Marine and Petroleum Geology 86 (2017) 1207e1223

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Marine and Petroleum Geology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpetgeo

Research paper

Geology of the Campanian M1 sandstone oil reservoir of eastern

Ecuador: A delta system sourced from the Amazon Craton
Cristian Vallejo a, *, Diego Tapia b, Janeth Gaibor c, Ron Steel d, Mario Cardenas b,
Wilfried Winkler e, Anne Valdez b, Jose Esteban f, Mariana Figuera c, Jose Leal c,
Dario Cuenca b
a
Departamento de Geologa, Escuela Polit
ecnica Nacional, Quito, Ecuador
b
Petroamazonas EP, Quito, Ecuador
c
Halliburton Latin America, Quito, Ecuador
d
Jackson School of Geosciences, University of Texas at Austin, 1 University Station, C1100, Austin, TX, United States
e
Department of Earth Sciences, ETH-Zurich, Switzerland
f
Departamento de Geodina
mica, Facultad de Ciencia y Tecnologa, Universidad del Pas Vasco, Apdo. 644, 48080 Bilbao, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The Campanian M1 sandstone Member of the Napo Formation is one of the main reservoirs of the
Received 11 January 2017 Capiron-Tiputini oil play system of the eastern part of the Oriente Basin of Ecuador. This study presents a
Received in revised form geological model for this reservoir at the Apaika and Nenke oil elds included within the Block 31, and
20 June 2017
the Eden Yuturi oil eld, operated by PETROAMAZONAS EP. The geological characterization of the M1
Accepted 23 July 2017
sandstone is based on an integrated study, which includes core description, electric log analyses and
Available online 25 July 2017
seismic data interpretation.
The sedimentological descriptions from available cored sections show that M1 sandstone records a
Keywords:
M1 sandstone
variety of uvial to shallow marine processes, including mass ow and delta-front turbidity currents not
Oriente Basin previously documented. The stratal stacking pattern interpreted from electric logs indicates that the
Delta succession reects deltaic progradation rather than the backstepping pattern typically displayed by the
Napo Formation underlying Albian to Santonian sediments of the Napo Formation. Seismic RMS amplitude denes cli-
Tena Formation noform geometries with sigmoidal sand body architecture prograding from east to west. Correlation with
Ecuador neighboring regions in Colombia suggest that the M1 sandstone was probably part of a large river-
Provenance analysis dominated delta system sourced from the east during major Campanian progradation.
The location of the source area of sediment was determined using U-Pb detrital zircon dating. Prov-
enance ages are uniform within the M1 Sandstone cluster in a population that ranges from 1.4 to 1.6
billion years. These ages indicate that sands were derived mostly from erosion of the lithotectonic Rio
Negro-Jurena province, located to the northeast of the studied area. Detrital ages from the overlying
Maastrichtian Tena Formation include ages between 80 and 200 Ma pointing to an important change in
the source areas, located in the Eastern Cordillera of Ecuador. The change in sediment supply from east to
west recorded in the Tena Formation coincide with the initial episodes of the Andean orogeny, and may
be driven by the collision of fragments of the Caribbean large igneous province (CLIP) against the con-
tinental margin of northwestern South America.
2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction The oil is hosted in Cretaceous (Aptian-Maastrichtian) reservoirs.

With nearly 30 billion barrels of oil in place (Rivadeneira and
Baby, 2004), the Oriente Basin of Ecuador is one of the most pro-
lic Sub-Andean oil basins of northwestern South America (Fig. 1).
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: cristian.vallejov@epn.edu.ec (C. Vallejo).
Contemporaneous, organic-rich sediments (e.g., Basal and upper
shale members of the Napo Formation) were deposited over a large
area and are considered the source of almost all hydrocarbons
(Dashwood and Abbotts, 1990; Mello et al., 1995). In the western
and central part of the basin, oil exploration and production is
mostly focused on the Albian-Cenomanian uvio-estuarine

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2017.07.022
0264-8172/ 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1208 C. Vallejo et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 86 (2017) 1207e1223
Fig. 1. Tectonic sketch map of Ecuador showing the geological setting of the Andean Amazon Basin in Ecuador and adjacent regions. Compiled from Spikings et al. (2001) and
Gombojav and Winkler (2008). Location of the area of study is represented by a black square in the map.
sandstones of the Holln and Napo formations (T and U sandstone
members). The Campanian M1 sandstone member of the Napo
Formation is a reservoir restricted to the eastern part of the Oriente
Basin of Ecuador and its equivalent, the Vivian Formation in the
Maran ~ on Basin of Peru. The M1 sandstone is unconformably over-
lain by continental deposits of the Maastrichtian Tena Formation,
which marks the end of the marine sedimentation within the
Oriente Basin and neighbouring areas. The deposition of the Tena
Formation coincided in time with the initiation of the Andean
Orogeny (Dashwood and Abbotts, 1990). However, its continuity
and trap potential has not been dened due to the lack of data
integration and interpretation, including the origin of the M1
sandstone.
Previous models based on lithostratigraphic correlations (e.g.,
Barraga
n et al., 2004) proposed that the M1 sandstone was
deposited within incised valleys during transgression. Among the
available data, Jaillard (1997) recognized the difculty in deter-
mining the depositional environment of the M1 sandstone and
suggested a subaqueous and continental environment for this
member at the Tiputini Minas 1 well of the Tiputini oil eld
(eastern border of the Oriente Basin).
This contribution is one of the rst published detailed geological
overviews of the M1 sandstone reservoir of the Napo Formation;
another is a published MS thesis by Yu Ye (2014). We propose a new
model for the origin of the M1 sandstone member, integrating core
description, biostratigraphy, electric log analyses, and seismic data
interpretation from Eden Yuturi, Apaika and Nenke oil elds. In
addition, new UePb detrital zircon ages were obtained within the
M1 sandstone and the overlying Tena Formation.
The objectives of this study are: (1) to interpret depositional
processes from core descriptions; (2) calibrate the depositional
facies with wireline logs; (3) establish sand-body geometries using
stratigraphic correlations of well logs and seismic data; (4) develop
a depositional model by integrating core, outcrop, log, and seismic
data; and (5) discuss the tectonic setting during the deposition of
the Campanian to Maastrichtian sedimentation, particularly the
transition from the M1 sandstone member of the Napo Formation
to the Tena Formation.
2. Material and methods
This study included core descriptions, electric log analyses,
seismostratigraphic interpretation and provenance analysis. The
sedimentological study of a 92-ft core from the APKA-02 well
(Block 31, eastern part of the Oriente Basin; Fig. 1) allowed for
characterizing the depositional environment and processes during
deposition of the M1 sandstone member. The sedimentological and
stratigraphic data are complemented with a seismostratigraphic
analysis using root mean square (RMS) amplitude-seismic attri-
butes, which allow us to dene the geometries of the reservoir. This
study also integrates a petrophysical analysis, including porosity
and permeability measured directly from rock samples collected
from a cored section.
The source area of the sediment was determined from a zircon
provenance analysis, which included zircon U-Pb ages from detrital
grains obtained by laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass
spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). Zircons were extracted using conven-
tional separation techniques (i.e., crushing, sieving, magnetic, and
heavy-liquid separation) at the University of the Basque Country.
Only the cleanest crack and inclusion-free zircons were mounted
into epoxy and polished to reveal their internal structure and
imaged using a JEOL 6400 scanning electron microscope. Appro-
priate zircons were ablated with a NewWave UP-213 excimer
ablation system at a 30-mm diameter beam size, 10-Hz repetition
rate, 60-s signal, and a beam intensity of 2.5 J/cm2. The isotopic
ratios were measured using a Thermo Scientic Xseries II. External
reference standards used to calibrate and monitor fractionation and
consistency in the measured U-Pb dates were either GJ1 (608.5 4
Ma; Jackson et al., 2004) zircon or Plesovice (337.13 0.37 Ma;

ma et al., 2008) zircon. Data reduction was carried out by the
Sla
 C. Vallejo et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 86 (2017) 1207e1223
laboratory staff using Iolite 3 (Paton et al., 2011) and VizualAge
(Petrus and Kamber, 2012) software.
3. Regional geology
The Oriente Basin is part of a retro-arc foreland basin, one of the
Sub-Andean basins of northwestern South America (Gombojav and
Winkler, 2008; Baby et al., 2013), located between the Andes to the
east and the South American Craton to the west (Fig. 1). Develop-
ment of the Oriente Basin was closely controlled by the early dy-
namics of the Northern Andes starting in the Jurassic period
(Spikings et al., 2015). The basin is bordered to the west by the
primordial Eastern Cordillera and the Amazon Craton (Guyana
Shield) to the east (e.g., Ruiz et al., 2007; Gombojav and Winkler,
2008; Spikings et al., 2015).
The Cretaceous Ecuadorian Oriente Basin was developed as a
part of an epicontinental sea that included the Maran ~ on Basin in
Peru, as well as the Putumayo, Magdalena, and Llanos basins in
Colombia and the Barinas-Apure Basin in Venezuela (Balkwill et al.,
1995; Vallejo et al., 2002). The Oriente Basin, including the Napo
Uplift, has further developed as an eastward-pinching foreland
basin since the Maastrichtian (Gombojav and Winkler, 2008) and
has yielded the majority of Ecuador hydrocarbons (Rivadeneira and
Baby, 2004). There is general agreement that the Oriente Basin
initiated latest at z 115e100 Ma. This occurred after a long period
of extension between 145 and 120 Ma, which led to the formation
of grabens and half-grabens that were lled by evaporites, conti-
nental debris ows, and shallow marine sediments of Middle
Jurassic age (Diaz et al., 2004; Gaibor et al., 2008; Spikings et al.,
2015). The extension was followed by a period of compression
along the northern South American plate margin, which closed a
series of fore-, inter-, and back-arc basins (Guamote, Peltetec, Alao,
and Upano basins) against the continent (Litherland et al., 1994;
Spikings et al., 2015). In the Oriente Basin, this compression
created an unconformity above the pre-Cretaceous strata, which is
clearly observed in the seismic lines of the Oriente Basin (Balkwill
et al., 1995) and occurs below the Aptian to Albian Hollin Forma-
tion in this basin. Earlier authors ascribed this deformational event
(Peltetec event) to the collision of allochthonous terranes
between z 120 and 110 Ma (e.g., Litherland et al., 1994; Spikings
et al., 2015), creating a primordial Andean chain in the Eastern
Cordillera located to the west of the basin (Ruiz et al., 2007;
Gombojav and Winkler, 2008). Compression was followed by a
period of punctuated thermal subsidence, during which the
Cretaceous strata were deposited.
The pre-Aptian unconformity formed paleotopographic de-
pressions that became lled by uvial deposits of the Holln For-
mation (Fig. 2). Shanmugam et al. (2000) proposed four stages of
deposition for this formation from oldest to youngest: 1) uvial
channels of low sinuosity, which may represent braided rivers; 2)
tide-dominated estuaries; 3) continued drowning of the tide-
dominated estuaries; and 4) a shelf environment. This transition
and the component environmental changes were clearly the result
of a major, long-term transgression (Boyd et al., 2006), probably
driven by tectonic downwarping and relative sea-level rise across
the new basin oor. Detrital sediment supply during deposition of
the Holln Formation was routed from both the South American
craton and from a primordial, Cretaceous Andean cordillera
(Gombojav and Winkler, 2008).
The Napo Formation, overlying the Holln Formation (Fig. 2), is a
stratigraphic series that includes at least ve major stratigraphic
sequences deposited from the Albian to the Campanian (White
et al., 1995; Vallejo et al., 2002; Barraga
n et al., 2004). The rst
two stratigraphic sequences (T and U) were deposited during
Albian and Cenomanian transgressions; they comprise marine
1209
successions that retrograde from uvial to tide-dominated estua-
rine, and then to open marine shelf environments. Facies transi-
tions within the next three stratigraphic units, the T, U, and M2
sequences, are similar in stratigraphic architecture and trans-
gressive trend to the Holln Formation. For most of the Holln, T, U,
and M2 sedimentation periods, the basin was remarkably protected
from large, open, oceanic waves and swells, a feature supporting
the presence of a partial topographic barrier to the west (Jaillard,
1997; Vallejo et al., 2002; Gombojav and Winkler, 2008) The
conguration of the Cretaceous Oriente Basin was, thus, somewhat
comparable with the late Cretaceous Western Interior Seaway
(WIS) of the USA, though this basin shows abundant evidence of
ocean waves, as well as tides, and is not dominated by repeated
transgressive intervals (Steel et al., 2012). Consequently, the Oriente
Basin appears to have been narrower than the WIS, relatively
protected from large waves and inuenced mainly by river and tidal
currents moving through the shallow Ecuadorian Cretaceous
seaway (e.g., Jaillard, 1997).
The M1 shale and M1 limestone of the Napo Formation (Fig. 2)
were deposited during the Santonian transgression (Ordo
n
~ ez et al.,
2006) and comprise mainly carbonates and shallow offshore and
shelf marine shales. During this period, the sea transgressed across
the whole basin and the M1 limestone and associated shales is
considered to be the maximum ooding zone of the Napo second-
order stratigraphic cycle. The organic-rich Upper Napo Shale (Fig. 2)
is the youngest part of the Napo depositional system. In the west-
ernmost part of the Oriente Basin, this member was deposited in a
shallow marine environment during the Campanian period
(Jaillard, 1997; Vallejo et al., 2002). The deposition of the various
overlying M1 sandstones and shales is more complex and some-
what different from the previous four stratigraphic sequences in
the basin and is the main subject of this paper.
The establishment of prevailing continental depositional envi-
ronments in the Oriente Basin occurred from Maastrichtian times
and is represented by uvial sandstones and red beds from the
continental Tena Formation (Tschopp, 1953; Caneld et al., 1982).
There is a regional erosional unconformity separating the Napo
Formation from the Tena Formation. This unconformity represents
erosion of the upper part of the Napo Formation and marks a sig-
nicant lithological change from shallow marine sediments of the
Napo Formation to overlying continental deposits of the Tena For-
mation. Along the western border of the basin, the erosion level
below the Tena Formation reaches the Turonian-Coniacian M2
limestone of the Napo Formation; whereas, along the eastern
border of the basin, this unconformity separates the uvial to
coastal sediments of the Campanian M1 sandstone from the red
beds of the Tena Formation (Fig. 2). During this late Cretaceous
deformation period, thick-skinned tectonics produced the inver-
sion of pre-Cretaceous extensional, mainly northward-striking fault
systems (Balkwill et al., 1995; Baby et al., 2013). The inverted faults
propagated to the Cretaceous sedimentary series and gave rise to
the formation of N-S elongated folds, which form the main struc-
tural oil traps of the basin. This late Cretaceous deformation event is
likely related to the collision of fragments of the Caribbean Plateau
against the continental margin of the Northern Andes (Luzieux
et al., 2006; Vallejo et al., 2006).
The Tena Formation is, in turn, overlain by the Paleocene to
Eocene alluvial fan conglomerates from the Tiyuyacu formation.
The Tiyuyacu Formation depicts the accelerated uplift of the An-
dean cordillera located to the west of the Oriente Basin (e.g.,
Gombojav and Winkler, 2008).
4. The M1 sandstone
The M1 sandstone member is one of the most prolic reservoirs
1210 C. Vallejo et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 86 (2017) 1207e1223

Fig. 2. Regional Stratigraphic framework of the Cretaceous interval at the Oriente Basin, including the oil reservoir intervals (in yellow) and the sequence stratigraphic inter-
pretation (modied from Barrag
an et al., 2004). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

along the eastern reaches of the Oriente Basin, including the
Capiron-Tiputini oil play (Rivadeneira and Baby, 2004), where the
Eden Yuturi, Apaika, Nenke, and the giant Ishpingo-Tambococha-
Tiputini (ITT) oil elds are located.
The M1 sandstone member includes several sandstone intervals
(Fig. 3) that were deposited on top of thick marine shale with some
limestone intercalations. This underlying ne-grained succession,
dened as the M1 shale member, is dated to Santonian age at the
Amo-1 well in the eastern part of the Oriente Basin (Jaillard, 1997).
A regional stratigraphic marker within the M1 limestone was
identied as the L marker, a surface interpreted as the maximum
ooding level of the Santonian transgression (Fig. 2), and is used as
a chronostratigraphic datum for well correlations (Fig. 3). In the
eastern part of the Oriente Basin, the M1 sandstone is overlain by
red beds and discontinuous sandy strata from the Tena Formation.
There is an east-to-west thinning of the strata between the L
marker and the top of the M1 sandstone. Regional thickness maps
for the M1 sandstone, itself, also indicate a maximum thickness of
200 ft near the Peruvian border (Dashwood and Abbotts, 1990;
Barraga
n et al., 2004), but the unit thins or disappears in the cen-
tral part of the basin (Sacha-Shushundi corridor). No outcrop or
subsurface type section has been described for the M1 sandstone.
In Peru, the lateral equivalent of the M1 sandstone is the Vivian
Formation, which is the main reservoir of the Maran ~ on Basin
(Mathalone and Montoya, 1995).
In this study, we present cross sections from the M1 shale
member of the Napo Formation to the Tena Formation, depicting
the stratigraphic structure of the M1 sandstone in the Eden Yuturi
and Apaika elds (Fig. 3). These stratigraphic sections are attened
to the regional chronostratigraphic L marker. The overall stratal
stacking pattern of the M1 sandstone, as observed in wireline logs
of the study area, differs from what is observed in lower cycles (T, U)
of the Napo Formation stratigraphy.
Fig. 3A shows a NE-SW stratigraphic correlation for the M1
sandstone member at the Eden Yuturi oil eld located 30 km north
of Block 31. The M1 sandstone here consists of at least three sand
bodies that thin and almost disappear towards the southwest,
where the sandstones are replaced by shale. An eastward thick-
ening of the sands towards the proximal region is clearly observed
in the well correlation.
The gamma ray logs through the M1 sandstone succession
shows clearly that it consists of an alternation of shale and sand-
stone. Both the uppermost and lowermost sandstone horizons in
Fig. 3A are shown to be progradational because of the upward-
coarsening shale-to-sandstone log patterns. However, the middle
of the three sandstones is sharp based.
Fig. 3B is a N-S stratigraphic correlation within the Apaika oil
eld, depicting a lateral thickness change of the M1 sandstone. The
 C. Vallejo et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 86 (2017) 1207e1223 1211

Fig. 3. Stratigraphic sections across the M1 Sandstone. (A) West to East stratigraphic section of the M1 sandstone at the Eden Yuturi oil eld. (B) Stratigraphic section of the M1
Sandstone at the Apaika oil eld. Note the wedge-shaped geometry of the sands.

thickest part of the sandstone is located within the APKA-06 well
area; whereas, a progressive thinning of the sandstone occurs to-
wards the APKA-02 well, becoming more dramatic at the APKA-14
well, where the sandstone disappears.
The stratigraphic correlation of the M1 sandstone in Apaika
(Fig. 3B), is somewhat similar to Eden Yuturi; however, the lower-
most sandstone of the Eden Yuturi wells (Fig. 3A) is missing, as well
as the shale between the sandstones. Careful viewing of the sand-
stones in Apaika M1 wells in Fig. 3B shows that the M1 sandstone
consists of an upper sand that is upward coarsening and is amal-
gamated to a lower, sharp-based sand, just as in Eden Yuturi. The
intervening shale is absent because the Apaika wells lie in a more
proximal paleogeographic position. The upward-coarsening, upper
sandstone level in both elds (and the lowermost sandstone in the
1212 C. Vallejo et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 86 (2017) 1207e1223
Eden Yuturi Field) represent deltas that clinoformed as they pro-
graded westwards, and an abrupt pinch-out of sand can be
observed towards the southwest. However, the sharp-based, blocky
sandstone (the middle sand in Eden Yuturi wells, and the lower
sand in Apaika) is likely to be transgressive and of estuarine origin.
It is very common in stratigraphy that transgressive and regressive
sands alternate, during the construction of shelf platforms, by
repeated back-and-forth transits of the sediment delivery system
(Steel et al., 2008). Discontinuous sand packages also occur towards
the base of the M1 sandstone member, most likely representing the
distal parts of older clinoforms.
Fig. 4 represents a net-sand isopach map of the combined M1
sandstone reservoir for the Apaika and Nenke oil elds of Block 31.
The map depicts lobate geometries for the M1 sandstone member,
with an overall west-northwestward progradation direction.
Distally on the Apaika wedge, both the transgressive basal sand and
the overlying regressive clinoform sand become thinner. At the
Apaika area, the lateral discontinuity of the sand distribution
within the M1 sandstone member was conrmed when drilling the
APKA-14 well (Fig. 4), which failed to nd sandstones. This well
crossed a mud-rich interlobate area that separates the Apaika from
the Apaika Sur sandy lobes.
4.1. Age of the M1 sandstone in the Apaika oil eld
Three samples were collected in this study for biostratigraphic
analyses within the M1 sandstone member from a cored section of
Fig. 4. Net sand isopach map from the base to the top of the M1 Sandstone Member at
the Apaika and Nenke oil elds. Note the lobate nature of the sands.
the APKA-02 well (Fig. 5). The samples yielded abundant paly-
nomorphs, but were barren in foraminifera and calcareous nan-
nofossils. Palynomorphs included the cysts of the dinoagellate,
Dinogymnium sp, Dinogymnium aff rigaudae of Campanian to
Maastrichtian age (Boltenhagen, 1977), Dinogymnium cf. digitatus of
Coniacian-Maastrichtian age, and Dinogymnium acuminatum of
Campanian to Maastrichtian age (Evitt et al., 1967). Palynomorphs
also include the pollen, Tricolporites sp, and Camarozonosporites sp
trilete spores. Therefore, the palynomorphic association suggests a
Campanian to Maastrichtian age, with sediments reecting a
shallow marine to coastal environment. These data are consistent
with previous biostratigraphic studies in the M1 sandstone mem-
ber, which indicated a Campanian age for this reservoir at the Eden

n
Yuturi and ITT oil elds (Raynaud et al., 1993; Miles, 2003; Ordo ~ ez
et al., 2006). As indicated earlier, the Upper Napo Shale member of
the Sub-Andean zone is also dated as Campanian; therefore, the M1
sandstone of the eastern part of the Oriente Basin was coeval with
the Upper Napo Shale of the westernmost part of the Oriente Basin.
According to Jaillard (1997) and Vallejo et al. (2002), the paly-
nomorph assemblage of the Upper Napo Shale along the western
parts of the basin is dominated by a high diversity of di-
noagellates, suggesting a normal marine environment for this
member.
5. Lithofacies of the M1 sandstone in the APKA-02 well core
There have been few published sedimentological studies on the
M1 sandstone member, mostly due to the lack of a continuous
cored section of this reservoir. For this study, we had access to a
cored interval of the M1 sandstone from the APKA-02 well located
in the Apaika area (Fig. 5). Cores were examined for (1) bedding
contacts, (2) bed-thickness variations, (3) grain size, (4) lithologic
variations, (5) primary physical-sedimentary structures, (6) bio-
logical sedimentary structures, (7) syndepositional and post-
depositional sedimentary structures, and (8) oil staining.
The core description and the environmental interpretations
have subsequently been calibrated against the local and regional
seismic data. Despite the fact that the analyzed cored section is not
complete, the cores help us to interpret the depositional processes
involved during the sedimentation of the M1 sandstone member at
the Apaika and neighbouring areas. The APKA-02 well includes a
cored section of 92 ft, and the lithofacies characteristics are sum-
marized in Table 1.
5.1. Mudstones (F1)
5.1.1. Description
Lithofacies F1 is located at the base of the M1 cored section from
the Apaika and consists of massive, black to grey-colored claystone
(Fig. 6A). Bioturbation is absent in this lithofacies.
5.1.2. Interpretation
The muddy nature of this lithofacies and the absence of bio-
turbation suggest stressed conditions and probably high-
sedimentation rates consistent with a shallow marine settings.
5.2. Breccia (F2)
5.2.1. Description
Lithofacies F2 include centimetric blocks of intra-basinal
reworked material, supported by a matrix of poorly sorted
medium-to coarse-grained sand. Some of the clasts, as observed in
the cored section and image logs (Fig. 5), are estimated at
approximately 30-cm long. Clasts are subangular and internally
deformed (Fig. 6B). A petrographic analysis (Fig. 7A) shows that the
 C. Vallejo et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 86 (2017) 1207e1223 1213

Fig. 5. Logs showing the lithology, stratigraphy, sedimentological features, lithofacies associations, image log and paleocurrent data of the M1 sandstone from a cored section in
APKA-02 well at the Apaika oil eld.
1214 C. Vallejo et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 86 (2017) 1207e1223
sandstone is composed of >80% quartz grains, 5% silt and <15%
autigenic clay (mainly kaolinite). Calcareous cement is locally
present. The quartz grains are subangular to subrounded.
5.2.2. Interpretation
The chaotic nature of these deposits suggest a gravitational
collapse by subaqueous gravity-induced mass movements. The
sediments were likely supplied from unstable slopes. These
collapse features are similar to the slope failures identied on some
modern submarine slopes downdrift of large river mouths (Nemec
et al., 1988). Another possible interpretation is that the gravity-
induced collapse was on the margin of an estuarine channel.
Gravel or breccia can easily occur by bank collapse into the thalweg
of a large channel, and the F2 lithofacies can occur above the sharp
base of the lowermost part of the basal blocky M1 sandstone.
5.3. Medium-to coarse-grained heterogeneous sands (F3)
5.3.1. Description
Lithofacies F3 includes poorly sorted medium-to coarse-grained
sandstone. Elongated mudstone clasts and coal fragments occur at
the top of individual beds and, in some cases, parallel to the
stratication (Fig. 6C). Contorted mud layers also occur intercalated
within this lithofacies. The individual beds have sharp upper con-
tacts (Fig. 6C). A petrographic analysis indicates that the sandstone
include >80% subangular to subrounded quartz grains, 5% silt, 5%
detritical clays and <10% autigenic clays (Fig. 7B).
5.3.2. Interpretation
The poorly sorted nature of this lithofacies suggests mass ow
processes. The presence of oating mudstone clasts with planar
fabric near the top of the sandstone beds suggest laminar ow
conditions typical of debris ows with plastic rheology
(Shanmugam et al., 1994). Sharp upper contacts at the top of the
sand beds are interpreted as evidence of deposition by en masse
freezing, which is typical of debris ow processes (Shanmugam,
2012). The coal fragments were derived from terrestrial areas and
transported by rivers.
5.4. Rhythmic layers of ripple-laminated sand and mud (F4)
5.4.1. Description
Lithofacies F4 includes rhythmic layers of ripple-laminated
sandstone and mudstone. Rhythmic occurrence of mud and sand
layers present normal grading and sharp-based beds (Fig. 6D).
Small-scale load structures are also characteristic of these in-
tercalations. The ripples are symmetrical, resembling wave ripples,
and sometimes truncated at the top. Hummocky cross-
stratication can also occur within this lithofacies. Cm-scale beds
of F3 lithofacies are frequently intercalated with this lithofacies,
which is composed of 30e60% quartz, 20e40% silt, 5% detritical
clays, and <15% autigenic clays (Fig. 7C). The quartz grains are
subangular to subrounded.
5.4.2. Interpretation
The sharp-based beds capped by ripples suggest decelerating
waning ows from river oods (Bhattacharya and Walker, 1991) or
dilute turbiditic currents as the ow emerged from a channel and
changed from conned to unconned (Ambrose et al., 2009). The
loading indicates that the muds were less dense than the overlying
denser sandstones. The presence of wave ripples and mud drapes,
together with occasional hummocky cross-stratication, suggest
possible wave-reworking processes (Shanmugam, 2012). Therefore,
this lithofacies, when present in the upward-coarsening, part of the
sandy core, may represent ne-grained turbiditic ows, possibly of
hyperpycnite character, which would be common on the front of a
river-dominated delta. There was occasional reworking of these
thin turbidites by waves. Where F4 occurs in the lower part of the
core, the rhythmic beds could be of tidal current origin, probably
associated to estuarine tidal channels.
5.5. Inverse-graded beds (F5)
5.5.1. Description
Lithofacies F5 is dominated by inverse-graded sandstone beds
approximately 1-ft thick (Fig. 6E). Grain size varies from ne-
medium sands to granule-size quartz grains. The graded beds are
capped by thin layers of rippled sandstones. Wood, leaves, and
other plant fragments occur occasionally. A petrographic analysis
shows that this lithofacies is composed of >70% quartz, 20% silt, and
<10% authigenic clays (Fig. 7D). The quartz grains are subangular to
subrounded. The thin layers of rippled sandstones present organic-
rich laminae. Paleocurrent data obtained from this lithofacies and
the associated F3 lithofacies indicates a west-northwest transport
direction (Fig. 5).
5.5.2. Interpretation
The inverse grading of the sandy matrix can be explained by
dispersive pressure in grain ows (Bagnold, 1954) or in other types
of sediment gravity-ow deposits (Naylor, 1980). This is because
larger particles in high-concentration granular ows tend to be
pushed upward toward the free, upper surface of the ow due to
internal grain collision (Shanmugam, 2012). Inverse grading is also
diagnostic of the acceleration of sediment-laden hyperpycnal ows
that have reached maximum capacity during a waxing river ood
(Mulder et al., 2003; Bhattacharya, 2010). The association of the
inverse-graded beds with small, sandy debris ows is consistent
with hyperpycnal delta-front ows from the river mouth in asso-
ciation with other delta-front collapse episodes.
5.6. Heterolithic lithofacies (F6)
5.6.1. Description
Lithofacies F6 occurs at the top of the analyzed section and
consists of intercalations of silt-to ne-grained sands with mud.
The individual beds are greater than 1-cm thick, with sharp bases
and normal grading. The parallel-laminated sand presents small-
scale load structures of ne to very ne grain size. Some of the
sandstone beds are overlain by ripples (Fig. 6F). Many of the thinner
siltstone or very-ne-grained sandstone laminae are lenticular and
appear to have formed starved ripples (Fig. 6F). This lithofacies also
displays low intensities of bioturbation and phytodetrital material.
5.6.2. Interpretation
Sedimentary structures include sharp-based beds that show
normal grading and are capped by ripples indicative of sustained
ows that waned. The associated thin-bedded mudstones and ne-
grained sandstones may suggest a dilute hyperpycnal ows, as they
contain organic material with sharp but not erosive bases (Petter
and Steel, 2006). This lithofacies is similar to modern hyper-
pycnite sediments produced by direct uvial discharges generally
related to river oods (e.g., Mulder and Syvitski, 1995), deposited in
a distal delta front to prodeltaic setting.
6. Seismic data interpretation
Three-dimensional (3-D) post-stack seismic data from Block 31
was available for this study. The seismic data were migrated in time
with a bin size of 25
25 m. After a frequency analysis, the seismic
resolution was estimated to be 80 ft on average. Stratigraphic
 C. Vallejo et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 86 (2017) 1207e1223 1215

Table 1
Lithofacies description and palaeoenvironmental interpretation.

Lithofacies Lithology Processes and depositional environment

F1: Mudstones Massive claystone of black to grey color.
F2: Breccia Centimetric intrabasinal blocks in a matrix formed
by medium to coarse grained sands.
F3: Medium to coarse grained heterogeneous sands Poorly sorted medium to coarse grained sandstone.
Elongated mudstone clasts and coal fragments
occur at the top. Locally contorted mud layers.
F4: Rhythmic layers of sand and mud intercalated Rythmic layers of sand and mud intercalated with
with ripples wavy rippled sandstones.
F5: Inverse graded beds Inverse graded ne-medium sandstones capped by
thin layers of rippled sandstones.
F6. Heterolithic lithofacies Intercalations of silt to ne grained sands with
muds.
Low energy shallow marine to prodeltaic
environment.
Gravitational collapse by recurrent subaqueous
gravity induced mass movements in submarine
slopes, or gravity-induced collapse on the margin of
an estuarine channel.
Debris ows deposited by en masse freezing in a
delta front.
Fine-grained turbiditic ows, possibly of
hyperpycnite character, reworked by waves in a
river-dominated delta front.
Hyperpycnal delta-front ows.
Low-density hyperpycnal ow in a distal delta front
to prodeltaic environment.

surfaces identied from core and/or well logs were tied to seismic
horizons and mapped for the entire area. Root mean square (RMS)
amplitude extractions from the 3-D seismic cube were performed
to dene the geometry of the sands within the M1 sandstone
member in the Apaika and Nenke areas. This technique was applied
to better dene the sandstone limits. Fig. 8 represents a plan view
of a time window within the M1 sandstone. In the map, the cooler
colours (lower amplitudes) represent muddy sediments, while the
areas with higher amplitude (yellow to red) are interpreted to be
sand rich. The geometries dened after this amplitude extraction
depict lobe geometries for the M1 sandstone in the Apaika and
Nenke areas and the neighbouring Apaika Sur.
Fig. 9A and B show a southwest-to-northeast-oriented seismic
fence and another seismic line depicting the internal structure of
the M1 sandstone lobe in the Apaika area. The wedge-shaped ge-
ometry of the bed succession is evident and is similar to what was
observed from the wireline log correlations (Fig. 3), demonstrating
that the prograding clinoforms that form the upper level of M1
sandstone oil reservoirs can be seismically mapped. The clinoform
slope geometry of the individual sand bodies is also evident, which
(in the context of a river-dominated delta front) can also explain the
gravitational sedimentary processes observed in the analyzed
cored section of the APKA-02 well.
7. Depositional environment of the M1 sandstone
According to the log patterns and cored lithofacies as described
above, the M1 sandstone in the Apaika area of the Oriente Basin of
Ecuador is likely to have been deposited in two different environ-
ments: the sharp-based basal beds with blocky log pattern,
rhythmic tidal beds and breccia-collapse bank margins are likely to
have originated in estuarine channels developed thinly during the
transgression of the area; the thicker and upward-coarsening
succession dominated by mass-ow deposits, particularly sandy
mass-transport deposits, are likely to represent regressive deltas
that prograded westwards across the Apaika area. The presence of
oating mudstone clasts, inverse grading, and sharp upper contacts
of individual beds, which are typical of hyperpycnal ows and
sandy debris ows, support this interpretation. There was also
some inuence of wave-reworking of sediments. The absence of
bioturbation suggests high sedimentation rates (e.g., MacEachern
et al., 2005). The presence of mass-ow deposits and hyper-
pycnites suggests river ooding and gravitational instability on the
river-dominated delta front, which, according to the seismic
interpretation, can be related to low-angle, subaqueous, prograding
clinoforms.
The geometries depicted by the stratigraphic correlations,
sedimentological processes identied in the core descriptions, and
the seismic data indicate that the M1 sandstone reservoir in the
Apaika, Nenke and Eden Yuturi areas was deposited as a thin lower
tier of estuarine channels and a thicker upper tier of prograding
delta lobes. This would explain the lateral discontinuity of the
sandstone observed in the Apaika and Nenke areas, a feature typical
of debris ow lobes (Shanmugam and Moiola, 1991; Shanmugam
et al., 1994).
In the case of the deltas, the delta-front slope is known to be
inherently unstable and prone to debris-ow processes (Nemec,
1990). The palynomorph association, which is interpreted in
terms of coastal environments, supports this interpretation. The
high abundance of coal fragments and the abundance of phytode-
trital material derived from continental areas identied in the
cored intervals suggest direct river input into the basin (Plink-
Bjo rklund and Steel, 2006). Down-dip, clinoform cross-sectional
architecture identied in the seismic data is also consistent with
westward-dipping, prograding delta lobes.
In our interpretation, debris ows were likely sourced by a
delta-front collapse, a process known to occur elsewhere in the
geological record (e.g., Nemec et al., 1988). Cross-stratication is
rare, which suggests that sedimentation was rapid, impeding the
development of these traction structures. However, farther east for
the Vivian Formation of northern Peru, Radomski et al. (2010) re-
ported the presence of abundant trough cross-bedded sandstones
with interbedded coaly organics, gutter scours, rhizoliths, calcrete
horizons, and a lack of observable trace fossils. Similar facies with
abundant cross-bedded sandstones were observed in cores of the
M1 sandstone at the ITT oil elds (Vallejo et al., 2015), east of the
Apaika and Nenke areas (Fig. 1). These observations suggest the
presence of channelized facies to the east of the study area, in a
proximal part of the system.
In the studied deltaic part of the succession, we recognized
delta-front and pro-delta lithofacies (Fig. 5), with no representation
of proximal delta-front facies or evidence of subaerial exposures.
However, in the present study, we did not have a continuous cored
section of the transition from the described deltaic sediments to
shallower facies. Overlying the Campanian M1 sandstone, there is
an important change in sedimentation. Electric log data and cut-
tings description indicate a regional change from the subaqueous
sediments of the M1 sandstone to red beds of the Tena Formation,
which represent a different sedimentary cycle when compared
with the M1 sandstone (see provenance analysis).
1216 C. Vallejo et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 86 (2017) 1207e1223

Fig. 6. Lithofacies of the M1 sandstone at the APKA-02 well cored section. (A) Claystone sediments underlying the base of the M1 Sandstone Member (F1 lithofacies); (B) Brecciated
sediments presenting deformed clats of intrabasinal origin (F2 lithofacies); (C) Poorly sorted medium to coarse grained sandstone. It includes elongated mudstone clasts at the top
of the bed, parallel to the stratication, and sharp upper bed contact (F3 lithofacies); (D) Rythmic layers of ripple-laminated sandstone and mudstone, including wave ripples and
hummocky cross stratication (F4 lithofacies); (E) Inverse-graded sandstone beds capped by thin layers of rippled sandstones (F5 lithofacies); (F) Sharp-based sandstone inter-
calated with mudstones in cm-scale beds. Sandstone show grading, load structures and organic matter laminae (F6 lithofacies).

8. Provenance analysis
Three samples from the M1 sandstone member at the APKA-02
and one sample from the ITT oil elds (ISHP-01M) were collected
for provenance analysis. These samples were taken at different
depths within the Campanian M1 sandstone member (Fig. 5). In
addition, two samples of the Maastrichtian Tena Formation were
also selected for detrital zircon dating. One of the samples (ISHP-
01T) came from the ISHP-01 well in the neighbouring ITT oil elds
(Fig. 1), and a second sample (BT-001) was collected in the Sub-
andean zone of the Oriente Basin (Puyo area). The ISHP-01T sample
of the Tena Formation was taken above the late-Cretaceous un-
conformity, which separates the M1 sandstone member from the
Tena Formation at the ITT. The BT-001 sample was also taken above
 C. Vallejo et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 86 (2017) 1207e1223
Fig. 7. Representative thin sections of the M1 Sandstone oil reservoir from the APKA-02 well at the Apaika oil eld.
the late Cretaceous unconformity that separates the M2 limestone
from the Tena Formation in the Sub-Andean zone.
Histograms represent the age distribution of the four analyzed
samples of the M1 sandstone (Fig. 10). Concordant U/Pb of indi-
vidual zircon grains for the analyzed samples were used for the age
histogram. The age histograms for the M1 sandstone in the Apaika
and ITT areas show a relatively wide range of ages, ranging from 1
to 3 billion years. However, the population of detrital zircons in the
range of 1.5e1.6 billion years is the most important. The ages of the
source regions overlap with the ages reported for the Rio Jurena
lithotectonic province (Tassinari and Macambira, 1999). This prov-
ince is located in the western part of the Amazon Craton, along a
NW-SE trend approximately 2000-km long and 600-km wide, and
underlies parts of Brazil, Venezuela, and Colombia (Fig. 11). The
basement of the Rio Negro-Jurena province is primarily composed
of gneiss and granitoids, with an age range of 1.8 to 1.55 Ga. Its
northern part is predominantly composed of biotite monzogranites,
while in the southern part, the basement rocks are composed of
granitic gneisses and migmatites with tonalitic compositions. In
general, the rocks are metamorphosed to amphibolite facies,
although some granulites are also present (Dall'Agnol and
Macambira, 1992).
The location of the Rio Negro-Jurena province is consistent with
the expected direction of rivers that fed the delta dened for the
upper M1 sandstone; therefore, we can conrm an east-to-west
direction of deltaic progradation. This direction is also consistent
with the direction of clinoform progradation, as interpreted from
seismic data in the Apaika and Nenke areas.
Detrital zircon ages of the Tena Formation (Fig. 10A and B) reveal
at least ve different age populations. The youngest zircons yielded
ages between 80 and 100 Ma. Source regions with these ages are
not known from the neighbouring areas. However, Barraga
n et al.
(2005) dated a series of volcanic cones restricted to the western
part of the Oriente Basin. Vasquez (2007) also reported the pres-
ence of Cretaceous volcanism at both anks of the Eastern Cordil-
lera of Colombia. Both authors indicated that the Cretaceous
1217
volcanism had an intraplate origin and was restricted to the
western part of the Cretaceous Putumayo-Oriente-Maran ~ on basins.
Therefore, we suggest that the 80 to 100 Ma zircons within the Tena
Formation were derived from volcanic rocks of these ages exposed
in the Eastern Cordillera of Ecuador during the Maastrichtian. These
rocks have been eroded in the Eastern Cordillera due to the uplift of
the Andes.
An important age population recorded in the Tena sandstone
ranges from 240 to 220 Ma. This imprint on the Tena Basin was
possibly derived from the erosion of the Tres Lagunas S-type
granitoid, which is exposed in the Eastern Cordillera and is dated
between 240 and 220 Ma (Litherland et al., 1994; Spikings et al.,
2015). The zircons dated from 400 to 600 Ma overlap ages re-
ported in the Palaeozoic rocks of the Eastern Cordillera (Spikings
et al., 2015). Few zircon ages are dated between 1000 and 1300
Ma, which may correlate with zircons eroded from rocks belonging
to the Sunsas province (Litherland et al., 1985). A notable equivalent
of such source rocks lies in southern Colombia, where the Garzo
n
Granulitic Belt is interpreted to represent an extension of the
Sunsas Belt. In general, the detrital zircon ages of the Tena For-
mation suggest that this formation was derived from the erosion of
the Eastern Cordillera of Ecuador, as well as from the reworking of
material from the South American Craton.
9. Geological setting of eastern Ecuador during the
Campanian to Maastrichtian period
The tectonic evolution of the Northern Andes during Campanian
to Maastrichtian time was strongly inuenced by collision of the
Caribbean Large Igneous Province (CLIP) at z 75 Ma (Luzieux et al.,
2006; Vallejo et al., 2006). In Ecuador, this event caused a change
from shallow marine deposition of the Napo Formation to non-
marine deposits of the Tena Formation (Gombojav and Winkler,
2008).
The analysed stratigraphic interval, which includes the M1
sandstone of the Napo Formation and the lower part of the Tena
1218 C. Vallejo et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 86 (2017) 1207e1223

Fig. 8. RMS amplitude time slice map from a window spanning the M1 sandstone in the Block 31 area. Brighter colors (yellow to red) correspond to layers that are interpreted to be
sand rich. Note the lobate shape of the anomalies representing the Nenke, Apaika, Apaika Sur oil elds. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this gure legend, the reader
is referred to the web version of this article.)

Formation, coincide with the time of the early collision between the
CLIP with the northwestern margin of South America.
Deltaic progradation can be caused by either (1) an anomalously
high siliciclastic sediment ux with a relatively stable sea level or
(2) a smaller sediment ux during deltaic forced regression with a
relative sea-level fall (Edwards, 1981; Galloway, 1989). Local uplift
of the South American craton caused an increase in clastic input to
the Oriente Basin shelf margin during the Campanian, forcing
progradation of clastic wedges. This resulted in delta-driven
clinoforms downlapping onto the former, shallow-dipping trans-
gressive deposits of the pre-Campanian section of the Napo For-
mation. Progradation of the Campanian delta occurred in the
eastern part of the basin (Fig. 11), whereas marine conditions pre-
vailed in the central and western parts.
Maastrichtian continuation of the regional deformation event in
Ecuador and the early phases of the Andean Orogeny caused a
dramatic change in sedimentation and the abandonment of the
east-to-west drainage system that dominated during the
 C. Vallejo et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 86 (2017) 1207e1223 1219

Fig. 9. Seismic interpretation of the M1 sandstone at the Apaika area. (A). Fence diagram showing three-dimensional RMS amplitude variation from the Apaika oil eld. Sandstones
in the M1 interval are likely indicated by high amplitude orange reectors, which represents the prograding clinoforms; (B) Southwest to northeast seismic section showing the
Apaike deltaic clinoforms. Clinoforms wedge towards the southwest, which is also consistent with the stratigraphic correlations based on wireline logs. (For interpretation of the
references to colour in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

deposition of the Napo Formation. According to provenance ana-
lyses, the sediments of the Maastrichtian Tena Formation were
derived from a different source than the underlying M1 sandstone.
The source of the Tena Formation was likely located in the Eastern
Cordillera, as suggested by the detrital zircon ages presented in this
study and previous provenance analyses (Ruiz et al., 2007;
Gombojav and Winkler, 2008); Therefore, during this period, the
drainage system switched from west to east, similar to the present
drainage patterns in the Amazon Basin.
10. Comparison with neighbouring areas
The Campanian deltaic system in the eastern part of the Oriente
Basin was probably not limited to Ecuador. The Campanian Gua-
dalupe Group of the Llanos Basin and Eastern Cordillera of
Colombia (Guerrero and Sarmiento, 1996; Villamil, 1999) includes
sandstone beds interpreted as part of a large progradational delta
system sourced from the east (Villamil, 1999; Egbue and Kellogg,
2012). In the Llanos foothills, the Guadalupe Group rests on San-
tonian shallow marine sediments of the Gacheta Formation (Egbue
and Kellogg, 2012), which are correlatable with shallow marine
sediments of the Napo Formation of Ecuador (Jacques, 2004).
Therefore, the delta system described for the M1 sandstone of the
Oriente Basin may have occupied large areas (Fig. 11). It is likely that
collision of the CLIP exed the South American plate, producing a
distal bulge along the outboard eastern margin of the Sub-Andean
basins, driving further sediment input from the Amazon Craton
immediately after an earlier transgressive phase.
Detrital zircon ages of the Maatrichtian Tena Formation indicate
derivation from the Eastern Cordillera of Ecuador. This potential
1220 C. Vallejo et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 86 (2017) 1207e1223
Fig. 10. A) Age histogram U-Pb LA-ICPMS zircon dating of the Campanian M1 sandstone and the Maastrichtian Tena Formation of the Oriente Basin.
source area continued into the Central Cordillera of Colombia
(Spikings et al., 2015). These sources include the Jurassic magmatic
arc (170-150 Ma), Triassic granitoids (230-220 Ma), and rocks
younger than 150 Ma (Silva et al., 2013; Bayona et al., 2013; Horton
et al., 2015).
For the Colombian segment, however, the arrival of detritus
from the Central Cordillera differs from Ecuador. In large segments
of the Magdalena Basin, Eastern Cordillera, and Llanos basin,
detritus from the Central Cordillera appeared in Maastrichtian to
late Paleocene (Nie et al., 2012; Silva et al., 2013). During the
Cretaceous, the Middle Magdalena Valley, Eastern Cordillera, and
Llanos basin constituted a major integrated sedimentary basin
(Cooper et al., 1995; Horton et al., 2010, 2015). The axis of the basin
depocenter was located east of the Central Cordillera during
Campanian-early Maastrichtian time (Mora et al., 2010a; Silva et al.,
2013) and then migrated eastward with progressive uplift of the
Central Cordillera (Villamil, 1999), leading to selective recycling of
Maastrichtian strata (Reyes-Harker et al., 2015).
In Colombia, the Maastrichtian Umir and Seca formations
recorded detrital zircons with U-Pb ages younger than 150 Ma
(Silva et al., 2013), comparable to the Tena Formation. Although the
Umir Formation is restricted to proximal parts of the basin, detrital
input from the Central Cordillera is preserved in sediments accu-
mulated in proximal to medial parts of the basin (including the
Magdalena Valley and Eastern Cordillera) but not the distal Llanos
segment of the basin (Horton et al., 2010, 2015; Saylor et al., 2011;
Silva et al., 2013).
In Ecuador, however, the clear and widespread input of Eastern
Cordillera detritus from the western to easternmost part of the
basin during the Maastrichtian may reect contrasts in the distri-
bution of subsidence and/or the regional continuity of the basin
relative to Colombia. Maastrichtian and Palaeocene units derived
from the Eastern Cordillera were deposited continuously along the
Oriente Basin of Ecuador (Dashwood and Abbotts, 1990), similar to
the Late Cretaceous evolution of the neighbouring Putumayo Basin
of Colombia, which shares a stratigraphic and structural framework
similar to the Oriente Basin (Higley, 2001). In the Putumayo Basin,
the Rumiyacu Formation is the lithological and time equivalent to
the Tena Formation and it was deposited continuously along the
basin (Gonalves et al., 2002; Mora et al., 2010b; Wolaver et al.,
 C. Vallejo et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 86 (2017) 1207e1223
Fig. 11. Paleogeography of the Oriente Basin and neighbouring regions during the Campanian. Lithotectonic provinces map modied from Cordani et al. (2000). Areal extension of
the Campanian progradation in Colombia modied from Villamil (1999).
2015), although no provenance data are available for this formation.
11. Conclusions
The architecture of the Campanian M1 sandstone in the Eden
Yuturi, Apaika and Nenke areas of the eastern part of the Oriente
Basin, as indicated by wireline logs, well core data, and seismic
interpretation, strongly suggests an initial erosively based trans-
gression followed by the development of a prograding delta system.
The progradation of the M1 sandstone occurred above a basal,
sandy estuarine unit and the underlying shale-prone Napo sedi-
mentation cycle. The basal estuarine sand was caused by an
immediately prior transgression eastwards across the region. The
thickness maps of the M1 sandstone member present lobate shapes
that thin rapidly westward, a pattern that is consistent with an
east-to-west delta progradation.
Provenance analyses indicate that the main source for the M1
sandstone were rocks within an age range of 1.4e1.6 billion years
and suggest that the sediments were mostly derived from the direct
erosion of the Rio Negro Jurena lithotectonic province, located to
the east of the studied area, within the South American Craton.
Moreover, the westward progradation of clastic weges is consistent
with the overall paleogeography, paleocurrent data and prove-
nance analyses that point to a source region located to the east.
1221
Correlation with neighboring regions in Colombia suggest that the
documented M1 sandstone delta lobes of the study area were
probably part of a large delta system sourced from the east during
major Campanian progradation. Deltaic progradation was possible
linked to a regional tectonic event associated with the collision of
the CLIP against the Northern Andes, producing an increase in
sediment supply from the South American Craton.
A provenance analysis from the Maastrichtian Tena Formation
indicate a continental-scale drainage reorganization during this
period. Detrital U-Pb zircon ages record an input from the emerging
Eastern Cordillera of Ecuador, and the Central Cordillera of
Colombia.
The importance of dening a delta system for the M1 Sandstone
reservoir is that this type of reservoir is among the world's largest
in areal extent (Woodroffe et al., 2006). However, because of the
heterogeneities associated with the bed geometry and facies vari-
ation along the deltaic clinoforms, rened geological models should
be considered when the reservoirs are being modelled. The po-
tential for stratigraphic traps within the deltaic system is very high
due to the compartmentalization of the individual sandstone
clinoforms.
Finally, the integration of core data, wireline logs, and seismic
data is a powerful tool for describing the geometry and lateral
extension of this type of reservoir.
1222 C. Vallejo et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 86 (2017) 1207e1223
Acknowledgements
We thank A. Carrera, M. Rivadeneira, and B. K. Horton for fruitful
discussions about the geology of the Oriente Basin and the North-
ern Andes. We are grateful to an anonymous reviewer, and the
Associate Editor, Istvan Csato, for their constructive comments and
suggestions. Special thanks to F. Paz, O. Morales, R. Almeida for
encouraging the realization of this project. We acknowledge
funding by PETROAMAZONAS EP, GEOSTRAT SA, and EPN PIS-16-09
project. Permission for publication of this research is gratefully
acknowledged to PETROAMAZONAS EP Management.
References
Ambrose, W.A., Hentz, T.F., Bonnaffe, F., Loucks, R.G., Brown Jr., L.F., Wang, F.P.,
Potter, E.C., 2009. Sequence stratigraphic controls on complex reservoir archi-
tecture of highstand uvial-dominated deltaic and lowstand valley-ll deposits
in the Woodbine Group, East Texas Field: regional and local perspectives. AAPG
Bull. 93, 231e269.
Baby, P., Rivadeneira, M., Barragan, R., Christophoul, F., 2013. Thick-skinned tec-
tonics in the Oriente foreland basin of Ecuador. In: Nemcok, M., Mora, A.,
Cosgrove, J.W. (Eds.), Thick-skinned-dominated Orogens: from Initial Inversion
to Full Accretion, vol. 377, pp. 59e76. Geol. Soc. London. Spec. Publ.
Bagnold, R.A., 1954. Experiments on a gravity-free dispersion of large solid spheres
in a Newtonian uid under shear. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. 225, 49e63.
Balkwill, H., Rodriguez, G., Paredes, F., Almeida, J., 1995. Northern part of Oriente
Basin, Ecuador: reection seismic expression of structures. In: Tankard, A.J.,
Suarez, S.R., Welsink, H.J. (Eds.), Petroleum Basins of South America, vol. 62,
pp. 559e571. AAPG Memoirs.
Barrag
an, R., Christophoul, F., White, H., Baby, P., Rivadeneira, M., Ramirez, F.,
Rodas, J., 2004. Estratigrafa secuencial del Creta
cico de la Cuenca Oriente del
Ecuador. In: Baby, P., Rivadeneira, M., Barraga
n, R. (Eds.), La Cuenca Oriente:
Geologa Y Petro
leo, vol. 144, pp. 45e68. Travaux de l'Institut Francais des
Etudes Andine.
Barrag
an, R., Baby, P., Duncan, R., 2005. Cretaceous alkaline intra-plate magmatism
in the Ecuadorian Oriente Basin: geochemical, geochronological and tectonic
evidence. Earth. Planet. Sci. Lett. 236, 670e690.
Bayona, G., Cardona, A., Jaramillo, C., Mora, A., Montes, C., Caballero, V., Mahecha, H.,
Lamus, F., Montenegro, O., Jimenez, G., Mesa, A., Valencia, V., 2013. Onset of
fault reactivation in the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia and proximal Llanos
basin; response to CaribbeaneSouth American collision in early Paleogene
time. In: Nem cok, M., Mora, A.R., Cosgrove, J.W. (Eds.), Thick-skin-dominated
Orogens: from Initial Inversion to Full Accretion, vol. 377, pp. 285e314. Geol.
Soc. London. Spec. Publ.
Bhattacharya, J., Walker, R.G., 1991. Facies and facies successions in river- and wave-
dominated depositional systems of the Upper Cretaceous Dunvegan Formation,
northwestern Alberta. Bull. Can. Petrol. Geol. 39, 165e191.
Bhattacharya, J.P., 2010. Deltas. In: Dalrymple, R.G., James, N.P. (Eds.), Facies Models
4. Geotext, vol. 6. Geological Association of Canada, pp. 233e264.
Boltenhagen, E., 1977. Microplancton du Cretace superieur du Gabon. Cahiers de
Paleontologie. Editions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientique, Paris,
p. 150.
Boyd, R., Dalrymple, R.W., Zaitlin, B.A., 2006. Estuary and incised valley facies
models. In: Posamentier, H.W., Walker, R.G. (Eds.), Facies Models Revisited, vol.
84, pp. 171e234. SEPM Spec. Publ.
Caneld, R., Bonilla, G., Robbins, R., 1982. Sacha oil eld of ecuadorian Oriente. AAPG
Bull. 66, 1076e1090.
Cordani, U.G., Sato, K., Teixeira, W., Tassinari, C.G., Basei, M.A.S., 2000. Crustal
evolution of the south American platform. In: Cordani, U.G., Milani, E.J., Tho-
maz-Filho, A., Campos, D.A. (Eds.), Tectonic Evolution of South America. 31st
International Geological Congress, pp. 19e40. Rio de Janeiro.


Cooper, M.A., Addison, F.T., Alvarez, R., Coral, M., Graham, R.H., Hayward, A.B.,
Martnez, J., Naar, J., Pen~ as, R., Pulham, A.J., Taborda, A., 1995. Basin develop-
ment and tectonic history of the Llanos basin, eastern cordillera, and middle
Magdalena Valley, Colombia. AAPG Bull. 79, 1421e1443.
Dall'Agnol, R., Macambira, M.J.B., 1992. Titanita-biotita granitos do baixo Rio
Uaupe
s, Provncia Rio Negro, Amazonas. Parte l: geologia, petrografae geo-
cronologia. Rev. Bras. Geoc. 22, 3e13.
Dashwood, M.F., Abbotts, I.L., 1990. Aspects of the petroleum geology of the Oriente
Basin, Ecuador. In: Brooks, J. (Ed.), Classic Petroleum Provinces, vol. 50,
pp. 89e117. Geol. Soc. London. Spec. Publ.
Diaz, M., Baby, P., Rivadeneira, M., Christophoul, F., 2004. El pre-Aptense de la
cuenca Oriente ecuatoriana. In: Baby, P., Rivadeneira, M., Barragan, R. (Eds.), La
Cuenca Oriente: Geologa Y Petro
leo, vol. 144, pp. 23e44. Travaux de l'Institut
Francais des Etudes Andine.
Egbue, O., Kellogg, J., 2012. Three-dimensional structural evolution and kinematics
of the piedemonte llanero, central Llanos foothills, eastern cordillera, Colombia.
J. South. Am. Earth S. C. 39, 216e227.
Edwards, M.B., 1981. Upper wilcox roseta delta system of S. Texas: growth fauted
shelf-edge deltas. AAPG Bull. 65, 54e73.
Evitt, W.R., Clarke, R.A.F., Verdier, J.P., 1967. Dinoagellate studies III. Dinogymnium
acuminatum n. gen., n. sp. (Maastrichtian) and other fossils formerly referable
to Gymnodinium Stein. Stanf. Univ. Publs., Geol. Sci. 10, 1e27.
Galloway, W.E., 1989. Genetic stratigraphic sequences in basin analysis I: architec-
ture and genesis of ooding-surface bounded depositional units. AAPG Bull. 73,
125e142.
Gaibor, J., Hochuli, J.P.A., Winkler, W., Toro, J., 2008. Hydrocarbon source potential of
the Santiago formation, Oriente Basin, SE of Ecuador. J. South. Am. Earth Sci. 25,
145e156.
Gombojav, M., Winkler, W., 2008. Recycling of proterozoic crust in the andean
Amazon foreland of Ecuador: implications for orogenic development of the
northern Andes. Terra Nova 20, 22e31.
Gonalves, F.T., Mora, C.A., Co
rdoba, F., Kairuzb, E.C., Giraldo, B.N., 2002. Petroleum
generation and migration in the Putumayo Basin, Colombia: insights from an
organic geochemistry and basin modeling study in the foothills. Mar. Pet. Geol.
19, 711e725.
Guerrero, J., Sarmiento, G., 1996. Estratigrafa fsica, palinolo
gica, sedimentolo
gica y
secuencial del Cret
acico superior y Paleoceno del piedemonte llanero. Impli-
caciones para exploracio
n petrolera. Geol. Colomb. 20, 3e66.
Higley, D.K., 2001. The Putumayo-oriente-maran ~ on Province of Columbia, Ecuador,
and Peru, Mesozoic-cenozoic and Paleozoic Petroleum Systems. US Department
of the Interior, US Geological Survey.
Horton, B.K., Saylor, J.E., Nie, J., Mora, A., Parra, M., Reyes-Harker, A., Stockli, D., 2010.
Linking sedimentation in the northern Andes to basement conguration,
Mesozoic extension, and Cenozoic shortening: evidence from detrital zircon U-
Pb ages in the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia. GSA Bull. 122, 1423e1442.
Horton, B.K., Anderson, V.J., Caballero, V., Saylor, J.E., Nie, J., Parra, M., Mora, A., 2015.
Application of detrital zircon U-Pb geochronology to surface and subsurface
correlations of provenance, paleodrainage, and tectonics of the Middle Mag-
dalena Valley Basin of Colombia. Geosphere 11, 1790e1811.
Jacques, J.M., 2004. The inuence of intraplate structural accommodation zones on
delineating petroleum provinces of the Sub-Andean foreland basins. Petrol.
Geosci. 10, 1e19.
Jackson, S.E., Pearson, N.J., Grifn, W.L., Belousova, E.A., 2004. The application of
laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry to in situ U-Pb
zircon geochronology. Chem. Geol. 211, 47e69.
Jaillard, E., 1997. Sntesis estratigra
ca y sedimentolo
gica del Creta

cico y Paleo
geno
de la Cuenca Oriental del Ecuador. Informe nal del convenio Orstom-Pet-
roproduccio
n. Petroproduccio
n, Quito.
Litherland, M., Klinck, B.A., Oconnor, E.A., Piteld, P.E.J., 1985. Andean-trending
mobile belts in the Brazilian shield. Nature 314, 345e348.
Litherland, M., Aspden, J., Jemielita, R.A., 1994. The metamorphic belts of Ecuador.
Overseas Mem. Br. Geol. Surv. 11, 1e147.
Luzieux, L.D.A., Heller, F., Spikings, F., Vallejo, C.F., Winkler, W., 2006. Origin and
Cretaceous tectonic history of the coastal Ecuadorian forearc between 1 N and
3 S: paleomagnetic, radiometric and fossil evidence. Earth. Planet. Sci. Lett. 249,
400e414.
MacEachern, J.A., Bann, K.L., Bhattacharya, J.P., Howell, C.D., 2005. Ichnology of
Deltas: Organism Responses to the Dynamic Interplay of Rivers, Waves, Storms
and Tides, vol. 83, pp. 49e85. SEPM Spec. Publ.
Mathalone, J.M.P., Montoya, R.M., 1995. Petroleum geology of the sub-Andean ba-
sins of Peru. In: Tankard, A.J., Suarez Soruco, R., Welsink, H.J. (Eds.), Petroleum
Basins of South America, vol. 62, pp. 423e444. AAPG Memoirs.
Mello, M.R., Koutsoukos, E.A.M., Erazo, W.Z., 1995. The Napo Formation, Oriente
Basin, Ecuador: hydrocarbon source potential and palaeoenvironmental
assessment. In: Katz, B.J. (Ed.), Petroleum Source Rocks. Springer-Verlag, Hei-
delberg, pp. 167e181.
Miles, N., 2003. EY D-10 Well, Oriente Basin, Ecuador Biostratigraphy of the Interval
64000 - 66600 . Robertson Research International Limited.
Mora, A., Horton, B.K., Mesa, A., Rubiano, J., Ketcham, R.A., Parra, M., Blanco, V.,
Garcia, D., Stockli, D.F., 2010a. Migration of Cenozoic deformation in the Eastern
Cordillera of Colombia interpreted from ssion track results and structural re-
lationships: implications for petroleum systems. AAPG Bull. 94, 1543e1580.
Mora, A., Mantilla, M., de Freitas, M., 2010b. Cretaceous Paleogeography and Sedi-
mentation in the Upper Magdalena and Putumayo Basins, Southwestern
Colombia. AAPG International Conference and Exhibition. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,
AAPG Search and Discovery Article #50246, 11 p. http://www.
searchanddiscovery.com/pdf/documents/2010/50246mora/ndx_mora.pdf.hml.
Mulder, T., Syvitski, J.P.M., Migeon, S., Fauge res, J.C., Savoye, B., 2003. Marine
hyperpycnal ows: initiation, behavior and related deposits: a review. Mar. Pet.
Geol. 20, 861e882.
Mulder, T., Syvitski, J.P.M., 1995. Turbidity currents generated at river mouths during
exceptional discharges to the world oceans. J. Geol. 103, 285e299.
Naylor, M.A., 1980. The origin of inverse grading in muddy debris ow deposits-a
review. J. Sedim. Petrol 50, 1111e1116.
Nemec, W., Steel, R.J., Gjelberg, J., Collinson, J.D., Prestholm, E., Oxnevad, J.E., 1988.
Anatomy of a collapsed and re-established delta front in lower Cretaceous of
Eastern Spitsbergen: gravitational sliding and sedimentation processes. AAPG
Bull. 72, 454e476.
Nemec, W., 1990. Aspects of sediment movement on steep delta slopes. Spec. Publs.
Int. Ass. Sediment. 10, 29e73.
Nie, J., Horton, B.K., Saylor, J.E., Mora, A., Mange, M., Garzione, C.N., Basu, A.,
Moreno, C.J., Caballero, V., Parra, M., 2012. Integrated provenance analysis of a
convergent retroarc foreland system: U-Pb ages, heavy minerals, Nd isotopes,
and sandstone compositions of the Middle Magdalena Valley basin, northern
 C. Vallejo et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 86 (2017) 1207e1223
Andes, Colombia. Earth Sci. Rev. 110, 111e126.
Ordo
n~ ez, M., Jime
nez, N. y, Su
arez, J., 2006. Micropaleontologa Ecuatoriana.
Petroproduccio
n.
Paton, C., Hellstrom, J., Paul, B., Woodhead, J., Hergt, J., 2011. Iolite: freeware for the
visualization and processing of mass spectrometric data. J. Anal. At. Spectrom.
26, 2508e2518.
Petrus, J.A., Kamber, B.S., 2012. VizualAge: a novel approach to laser ablation ICP-MS
U-Pb geochronology data reduction. Geost. Geoanal. Res. 36, 247e270.
Petter, A., Steel, R.J., 2006. Hyperpycnal ow variability and slope organization on
an Eocene shelf margin, Central Basin. Spitsb. AAPG Bull. 90, 1451e1472.
Plink-Bjorklund, P., Steel, R., 2006. Deltas on falling-stage and lowstand shelf
margins, Eocene central Basin of spitsbergen. In: Giosan, L., Bhattacharya, J.
(Eds.), River Deltas: Concepts, Models and Examples, vol. 83, pp. 179e206.
SEPM Spec. Publ.
Radomski, M.A., Rait, G., Dolberg, D., Hearn, M., 2010. Sedimentology of the upper
vivian, lower vivian, agua caliente, and cushabatay formations, northern Mar-
an~ on basin, Peru. In: AAPG Annual Convention and Exhibition. Abstracts Vol-
ume. New Orleans, Louisiana, U.S.A.
Raynaud, J.F., Bouroullec, J., Homewood, P., Villanova, M., 1993. Equateur, basin de l'
Oriente: Etude palynologique d' un intervalle Cretace
supe

rieur sur 20 puits., Elf
Aquitaine production.
Reyes-Harker, A., Ruiz-Valdivieso, C., Mora, A., Ramirez-Arias, J., Rodriguez, G., de la
Parra, F., Caballero, V., Parra, M., Moreno, N., Horton, B.K., Saylor, J., Silva, A.,
Valencia, V., Stockli, D., Blanco, V., 2015. Cenozoic paleogeography of the An-
dean foreland and retroarc hinterland of Colombia. AAPG Bull. 99, 1407e1453.
Rivadeneira, M., Baby, P., 2004. Cara
ctersticas geolo
gicas generales de los princi-
pales campos petroleros de Petroproduccio
n. In: Baby, P., Rivadeneira, M.,
Barrag
an, R. (Eds.), La Cuenca Oriente: Geologa Y Petro
leo, vol. 144,
pp. 229e294. Travaux de l'Institut Francais des Etudes Andine.
Ruiz, G.M.H., Seward, D., Winkler, W., 2007. Evolution of the Amazon Basin in
Ecuador with special reference to hinterland tectonics: data from zircon ssion-
track and heavy mineral analysis. Dev. Sedimentol. 58, 907e934.
Saylor, J.E., Horton, B.K., Nie, J., Corredor, J., Mora, A., 2011. Evaluating foreland basin
partitioning in the northern Andes using Cenozoic ll of the Floresta basin,
Eastern Cordillera, Colombia. Basin Res. 23, 377e402.
Shanmugam, G., 2012. New Perspectives on Deep-water Sandstones: Origin,
Recognition, Initiation, and Reservoir Quality. Elsevier, Amsterdam. Handbook
of petroleum exploration and production.
Shanmugam, G., Lehtonen, L.R., Straume, T., Syversten, S.E., Hodgkinson, R.J.,
Skibeli, M., 1994. Slump and debris ow dominated upper slope facies in the
Cretaceous of the Norwegian and Northern North Seas (61e67 N): implica-
tions for sand distribution. AAPG Bull. 78, 910e937.
Shanmugam, G., Moiola, R.J., 1991. Types of submarine fan lobes, models and im-
plications. AAPG Bull. 75, 156e179.
Shanmugam, G., Poffenberger, M., Toro, J., 2000. Tide-dominated estuarine facies in
the Holln and Napo (T and U) formations (cretaceous), sacha eld, Oriente
Basin. Ecuador. AAPG Bull. 84, 652e682.
Silva, A., Mora, A., Caballero, V., Rodrguez, G., Ruiz, C.A., Moreno, N.R., Parra, M.,
Ramrez-Arias, J.C., Iban ~ ez, M., Quintero, I., 2013. Basin compartmentalization
and drainage evolution during rift positive inversion: evidence from multiple
techniques in the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia. In: Nemcok, M., Mora, A.,
Cosgrove, J.W. (Eds.), Thick-skin-dominated Orogens: from Initial Inversion to
1223
Full Accretion, vol. 377, pp. 369e409. Geol. Soc. London, Spec. Publ.
Sl

ama, J., Kosler, J., Condon, D.J., Crowley, J.L., Gerdes, A., Hanchar, J.M.,
Horstwood, M.S.A., Morris, G.A., Nasdala, L., Norberg, N., Schaltegger, U.,
Schoene, B., Tubrett, M.N., Whitehouse, M.J., 2008. Plesovice zircon - a new
natural reference material for U-Pb and Hf isotopic microanalysis. Chem. Geol.
249, 1e35.
Spikings, R.A., Winkler, W., Seward, D., Handler, R., 2001. Along-strike variations in
the thermal and tectonic response of the continental Ecuadorian Andes to the
collision with heterogeneous oceanic crust. Earth. Planet. Sci. Lett. 186, 57e73.
Spikings, R.A., Cochrane, R.S., Villagomez, D., Van der Lelij, D., Vallejo, C.,
Winkler, W., Beate, B., 2015. The geological history of northwestern South
America: from pangaea to the early collision of the caribbean large igneous
province (290e75 Ma). Gond. Res. 27, 95e139.
Steel, R.J., Carvajal, C., Petter, A., Uroza, C., 2008. The growth of shelves and shelf
margins. In: Hampson, G.J., Steel, R.J., Burgess, P., Dalrymple, R.W. (Eds.), Recent
Advances in Shallow-marine Stratigraphy: Perspectives and Applications, vol.
90, pp. 47e71. SEPM Spec. Publ.
Steel, R., Plink-Bjorklund, P., Aschoff, J., 2012. Tidal deposits of the campanian
western interior seaway, Wyoming, Utah and Colorado, USA. In: Davis, R.A.,
Dalrymple, R.W. (Eds.), Principles of Tidal Sedimentology, pp. 437e471.
Tassinari, C.C.G., Macambira, M.J.B., 1999. Geochronological provinces of the
amazonian craton. Episodes 22, 174e182.
Tschopp, H.J., 1953. Oil explorations in the Oriente of Ecuador. AAPG Bull. 37,
2303e2347.
Vallejo, C., Hochuli, P.A., Winkler, W., Von Salis, K., 2002. Palynological and sequence
stratigraphic analysis of the Napo Group in the pungarayacu 30 well, sub-
andean zone. Ecuador. Cret. Res. 23, 845e859.
Vallejo, C., Spikings, R.A., Winkler, W., Luzieux, L., Chew, D., Page, L., 2006. The early
interaction between the Caribbean plateau and the NW South American plate.
Terra Nova 18, 264e269.
Vallejo, C., Gaibor, J., Leal, J., Figuera, M., 2015. Modelo geolo
gico de las areniscas:
Basal Tena, M1, M2, U, T en el bloque 43 y en los campos Obe, Minta y Nashin ~ o,
unpublished report Petroamazonas EP (In spanish).
Vasquez, M., 2007. Mac Magmatism in the Eastern Cordillera and Putumayo Basin,
Colombia: Causes and Consequences (Ph.D. thesis). Universit at Potsdam.
Villamil, T., 1999. CampanianeMiocene tectonostratigraphy, depocenter evolution
and basin development of Colombia and western Venezuela. Palaeogeogr.
Palaeoclimatol. 153, 239e275.
White, H.J., Skopec, R.A., Ramirez, F.A., Rodas, J.A., Bonilla, G., 1995. Reservoir
characterization of the Holln and Napo formations, western Oriente Basin,
Ecuador. In: Tankard, A.J., Sua
rez, S. y, Welsink, H.J. (Eds.), Petroleum Basins of
South America, vol. 62, pp. 573e596. AAPG Memoirs.
Wolaver, B.D., Coogan, J.C., Horton, B.K., Suarez Bermudez, L., Sun, A.Y.,
Wawrzyniec, T.F., Zhang, T., Shanahan, T.M., Dunlap, D.B., Costley, R.A., de la
Rocha, L., 2015. Structural and hydrogeologic evolution of the Putumayo Basin
and adjacent fold-thrust belt, Colombia. AAPG Bull. 99, 1893e1927.
Woodroffe, C.D., Nicholls, R.J., Saito, Y., Chen, Z., Goodbred, S.L., 2006. Landscape
variability and the response of Asian megadeltas to environmental change. In:
Harvey, N. (Ed.), Global Change and Integrated Coastal Management: the Asia-
Pacic Region. Springer, Berlin, pp. 277e314.
Yu Ye, B.S., 2014. Depositional Systems and Sequence Stratigraphy of the M1
Sandstone in Tarapoa. Ecuador (Msc. thesis). University of Texas at Austin, USA.