
End quench Hardenability curve readily shows that how Hardenability varies with actual
cooling rates for particular steel.

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12. Non Destructive Testing Material Science & Metallurgy (2131904)

Hardenability
When a steel piece of large cross section is heated to a austenite temperature and then
quenched, the cooling rate decreases from the surface to the interior. Martensite is
obtained at the surface due to highest cooling rate. But it is not possible to get a
martensitic structure at the center due to the relatively slow cooling rate. Hence, a
gradient of hardness exists from the surface to the center. Since every grade of steel has
its own transformation characteristics, the depth of penetration of hardness across the
cross section differs. The measure of these properties termed as Hardenability of the
steel.
Hardenability is defined as the relative ability of steel to be hardened by quenching and
it determines the depth and distribution of hardness across the cross section.
Hardenability should not be confused with maximum hardness of steel.
Hardenability is very useful and important property of steel. It determines the rate at
which the given steel should be quenched. Maximum hardness is mainly a function of
carbon content. Hardenability of steel depends on
1. Composition of steel
2. Method of manufacture
3. Section of the steel
4. Quenching medium
5. Quenching method
In industry, a simple experiment called Jominey End Quench Test (named after Walter
Jominey, American Metallurgist) is used to determine Hardenability of steel.
Objectives:
The objective of the experiment is to take readings in the Rockwell C scale along the flat
surface of the Jominey specimen and to plot the graph Hardness vs. Distance from
quenched end.
Equipment:
1. Electric furnace
2. Jominey end quench test fixture
3. Jominey specimen (made as per ASTM standard)
4. Rockwell hardness tester
Test Procedure:
1. Preheat the furnace to 1700 F (910C-920 C)
2. Place the Jominey specimen in the furnace and soak for one hour.
3. Turn the water on at Jominey sink. Adjust the free water column about 2.5 inches.
Swivel the baffle plate to block the water column so that there is no contact between
water and the test specimen when the test specimen is initially placed on the fixture.

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Material Science & Metallurgy (2131904) 12. Non Destructive Testing

4. Remove the Jominey specimen from the furnace and place in the fixture as shown in
figure. Swivel the baffle out of position so that water impinges on the bottom of the
specimen without wetting the sides of specimen. Leave water running for about 15
minutes.

Fig. 12.13 Apparatus used in the test and Standard form of test piece

5. Remove the Jominey specimen from the fixture and grind a flat on the side of the
specimen.
6. Mark points on the ground surface at an interval of 1.6mm distance from the quench
end as shown in figure.
7. Take reading at an interval of 1.6mm intervals. Near the quenched end, this interval is
reduced to 0.8mm as hardness values vary rapidly.

Fig. 12.14Hardness variation in quenched Jominey bar

8. The results are expressed as a curve of hardness value vs. distance from the quenched
end (Jominey distance). This curve is called the Jominey Hardenability curve.

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