STD.AWS PRGVT-ENGL 1999 ..

0784265 0519375 45T BI

American Welding Society

The Practical
Reference Guide for

Visual Inspection of Pressure

Vessels and Pressure Piping

IHS Intra/Spex technology and images copyright (c) IHS 2002

 STD.AWS PRGVT-ENGL 1999 II 0784265 0519376 396 II

THE PRACTICAL
REFERENCE GUIDE
for
WELDING INSPECTION MANAGEMENT-
Visual Inspection of Pressure Vessels
and Pressure Piping

Ted V. Weber
Principal Consultant
Weber & Associates

This publication is designed to provide information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is made available
with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in the rendering of professional advice. Reliance upon
the information contained in this document should not be undertaken without an independent verification of
its application for a particular use. The publisher is not responsible for loss or damage resulting from use of this
publication. This document is not a consensus standard. Users should refer to the applicable standards for their
particular application.

IHS Intra/Spex technology and images copyright (c) IHS 2002

 STD.AWS PRGVT-ENGL 1999 II 0784265 0519377 222 II

AUTHOR NOTES

Visual inspection (VT) is one of the more important inspection methods used to ensure the quality of both
new fabrication, as well as equipment and piping after some period of service. It is used in all industries, and
should be considered as the basic inspection method prior to the selection of any other inspection method. A
phrase that puts VT in the proper perspective follows:

"It has been shown repeatedly that an effective program of visual inspection, conducted by properly trained personnel,
will result in the discovery of the vast majority of those defects which would otherwise be discovered later by some more
expensive nondestructive test method."

Note the emphasis on proper training; without such training, the inspector often only looks at things without
actually inspecting them, and critical discontinuities are often overlooked. It is to that end, the training of vi-
sual inspectors, that this Guide was prepared. Proper visual inspection requires inspector training in many
disciplines and the training should be a continuous, ongoing process. New technologies useful to visual in-
spection are continuing to be developed, and these must be incorporated into the overall inspection efforts to
optimize results.

It was once stated that, "Inspectors must have been half crazy to have selected inspection as a lifetime career!" While
many of us may agree with that statement in part, most would agree that inspection is a very challenging and
satisfying career path, and we remain quite proud to be called inspectors.

Ted V. Weber
Hendersonville, Tennessee

.'

Photocopy Rights
Authorization to photocopy items for internal, personal, or educational classroom use only, or the internal,
personal, or educational classroom use only of specific clients, is granted by the American Welding Society
(AWS) provided that the appropriate fee is paid to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive,
Danvers, MA 01923, Tel: 978-750-8400; online: http://www.copyright.com

1999 by the American Welding Society. All rights reserved.

Printed in the United States of America.

ii

IHS Intra/Spex technology and images copyright (c) IHS 2002

 STD.AWS PRGVT-ENGL 1999 . . 0784265 0519378 169 . .

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page No.
Introduction 1
New Fabrication 3
Base Metals and Filler Metals 4
Welding Procedure Qualification 5
Personnel Qualification 6
Inspection Planning 7
Repairs and Re-inspection 9
Production Welding-New Fabrication 10
Fabrication Codes 12
In-Service Inspection 14
Annex A-Technical and Scientific Organizations 19
Annex 8-1998 ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Sections 22
Annex C-Discontinuities 23
Annex D-Selected References 28

iii

IHS Intra/Spex technology and images copyright (c) IHS 2002

 STD.AWS PRGVT-ENGL 1999 . . 0784265 0519379 OT5 . .
VT of Pressure Piping and Pressure Vessels

Introduction
In one version of a perfect world of manufacturing,
there are no inspectors. None are needed because AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARD
each and every person in the workforce has been so
thoroughly trained, possesses and applies all the Quality Systems-Model for Quality Assurance
necessary personal attributes, and is paid a reason- In DesIgn, DtwfIIopment. Produetlon,
Install.tlon, IJI1d Servicing
able salary such that all manufacturing mistakes are
completely eliminated. Think of that perfect sce-
nario: a manufacturing world without mistakes.
Some of today's quality approaches reach for that
ideal goal and have developed precepts that con-
siderably reduce online inspection requirements.
The concept of "continuous improvement" is an
important part of that quest for perfection, and is
found in many quality-concept documents.

One approach to quality is found in the documents,

modified by American organizations, commonly
referred to as ISO Standards. These often become
the basis for "ISO Certification," which many man-
ufacturing sites obtain and market as part of their
quality program. In the U.S., these ISO quality pro-
gram standards and guides are published under the
combined authority of ANSI (American National
Standards Institute), ISO (International Organiza-
tion for Standards), and the ASQ (American Society
for Quality), as "Q" documents. Two of these are
Q9004-1, Quality Management and Quality System
Elements-Guidelines, and Q9001, Quality Systems-
Model for Quality Assurance in Design, Development,
Production, Installation, and Servicing (see Figure 1).
A thorough understanding of these two quality
documents is very helpful in organizing a Quality
Assurance program for fabrication companies. Ad-
ditional ASQ documents covering fabrication qual-
ity are Q9002, Quality Systems-Model for Quality
Assurance in Production, Installation, and Servicing,
and Q9003, Quality Systems-Model for Quality As-
surance in Final Inspection andTest. Their cost is min-
imal and can be obtained from the American
Society for Quality, 611 East Wisconsin Avenue,
Milwaukee, WI 53202.
However, as much as these new quality programs
have improved quality in many areas, in our less-
than-ideal, real world, there still remains a need for
skilled inspectors. Most have seen various versions
of the old saying, "People do what you inspect, not
what you expect." While that statement appears to
be quite cynical, many critical manufacturing ef-
forts still follow that credo with great success. In-
spection will continue to be a necessary skill for
AMERICAN SOClElY FOR QUAlITY
611 EAST WISCONSIN AVENUE
MILWAUKEE, WlSCONSIN 53202
Figure 1. ANSIIISO/ASQC Q90011994.
decades to come, especially in the fabricating in-
dustries, and visual inspection will certainly con-
tinue on the front line of that inspection effort.
In the broad field of Quality Assurance, the control
of welding operations and fabrication of process
equipment encompasses many technical disciplines
including engineering design, materials selection,
welding processes, welding procedures, non-
destructive inspection, and corrosion mechanisms.
Visual inspection plays an important role in all of
these and it requires proper training of personnel to
provide the necessary function of quality control at
each stage of fabrication as well as continued in-
spections during the life of the component.
Inspector certification programs, such as the AWS
CWI and SCWI certifications, have been developed
to ensure a basic minimum qualification of the
visual inspection personnel (see Figure 2). Other
organizations such as the American Petroleum
Institute (API), the National Association of Corro-
sion Engineers (NACE), and the American Society
for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT), have developed

AWS Practical Reference Guide 1

IHS Intra/Spex technology and images copyright (c) IHS 2002

 STD.AWS PRGVT-ENGL 1999
VT of Pressure Piping and Pressure Vessels
Figure 2.AWS aC1-96-Standard for AWS
Certification of Welding Inspectors.
certification programs for general and! or specific
industries. Additionally, several industries and pri-
vate companies have produced industry-specific or
in-house training programs to train the inspectors
on their particular needs. Nuclear power industries
have such programs, as do the petroleum, petro-
chemical, and aerospace industries.
Visual inspection is learned through experience; al-
most everyone has the inherent capability to see
things, but visual inspection requires a more thor-
ough observance of details that requires consider-
able training, and the learning curve is usually very
experience-intensive. One of the first requirements
of a visual inspector in the fabricating realm is to be
able to read and interpret engineering drawings.
Unless the inspector has this first capability, the re-
quirements of the fabrication cannot be properly
determined. Many inspectors learn blueprint read-
ing in school, either in a drafting or engineering
2 AWS Practical Reference Guide
IHS Intra/Spex technology and images copyright (c) IHS 2002
. . 07842b5 0519380 817 . .
drawing course; others learn on the job. The
method of learning to interpret fabrication draw-
ings is not the important issue. Rather, it is the in-
terpretation itself that must be included as part of
an inspector's skills.
Slang terms and incorrect terminology often lead to
confusion and errors. So, a second requirement is to
know and understand the proper terminology per-
tinent to a given industry. Proper terminology in-
cludes the mechanical aspects of stress, strain,
strength, ductility and many others that aid in de-
scribing the mechanical properties of the materials
used in manufacture. It also includes the necessary
terminology of welding and fabrication processes,
including joint and weld geometry and welding
processes as well as typical discontinuities. Various
base and weld metal discontinuity types have been
defined by AWS and are described in AWS B1.10,
AWS B1.11, AWS A3.0, and in the convenient AWS
publication The Everyday Pocket Handbook for Visual
Inspection and Weld Discontinuities-Causes and Rem-
edies (see Figure 3 and Annex D-Selected Refer-
ences). Excerpts from some of these are found in
Annex C-Discontinuities. Knowledge of corro-
sion terms is also required when completing in-ser-
vice inspections of pressure equipment. Corrosion
terms can also be found in several of the references
noted in Annex D-Selected References.
An important third requirement for the visual in-
spector is a thorough knowledge of the fabrication
codes pertaining to the various industries. The pe-
troleum industry relies on API specifications, the
railroad industry relies on the AAR standards, and
building construction relies on the AWS structural
codes. Almost every industry has specific codes
that pertain to their particular needs and the inspec-
tor must have access to, and be familiar with, the
applicable codes.
A fourth requirement is precise documentation of
inspection results. Verbal statements regarding in-
spections usually have little value; the inspection
results must be documented such that they can be
referred to months or years later with absolute un-
derstanding and clarity. With today's computer
technology, there is little or no excuse not to have
complete, clear, legible, and retrievable documenta-
tion of inspection results readily available as
needed. Today's technology also includes the excel-
lent digital cameras that permit photographs of the
equipment or condition to be easily inserted into
the records. Video cameras are another method of
 STD.AWS PRGVT-ENGL 1999 .. 0784265 0519381 753 ..
VT of Pressure Piping and Pressure Vessels

The Everyday
Pocket Handbook for
Visual Inspection and
Weld Discontinuities-
Causes and Repairs

Number 2 in a series

Compiled as a useful tool for

on-the-job welding personnel by the
AWS Product Development Committee

Figure 3. The Everyday Pocket Handbook for Visual Inspection and Weld Discontinuities-Causes
and Repairs.

recording inspection results. As one inspector
noted, "In today's world, if it's not written down, it
hasn't happened!"
It is certainly recognized that the actual require-
ments for thorough visual inspection may vary
from one industry to another, but all visual inspec-
tion contains the four basic requirements noted
above that must be met to inspect an item to the de-
sired and required level. Inspection not only applies
to the original fabrication of the components, but
extends to the in-service inspections as well. Fitness
for purpose inspections must often continue for the
life of the component, and this usually requires
some form of periodic inspection, performed to
written guidelines, to ensure the continued safe op-
eration of the item. Most are somewhat familiar
with the stringent rules for continued inspection for
aircraft; they receive periodic inspections after a set
number of hours of operation. Many pressure ves-
sel codes have similar requirements but usually
have longer time periods between inspections.
It is not the purpose of this Guide to repeat in great
detail all the visual inspection procedures found in
these other documents. Rather, practical ap-
proaches to the broad topic of visual inspection will
be covered, both for new fabrication and in-service
inspections. The emphasis will be on piping and
vessels for pressure containment.
New Fabrication
A good starting point for any new fabrication
project is close communication between the manu-
facturing personnel and the design groups. To use a
petrochemical process as an example, the manufac-
turing group knows the task it wants to perform
whether it is to manufacture polyester sheeting ma-
terial, polyethylene pellets for molding machines,
or acids to use as ingredients for other manufactur-
ing processes. The group conveys its desired result
to the design group and after several discussions
and iterations, the final design of the component is
completed. During this design stage, it is very help-
ful to have input from the welding and metallurgi-
cal engineers as well as the inspectors to assist in a
design that first of all can be fabricated, and sec-
ondly, inspected adequately. All too often, designs
are too quickly put together only to find out the
materials selected pose tremendous difficulty in

AWS Practical Reference Guide 3

IHS Intra/Spex technology and images copyright (c) IHS 2002

 STD.AWS PRGVT-ENGL 1999
VT of Pressure Piping and Pressure Vessels
welding, or the design makes it impossible to thor-
oughly inspect.
The design of each separate component for a com-
plex process is sometimes done in a rather random
fashion. For example, a vessel is needed to mix the
raw ingredients and is designed by the pressure
vessel group. Then a distillation column is needed
and is designed by the distillation column design-
ers. A heat exchanger is needed and is designed by
the heat exchanger designer. When insufficient
communication exists between these various
groups, it can lead to costly redesign, or material
changes, to incorporate exactly what is needed.
Figure 4. A typical petrochemical complex
showing the complexity and variety of pressure
vessels and piping arrangements.
A far better approach is to have good liaison be-
tween the various design sections through a project
manager to ensure compatibility of each compo-
nent, especially regarding the materials of construc-
tion and corrosion issues. The selection of materials
incorporates many different aspects including cost,
availability, strength, weldability, and corrosion re-
sistance. Selection of the correct material may re-
quire fabrication and corrosion testing to ensure
suitability. Visual inspection of these corrosion tests
may be an initial inspection requirement for the
project, and requires an understanding and knowl-
edge of the various corrosion tests by the inspector.
Often these are done to ASTM specifications and
the inspector must have ready access to them.
Pressure containment usually requires the use of
welding operations in the manufacturing of the
piping and vessels needed. In the fabrication of
4 AWS Practical Reference Guide
IHS Intra/Spex technology and images copyright (c) IHS 2002
II 0784265 0519382 69T II
new equipment, the welding operations usually get
considerable attention up front. There are several
reasons for this, but they often include the general
lack of knowledge of welding techniques by many
of the engineering staff as well as previous experi-
ences with weld failures. A list of the initial require-
ments for fabrication inspection will usually
include the following:
Base Metals and Filler Metals
These should be purchased to specifications listing
all the necessary requirements, with a supporting
Material Test Report requirement on the purchase
order. These necessary requirements usually in-
clude the mechanical properties, chemistry, size,
shape, manufacturing method, surface finish, heat
treatment, and quantity. Base metals are often or-
dered to ASTM, ASME, or API specifications; filler
metals are usually ordered to AWS specifications.
Specific items may require additional data, such as
the protective coatings for corrosion resistance of
steel products or shipping container requirements
for low-hydrogen electrodes, and all the materials
should always be inspected upon receipt to ensure
compliance. Often, for critical applications, check
analyses on the chemistry or mechanical properties
may be made to reflect a higher degree of certainty.
For filler metals, this may require the preparation of
a weld sample to a specification for chemical or me-
chanical testing, with its preparation witnessed by
an inspector.
Once the proper materials have been received and
confirmed, it is imperative that storage of these ma-
terials maintains their proper identification (ID).
There are many different systems used for main-
taining the ID of materials. Coding by different
paint colors can be an acceptable method for mate-
rials control, but consideration should be given to
the effects of sun and weather on the color. Color
changes do occur with exposure to sun, and this
must be recognized. Color changes over time have
led to mistakes in alloy identification. Weather can
also cause deterioration of the materials, and pro-
tection may be needed during storage.
Piping is often ink marked every three or four feet
along its length with its specification, grade, heat
number, etc., which helps maintain its identifica-
tion. Plate is often stamped or paint marked with its
ID on one corner. Consider what happens if a por-
tion of the plate is used. Often, the corner with the
 STD.AWS PRGVT-ENGL 1999
Figure 5. ASME Section II, Part A, covering
ferrous material specifications. Section II, Part B
of the same code covers nonferrous materials.
marking is taken for use and this requires the re-
marking of the "drop" or remainder. Inspectors
should, and often do, playa role in this remarking.
Other items such as forgings, castings, or subassem-
blies may require bar coding, stamping, tagging, or
segregation to maintain their identity.
Welding Procedure Qualification
Once the base materials have been received, con-
firmed, and stored properly, the next item requiring
attention for fabrication of pressure containment
equipment is the qualification of welding proce-
dures. (This step may be the initial step in the entire
process if the fabricator has little or no experience
with the materials to be used.) A welding process is
selected and a preliminary Welding Procedure
Specification is usually prepared. However, these
procedures can be qualified in several different
IHS Intra/Spex technology and images copyright (c) IHS 2002
. . 0784265 0519383 526 . .
VT of Pressure Piping and Pressure Vessels
Figure 6. ASME Section II, Part C, covering filler
metals. The AWS Filler Metal Specifications
were adopted for use in Part C.
ways depending on the code requirements in effect
for the project. In some codes, test weldments must
be made and tested to qualify a procedure. Other
codes may permit the use of "canned" welding pro-
cedures or the use of mockups. The inspector must
be familiar with the procedure qualifications and
ensure they are met completely and satisfactorily.
Two of the more common procedure qualification
approaches are those found in the AWS standard
B2.1:1998, and the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Code, Section IX (see Figures 7 and 8). Either may
be acceptable but if an ASME Code fabrication is
being produced, Section IX is required for proce-
dure qualification.
Too often, once a welding procedure has been qual-
ified, it disappears into the dark corners of some
office and is never seen again except during formal
audits. While a master list of procedures with
current copies should be maintained in an office,
AWS Practical Reference Guide 5
 STD.AWS PRGVT-ENGL 1999
VT of Pressure Piping and Pressure Vessels
ANSVAWS 82.1 :1998
An Ameli""" National Standard
Specification for
Welding Procedure
and Performance
Qualification
_ _ _ _:iC
Figure 7. ANSVAWS 82.1 :1998 can be used for
welding procedure and personnel qualification.
copies of those welding procedures should also be
placed in binders or protected with plastic covers
and made readily available at the shop floor to the
welding and inspection personnel. This simple step
often eliminates many procedural mistakes during
fabrication.
Personnel Qualification
Once the necessary welding procedures have been
qualified, the next step is to qualify the welders and
welding operators to the applicable code. The in-
spector has a key role to play in this activity; many
codes require the witnessing and documentation of
both the welder performance tests and the mechan-
ical testing of the resulting welded test specimens
by an inspector. Most codes and other standards
cover both the procedure qualification and the
welder performance testing.
6 AWS Practical Reference Guide
IHS Intra/Spex technology and images copyright (c) IHS 2002
.. 0784265 0519384 462 ..
Figure 8. ASME Section IX also covers
qualification of procedures and personnel for
welding.
The inspector should be familiar with the period of
validity for the welder to remain qualified; this pe-
riod is usually noted in the applicable code. Most
welder qualifications are valid for a six-month pe-
riod, meaning that the qualification is valid as long
as the welder performs the same welding process to
which he or she qualified. If a welder does not per-
form any documented welding with the qualified
welding process in the specified time period, the
welder is no longer considered qualified. Some
companies adhere strictly to the code qualification
requirements; other retest their welders once a year
regardless of the code requirements or continuing
use of the process. There are several software pro-
grams available that aid the tracking of welder
qualifications. Central certification of welders is
another option that allows a company to maintain
records on qualification. Independent third party
certifications of welders can provide value by in- I
troducing rigorous standardized procedures for I
 STD.AWS PRGVT-ENGL 1999 . . 07842b5 0519385 3T9 . .
VT of Pressure Piping and Pressure Vessels

performance testing that eliminates bias and subjec-

tivity in the qualification process.
In addition to welder qualification, attention must
be given to the personnel qualifications of those en-
gaged in nondestructive testing (NOT) which in-
cludes visual inspection. Before specifying the type
and level of personnel involved in welding inspec-
tion, a decision must be made as to what types of
tests are to be performed. AWS administers a pro-
gram for the certification of welding inspectors
who are engaged in activities that span the welding
fabrication process, including visual inspection, to
assure that the delivered product meets the cus-
tomer's specification. The AWS Certified Welding
Inspector program has been in existence for over 25
years and is recognized for its contributions to qual-
ity assurance within the welding industry.
Many welding operations require the application of
inspection methods that do not affect the service-
ability of the finished product. These nondestruc-
tive test methods differ in their scientific principles
and require specially trained and certified individu-
als for each method employed. The most common
NOT methods used today are visual testing (VT),
penetrant testing (PT), magnetic particle testing
(MT), ultrasonic testing (UT), and radiographic test- Figure 9. ASNT SNT TC-1A, Recommended
ing (RT). Each method has advantages and limita- Practice for Qualifying NOT Personnel.
tions, and must be specified only after a thorough
understanding of the principles involved and how
they relate to the weldment being examined.
projects, just keeping track of the welders and their
The certification of NOT personnel can be em-
qualifications can be difficult, and as mentioned
ployer-based in accordance with the Recommended
above, one of several computer programs can often
Practice SNT-TC-IA, published by the American
aid this effort. When hundreds of welds are to be
Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT) (see Fig-
made each day, identifying and tracking their status
ure 9), or can be third-party administered. These
also requires careful planning. Large numbers of
third-party or central certification programs are of-
piping welds are often tracked from copies of
fered by both AWS and ASNT and provide uniform
the isometric drawings used for fabrication. Shop-
personnel testing and portable documentation of
fabricated vessels often maintain control using a
qualifications to the practitioner of specific NOT
weld map sketch of the vessel in addition to the fab-
methods.
rication drawings. Again, computers often can aid
in this tracking effort.

Inspection Planning One of the early considerations for fabrication in-

At this point, we have qualified the welding proce-
dures, qualified and certified the welders, and qual-
ified and certified the inspectors. Now, the actual
fabrication is about to begin. But before the welding
begins, some thought must be given to the organi-
zation of the inspection efforts. (This step is often
the first action taken on many projects.) On large
spection is the necessary type and degree of inspec-
tion. Often, the fabrication code will specify the
inspection requirements but these may not be suffi-
cient for the application. While code inspection re-
quirements must be met for compliance, additional
inspection may be required. However, the inspec-
tion philosophy must keep in mind that delaying a
project for three months by requiring too-stringent

AWS Practical Reference Guide 7

IHS Intra/Spex technology and images copyright (c) IHS 2002

 STD.AWS PRGVT-ENGL 1999
VT of Pressure Piping and Pressure Vessels
inspection and quality assurance is often just as
costly as having premature failures from poor qual-
ity welds later during the manufacturing operation.
A balance of quality and economics must always be
an important consideration in developing an in-
spection program. Remember, as one professor of
economics stated, "General Motors is not in business
to make cars; they are in business to make money."
These inspection decisions do require a thorough
understanding of:
The criticality of the equipment.
Metallurgy of materials.
Welding processes.
Inspection methods.
Repairs and re-inspection.
It is helpful to examine each of these above items
individually.
Criticality
A potable water line designed for 150 psig is not
usually considered a critical item. But consider the
consequences of a weld failure in that piping if it
runs up the side of a 300-foot-high column to cool
the topmost section. If this cooling water supply is
interrupted, a process explosion may occur. In this
case, the degree of criticality decision should in-
clude the results of a premature failure. Inspection
of this water line example may warrant including
visual, penetrant, and even radiographic inspection.
Figure 10. Lengthy vertical piping arrangements
may have a role in determining criticality.
8 AWS Practical Reference Guide
IHS Intra/Spex technology and images copyright (c) IHS 2002
. . 0784265 0519386 235 . .
If the material leaking has an extremely high eco-
nomic value, product containment becomes a very
high priority. Thus, criticality includes the dollar im-
pact of loss, and its effect on personnel. If a leak in a
pressure vessel permits a hazardous material to es-
cape and endanger personnel, subsequent inspec-
tions may include multiple inspection methods, or
the percentage of welds inspected is increased,
sometimes to a 100% level. As expected, safety and
economics playa large role in determining criticality.
One approach used to aid in the criticality or level
of inspection decisions is often referred to as a
'What If' analysis. A group of personnel knowl-
edgeable about the overall manufacturing process
and materials considerations meet and review dif-
ferent scenarios using the 'What If' technique. An
example of this would be the case where the group
asks, "What are the results ifvalve Bfails?" The analy-
sis of that scenario then determines the results and
if serious, may lead to increased inspection to en-
sure that valve B has the required quality.
Metallurgical Aspects
The metallurgical aspects should also be consid-
ered, including several general principles:
As a metal's strength increases, its weldability
usually decreases.
The types of welding discontinuities often vary
between alloys.
Some materials have a greater propensity for
cracking or porosity than others.
Welding affects a material's heat treatment
requirements.
Welding may reduce the material's corrosion
resistance.
Not every fabrication project has a metallurgical en-
gineer or metallurgist on staff to review all of the
metallurgical aspects, which makes it imperative
that the inspectors have a basic knowledge of these
fundamentals to aid in planning the inspection pro-
gram. Not being aware of the metallurgical aspects
of welding can lead to production difficulties or
even worse, premature failure of the component.
Welding Processes
Knowledge of the welding processes is also valu-
able because each different welding process brings
 STD.AWS PRGVT-ENGL 1999
its own advantages and limitations to the fabrica-
tion effort. Some welding processes are more prone
to cracking than others; some have a greater pro-
pensity for porosity; still others should remain in
the shop and not be used in the field under adverse
conditions. Consideration must be given to these
aspects early on, and often, the economics of a par-
ticular process, including productivity and cost of
filler metat are the primary drivers.
Inspection Methods
The next item to discuss for organizing the inspec-
tion effort is the selection of the required inspection,
or inspections, from the various methods available.
Just as welding processes have advantages and lim-
itations, inspection methods also have these same
attributes. Some are limited to finding surface dis-
continuities only; others can detect them below the
surface. Some methods require lengthy training
and experience, while other methods may be taught
effectively in just a few hours or days. The welding
inspector must have a thorough knowledge of the
more common inspection methods to assist in the
initial selection, and to aid the understanding of
later field inspection results.
Inspection Tip # 1
PT Chasing for Crack Removal
When penetrant testing (IT) is used for inspec-
tion, it is often helpful to minimize the amount of
developer applied to the surface to just the bare
minimum required for developing a light, white
background. Applying multiple light coats of de-
veloper to the surface enables detection of very
fine cracking. Another important advantage of
developing to a minimum is that when cracks
are found, a minimum amount of the penetrant
is consumed in the light bleed-out of indications,
leaving an amount of penetrant remaining within
the crack. This remaining penetrant can be avail-
able for subsequent redevelopment steps only,
and does not require completing the entire PT
procedure for re-inspection. Grinding is often
then used to remove the crack indications, and
the crack can be chased in stages for complete
removal.
Crack removal by chasing is done in several
stages; the first being to complete a careful PT
with a light developer coating. The crack indica-
IHS Intra/Spex technology and images copyright (c) IHS 2002
. . 0784265 0519387 171 . .
VT of Pressure Piping and Pressure Vessels
tion is then ground a bit to remove a thin layer of
metal, 1/16- to lI8-inch depth, depending on the
amount of bleed-out. At this point, after light
grinding, a second light developer coat is ap-
plied to the freshly ground surface to determine
if the crack bleeds out again. If so, additional
light grinding is done, followed by a third re-
development of the surface. Typically, the de-
veloper can be applied 2-5 times to obtain suc-
cessive indications, depending on the crack depth
and width and the thickness of the developer
coating. At the point where no indications are
observed on subsequent redevelopment only, the
surface is given a complete IT once more.
Chasing a crack by subsequent redevelopment
without new penetrant steps saves time and ef-
fort, since the time required for the complete IT
process is not necessary. When chasing is used,
and no further indications are observed on the
surface after multiple developments, the entire
surface must then be re-cleaned and the entire IT
process applied once again. If additional indica-
tions are found, the chasing procedure is com-
pleted again using only the application of the
developer in several stages. The alternate ap-
proach of chasing several times followed by a
complete IT procedure is repeated until no indi-
cations are observed during a complete IT, indi-
cating complete removal of the defect.
After visual inspection, radiographic testing (RT) is
one of the more common methods selected for pres-
sure vessel and piping inspection. Often, RT is con-
sidered to be the best or most complete test method
since its capabilities are very good. However, one
serious limitation of RT is its inability to find flat,
planar discontinuities unless they are properly ori-
entated with respect to the incident radiation. The
planar discontinuity must not be oriented normal or
near normal to the radiation beam if it is to become
visible on the film. This orientation requirement of
the radiation being in line with the edge can se-
verely limit detecting tight incomplete fusion on the
weld joint sidewall, especially for short circuiting
GMAW with its propensity for such problems.
Repairs and Re-inspection
Finally, attention should be given to how rejected
welds are to be handled. Will the rejected item be
scrapped, cut out, repaired? If weld repairs are to be
AWS Practical Reference Guide 9
 STD.AWS PRGVT-ENGL 1999
VT of Pressure Piping and Pressure Vessels
made, will they be complete cutouts or will spot-
repair techniques be used? Care must be taken
to document the repair procedure used, the re-
inspection technique, and the re-inspection results.
Typically, the same inspection method used to find
the defect will be re-applied to the repairs.
Another decision to make is will the welder who
made the defective weld make the repair, or will
repair welders make all repairs? Both approaches
have been used very successfully. Often, in a
production-line approach, the rejects are recycled
through a repair center, leaving the production-line
welders online to maintain production. Repairs
made in the field may often require the original
welder to repair his/her rejects. This last approach
often has the potential for, and inherent advantage
of, being a learning experience for the original
welder. When a welder repairs his/her rejects, they
are usually able to see what condition caused the
reject, and consider how to avoid it in the future.
Production Welding-New
Fabrication
To this point, we have devoted considerable effort
to the planning and preparing for the actual fabrica-
tion welding and inspection. These first steps are
very important, and shortcuts should not be taken
in these early stages. When poor planning and poor
preparation lead to welding defects, it is amazing
how there is always time to weld it correctly the
second time but not the first.
Inspection of production welding is done with a
wide variety of approaches. On one extreme, very
little attention is given to the inspection effort until
the final product is completed, if even then. Weld
quality is left entirely to the welder, yet quite often
this simple approach is adequate. On the opposite
end of that spectrum, very close control of base and
filler metals, joint fitup, tack welding, root-pass
quality, and final weld-out is maintained. Each step
is documented and signed off by an inspector.
Often this tight control is mandated by a code or
specification and is adhered to very closely.
One fact is certain regarding careful visual welding
inspection: a trained and qualified inspection force
is required, and they must be supported whole-
heartedly by management. If management consid-
ers the inspection force as a necessary expense
rather than a good investment, quality will often
10 AWS Practical Reference Guide
IHS Intra/Spex technology and images copyright (c) IHS 2002
II 0784265 0519388 008 II
suffer. The inspection force must also have copies
of, or access to copies of, all applicable and perti-
nent drawings and standards. The inspection su-
pervision should report directly to top management
and have no line responsibilities with respect to
production. This approach has shown itself to be a
successful path to weld quality.
To gain additional insights into visual inspection
programs for field welds, our discussion will now
move to a review of the fabrication of a typical pet-
rochemical process plant using an inspection ap-
proach somewhere between the opposite ends of
the spectrum noted above. As you might expect,
these plants are often built into open structures ex-
posed to the elements and this is an important con-
sideration regarding the inspection requirements.
The plant will often consist of several miles of pro-
cess piping of various diameters and alloys, con-
necting pressure vessel to pressure vessel, and often
placed into pipe bridges above ground level. Pres-
sure vessels are often placed throughout the sev-
eral-story structure and are also fabricated from
different alloys.
Figure 11. Fabrication of a typical steel
structure for a petrochemical plant is often
multilevel. These structural welds must also be
inspected, often requiring an inspector with
agility as well as experience.
A decision sometimes made in the above circum-
stances is that every field weld will be visually in-
spected by a welding inspector, and signed off on
the isometric drawing when acceptable. The ques-
tion to be asked in this circumstance is at what
point will the joint or weld be examined? Some feel
 STD.AWS PRGVT-ENGL 1999
the fitup inspection to be the most important, oth-
ers select the root pass as being the most critical in-
spection point, while still others feel inspecting
only the final weld is adequate. Sometimes, a com-
bination of these is used for weld inspection: the
joint fitup is inspected as well as the root and final
pass. All of these approaches have been used suc-
cessfully for field inspection.
In addition to a first visual inspection, spot radiog-
raphy can be used as a conventional approach for
obtaining field weld quality. The on-site visual in-
spectors often play an important role in organizing
and documenting the RT inspections. Welds to be
radiographed on a 5% spot basis are randomly se-
lected by the on-site inspection force using the iso-
metric sketches, and should include at least one
weld from each welder per month. RT results are
also noted on these same isometrics. A 5% random
RT of field welds is often selected as a suitable
method for checking the welding skills and weld
quality of each welder. For critical services, 100% of
the welds may be radiographed. A statistical re-
view of the required weld percentage to be radio-
graphed shows these two percentages to be optimal
for each consideration. If the welders are to be mon-
itored, the 5% RT approach noted above is often
considered adequate. If weld quality must be cer-
tain, 100% RT is usually specified.
In one project, all field welds received visual in-
spections of the fitup, the root pass, and the final
weld, and were signed off after each of the three
visual inspections. This "visual inspection only"
approach was used in lieu of the more conventional
spot radiography method and it was very success-
ful. Cost comparisons made between the two ap-
proaches showed a similar cost and similar results
for weld quality.
Inspection Tip # 2
Identifying Field Welds
When setting up an RT program for pipe weld
radiography, it is helpful to require the number-
ing system used to delineate the pipe circum-
ference on the film such that the highest number
used to layout the radiograph is equal to the
nominal pipe diameter being radiographed. For
codes that relate weld length to acceptable dis-
continuity lengths or sizes, this approach is espe-
cially helpful since the radiographic films can be
quickly examined to determine the pipe diame-
IHS Intra/Spex technology and images copyright (c) IHS 2002
II 0784265 0519389 T44 II
VT of Pressure Piping and Pressure Vessels
ter for the multiple shots. From the pipe diame-
ter, it is an easy step to determine weld length.
Typically, the radiographer takes 3 or 4 separate
exposures on pipe; the typical identification sys-
tem used for a 3-shot sequence is A-B, ~, C-A,
and lead letters are placed around the pipe re-
sulting in this marking sequence on the film.
A far better approach is to use numbers, starting
at zero and increasing to the nominal pipe diam-
eter as the highest number. The applicable num-
bers are spaced evenly around the pipe diameter
while each pipe segment is radiographed. An 8-
inch diameter pipe would be numbered from 0
to 8 and the 3 resulting radiographic films would
show 0-3, 3-6, and 6-0 respectively, with the
number 8 as the largest number in the last se-
quence (6-7-8-0). To aid field orientation of the
weld, the number 0 is always placed at the 12
0' clock position for horizontal piping with place-
ment of increasing numbers in a clockwise direc-
tion while facing North or East. For vertical
piping, the number 0 is always placed at the
North direction with subsequent numbers in-
creasing in a clockwise direction as if looking
down on the pipe in a plan view. This constant
film orientation during radiography aids in field
defect removal by avoiding defect location mix-
ups during field repairs. To speed field radiogra-
phy, the various pipe diameters to be tested are
given to the radiographer in advance, and mask-
ing tape is used on sections with the appropriate
numbers attached to them and with the required
spacing.
Repairs to new fabrication welds are an inherent
part of any fabrication project, and these must be
controlled and tracked as well as the original weld-
ing. In some cases, a particular weld may have to be
repaired two or more times before it becomes accept-
able, and each repair should be documented and
identified separately to avoid confusion. It may be
helpful to track the weld reject rate for each welder
over time. Such tracking can often lead to sorting out
welders having difficulties that may be solved with
additional training in the welding booth. It also can
aid in trend analysis for an organization to monitor
their continuous improvement status.
Initially, by using visual inspection and radiogra-
phy on a spot basis as the two inspection methods,
the weld reject rate may start at a relatively high
percentage. A 10%-15% rejection rate, and in some
AWS Practical Reference Guide 11
 STD.AWS PRGVT-ENGL 1999
VT of Pressure Piping and Pressure Vessels
Figure 12. The diameter of pressure piping is
quite variable as shown. The piping in this
photo is covered with thermal insulation.
cases even higher, is not uncommon in the very
early stages of a field project. Until the welders gain
the feel as to acceptable and unacceptable welds, the
reject rate can be expected to be high. However, as
the welders and inspectors spend time reviewing
the rejected welds, the weld quality improves and
the reject rates often decrease to percentages of
2%-5%. On one field project, the reject rate goal was
to be less than 5%, which was determined to be typ-
ical for shop welding using the same inspection ap-
proach. The shop goal became the field-welding
goal, and at project end, the overall reject rate was
less than 4% for field welds.
Inspection of new fabrication is usually a very
straightforward operation. Decisions are made as to
the extent of inspection required, the trained in-
12 AWS Practical Reference Guide
IHS Intra/Spex technology and images copyright (c) IHS 2002
II 0784265 0519390 766 II
spectors ensure all inspections are completed, and
records are kept of the efforts. Occasionally, difficult
problems are encountered, but they are not the
usual experience. This is in contrast to the in-service
inspections that are covered a bit later.
Fabricatio'n Codes
To this point, we have referred to fabrication codes
in only a general manner. A closer look at some of
the common fabrication codes is a worthwhile ef-
fort and is our next topic for discussion. Some codes
are intended to cover design and fabrication while
others apply to maintaining the equipment integ-
rity after they have been placed in service.
Generally, pressure vessels for petrochemical plants
are designed and fabricated to the ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code, an international code. Stor-
age tanks for petroleum products are usually de-
signed and fabricated to one of the API Storage
Tank Codes, API 620 or 650. Petrochemical process
piping is often designed and fabricated to ASME
B31.3 which specifically covers pressure piping for
petrochemical and refinery service. Buried process
or petroleum piping is often designed and fabri-
cated to API 1104 which covers "Welding of Pipe-
lines and Related Facilities." Whenever any code is
used, it is important to make sure the current
edition of that code is on hand and specified for
use. Most codes are revised on some frequency and
many of the names and addresses found in Annex
A-Technical and Scientific Organizations, can be
helpful for contacting the appropriate code-
prodl.).cer and determining the current versions. A
discussion of several commonly used codes follows.
The ASME B&PV Code is published as a new edi-
tion July 1 every three years and revised by ad-
denda which are issued July 1 of each year. In
addition, interpretations to the Code are issued
every six months, as are Code Cases. Code Cases
are special-purpose, limited scope rules that pro-
vide alternative methods of construction to those in
the Code. Code Cases are never mandatory, but
may be used if the fabricator wishes to use them.
This code has eleven sections and these are listed in
Annex B-1998 Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
Sections.
Pressure vessels may be fabricated to one of three
ASME Code Section VIII Divisions, 1, 2, or 3.
Generally, they are fabricated to Division I, but
 STD.AWS PRGVT-ENGL 1999
Division 2 contains alternate rules and does permit
wall thickness reductions along with the require-
ments for increased NDT. Division 3 covers vessel
design pressures above 10,000 psig which are not
covered in the other two Divisions. Within a Divi-
sion, decisions regarding service conditions must
be made; for example, low-temperature services re-
quire different considerations such as impact test-
ing requirements for base and filler metals.
Figure 13. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Code-Section VIII, Division 1. This code is
often used for the design and fabrication of new
unfired pressure vessels. Its rules are very
helpful for in-service equipment examination,
but the NBIC is actually the governing document
for maintaining equipment service integrity.
As shown in Annex B, the inspector must have ac-
cess to several other Sections such as the four parts,
A, B, C, and D, of Section II for both ferrous and
nonferrous base metals, filler materials, and me-
chanical properties. Section V is the NDT section
and Section IX refers to "Welding and Brazing
Qualifications." Typically, the welding inspector
IHS Intra/Spex technology and images copyright (c) IHS 2002
II 0784265 0519391 6T2 II
VT of Pressure Piping and Pressure Vessels
must have knowledge of each of these sections
since they will all likely apply to vessel welding.
ASME has adopted the AWS filler metal specifica-
tions in their entirety for Section II, Part C.
The API codes are issued periodically, not on a reg-
ularly scheduled basis, but Interpretations are is-
sued on an annual basis. The API code typically
used for pressure containment of piping is 1104.
Storage tanks are often fabricated to either API 620
or API 650; 620 is used for low-pressure services
(up to 15 psig) and 650 for atmospheric pressure
and open top tanks though it can also be used for
pressure containment construction using special
provisions.
ASME B31.3, Process Piping, is published as a new
edition every three years, and revisions are made
by addenda that are published annually. B31.3 was
specifically written for the petrochemical industry,
and contains several categories of services that vary
from routine to severe conditions. Using this code,
the engineer must select the category of service
from several choices as a first step for selecting the
appropriate inspection plan. The piping service cate-
gories are:
Category D Fluid Service-a fluid service that is
nonflammable, nontoxic, not damaging to hu-
mans, with pressures less than 150 psi, and tem-
peratures ranging from -20F to 366F.
Category M Fluid Service-a fluid service in
which the potential for personnel exposure is
significant, and exposure to a small quantity of
fluid can produce irreversible harm through con-
tact or breathing.
High-Pressure Fluid Service-a fluid service that
exceeds pressures allowed by other ASME codes;
no upper pressure limit is stated.
Normal Fluid Service-a fluid service pertaining
to most piping covered by B31.3 and not subject
to the rules for Categories D, M, or High Pres-
sure, and which are not subject to severe cyclic
conditions. All piping is Normal Fluid Service
unless another category is designated.
In using ASME B31.3, the engineer determines the
actual piping conditions expected in service and
compares them with the above list to select the
appropriate category. Once this is done, the code
denotes actual inspection requirements for the
selected category. The various degrees of inspection
such as RT include 100%, random, spot, and
AWS Practical Reference Guide 13
 STD.AWS PRGVT-ENGL 1999
VT of Pressure Piping and Pressure Vessels
random spot examinations, and these are defined in
ASME B31.3 as follows:
100%-eomplete examination of all of a specified
kind of item in a designated lot.
Random-eomplete examination of a percentage
of a specified kind of item in a designated lot.
Spot-a specified partial examination of each of
a specified kind of item in a designated lot; e.g., a
part of the length of shop-fabricated welds in
jacketed pipe.
Random Spot-a specified partial examination
of a percentage of a specified kind of item in a
designated lot.
As one moves down the list, the amount of in-
spection given is decreasing. ASME B31.3 specifies
one of the above inspection categories depending
on the fluid service category selected previously by
the engineer.
It is also helpful to note the separate definitions
given for Inspection and Examination. Often we
mistakenly use these words interchangeably. B31.3
defines them as follows:
Inspection applies to functions performed for the
owner by the owner's inspector or the inspec-
tor's delegates. An owner's inspector conducts
inspections for the owner.
Examination applies to quality control functions
performed by the manufacturer (for components
only), fabricator, or erector. An examiner is a per-
son who performs quality-control examinations.
Inspection by the owner does not relieve the manu-
facturer, fabricator, or erector of the responsibility
for:
Providing materials, components, and work-
manship in accordance with code requirements
and engineering design.
Performing all required examinations.
Preparing suitable records of examinations and
tests for the inspector's use.
To summarize this brief section on codes, the weld-
ing inspector must have copies of, or access to, the
applicable codes, read and understand them, and
apply the applicable requirements to the welding
operations. As shown above, the various new fabri-
cation codes can differ dramatically on their re-
quirements for welding inspection.
14 AWS Practical Reference Guide
IHS Intra/Spex technology and images copyright (c) IHS 2002
. . 0784265 0519392 539 . .
In-Service Inspections
Inspecting piping and equipment that has been in
service for some period of time presents several
unique aspects that must be considered, such as:
Which code will be used as the guideline?
Experience history-type of deterioration ex-
pected, if any.
Expected corrosion rate, if any.
Frequency of inspection needed.
Type of inspection required.
Decontamination required for internal inspection.
Plus others aspects.
The three codes often used for in-service inspec-
tions of petrochemical and refinery piping and
equipment are:
National Board Inspection Code (NBIC), A Man-
ual for Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors.
API 510, Pressure Vessel Inspection Code: Mainte-
nance Inspection, Rating, Repair, and Alteration.
API 570, Piping Inspection Code: Inspection, Repair,
Alteration, and Rerating ofIn-Service Piping Systems.
Each of the above has developed Inspector Certifi-
cation programs that are pertinent to the specific
codes. As always, certifications lend credibility to
any inspection program and are encouraged.
Often, for petrochemical plants, annual or biannual
inspections called 'turnarounds' or 'shutdowns' are
scheduled to permit necessary inspections, repairs,
equipment modifications, or other work that cannot
be done while the plant is operating. These events
usually require considerable preplanning to com-
plete the required inspections and repairs in the
shortest time available to minimize production
losses. Work is typically scheduled to continue
around the clock and the inspection work is done in
shifts. This approach requires careful attention to
the communication procedure between successive
shifts to ensure completion of all inspections and
repairs.
A variety of shift arrangements are possible for con-
tinuous work schedules: scheduling three 8-hour
shifts for the 24-hour day has the advantage of per-
mitting the oncoming shift to overlap briefly with
the off-going shift for communication relay, both
written and verbal. Another approach used is to
 STD.AWS PRGVT-ENGL 1999 II 0784265 0519393 475 II
VT of Pressure Piping and Pressure Vessels

An Arnertcan National Standard

NATIONAL PreS8ure Ve88ellnspection Code:

Maintenance In8pection, Rating,

BOARD Repair, and Alteration

INSPECf10N API 610

EIGKTH EDITION, JUNE 'DD7

CODE

I -.....
THO:
.~. NATIDNAL.
BOARD ......
....
Figure 14. National Board Inspection Code- Figure 15. API 510. Petroleum and
A Manual for Boiler and Pressure Vessel petrochemical process equipment integrity
Inspectors (NBIC). Many governing agencies must conform to 510.
and codes require an Authorized Inspector for
boilers and pressure vessels, usually referring
to one certified as a National Board Inspector
working to the NBIC. The NBIC covers
installations other than those covered by API
510 unless the jurisdiction rules otherwise.

have two lO-hour shifts, with a two-hour span be- Anticipated problems to be found.
tween the shifts to permit radiographic inspection
Repairs likely to be needed.
to occur with minimum personnel available. This
two-shift approach does present more difficulty on Spare parts required.
relaying equipment or inspection status since the Time allotment necessary for completing all re-
verbal link does not occur, but it has been used suc- quired work.
cessfully when written communication is done
well. Inspection personnel required.
Inspection equipment and supplies required.
Typically, in preplanning, if equipment history re-
ports and corrosion data are available, they are Welding personnel required.
carefully reviewed in an attempt to realistically esti- Other issues (asbestos removal, vessel entry
mate the following: standbys, etc.).

AWS Practical Reference Guide 15

IHS Intra/Spex technology and images copyright (c) IHS 2002

 STD.AWS PRGVT-ENGL 1999
VT of Pressure Piping and Pressure Vessels
This approach, if done by experienced personnel,
usually minimizes or eliminates the unexpected
surprises that can cause extended delays in restart-
ing the plant. A good preplanning effort is usually
time and effort well spent, often resulting in consid-
erable savings by avoiding extended production
losses.
The inspection personnel used for shutdown work
needs to have considerable background and train-
ing in safety procedures, the particular chemical or
manufacturing process, equipment inspection, and
repair experience. Often the equipment must be en-
tered to complete a thorough visual inspection and
this requires safe entry procedures and appropriate
standby personnel to ensure the safety of all person-
nel entering the vessels or piping. Knowledge of the
manufacturing process, the process chemistry, and
the equipment being inspected generally lead to
completion of the appropriate inspections. Repair
experience is also very helpful since the inspector is
often the person most familiar with the equipment
internals and the person who not only finds the ini-
tial equipment deterioration or damage and assists
with the repair procedure, but he/she must also fol-
low up on re-inspecting the field repairs.
Entering and inspecting pressure vessels must be
carefully done to comply with the required safety
procedures as well as to find any existing damage.
Prior to entering a process vessel, the following
steps must be completed as a minimum:
A management-authorized vessel-entry form.
Vessel cleaned and decontaminated.
Vessel blanked out from all piping.
Vessel checked for explosive tendencies and
flammability.
Vessel checked for oxygen content-21 %
required.
Lock, tag, and try of agitators or other mechani-
cal devices.
Removal of all radioactive monitoring equip-
ment if they present a personnel hazard.
Mechanical ventilation of vessel if required by
permit.
A management-authorized flame permit if weld-
ing is to be done.
16 AWS Practical Reference Guide
IHS Intra/Spex technology and images copyright (c) IHS 2002
. . 07842b5 0519394 301 . .
Appropriate safety equipment-gloves, hard
hat, goggles, safety shoes, safety harness or
wristlets.
Standby personnel on hand with radio, air horn,
etc.
Appropriate ladders to facilitate entry (scaffold-
ing may be required).
SCBA (Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus)
available at vessel entry site.
Once all of the safety considerations have been sat-
isfied, the inspector must check the inspection
equipment to make sure the necessary tools are on
hand. There are several personal items each inspec-
tor should have to aid the visual inspection:
Good flashlight, with fresh batteries, and the ca-
pability to be focused to a spot.
Small scraper, such as a stiff putty knife.
Sharp scribe-a tungsten-pointed one is excel-
lent, or a stainless-steel dental pick, or both.
lOx magnifier-lighted ones are available.
Pencil magnet.
10-12 foot tape.
Six-inch machinist's scale.
Note pad and pen for notes, sketches.
Small tape recorder for dictation of conditions
(optional but very helpful).
A belt pack to contain the above.
Most of the above items are readily available, but
several of the specialty items can be purchased
from inspection supply firms such as Metallurgical
Supply, Houston, Texas. Additional visual inspec-
tion items such as borescopes, digital or 35mm cam-
eras, video cameras, and video probes can be very
useful for recording inspection results for future
comparison. Black-and-white camera technology is
often adequate, but color cameras are usually better
for documenting corrosion damage. While this
equipment can be purchased, rental is often the
most economical approach.
The next item to check is the equipment's identifi-
cation; it must be confirmed by checking its 10
plate. Some operating functions in a manufacturing
plant are such that more than one identical unit is
available for a particular function. Examples of this
are equipment duplicates that fill the need to take
 STD.AWS PRGVT-ENGL 1999 II 0784265 0519395 248 II
VT of Pressure Piping and Pressure Vessels

it in kind, or there may be spare pumps for a partic-
ular location to permit replacement of seals. A spare
unit having its own ID is put into place and opera-
tions continue. It is imperative that each unit's ID
be confirmed before the inspection begins.
Many feel the vessel entry access port should be
the starting point for the vessel inspection; careful
examination prior to entering ensures it is not for-
gotten as you exit the vessel later. (In one case, the
entry nozzle was not inspected, and the existing
corrosion damage that was overlooked caused a
leak and a very expensive and unscheduled shut-
down on startup.) Typically, flange faces, nozzle
necks, and nozzle attachment welds are inspected
for mechanical or corrosion damage as the inspec-
tor makes the initial entry.
Once within the vessel, it is carefully and thor-
oughly inspected for mechanical and corrosion
damage. Vessel inspections may require removal of
internal manways between different levels, or baf-
fling which may obstruct the view of portions of the
vessel. Often, ladders or scaffolding are required to
gain access to all of the interior surfaces. Inspection
of surfaces usually requires accessibility within an
arm's length; long-distance visual inspection is usu-
ally not adequate since damage may be overlooked.
Some inspectors take the position that if they can-
not touch a surface, they cannot adequately inspect
it.
for equipment damage without complete insulation
removal.
When the equipment inspection is complete, all re-
sults should be documented and discussed with the
appropriate management and maintenance person-
nel. Needed repairs are planned and discussed with
the welding or mechanical supervision to ensure
that all damaged areas are well understood as to
their location, extent of damage, and required re-
pairs. Often, the inspector will revisit the equip-
ment location or even reenter the vessel with the
repair personnel to point out exactly what is re-
quired. Once all repairs are completed, they must
be re-inspected.
Piping presents a difficult inspection task because
of several reasons: fluid velocities can create erosion
or corrosion problems on the interior; there may be
so much of it, it often is not readily accessible at
ground level; it is often insulated, and usually is too
Piping Inspection Code

When damage is found, it should be noted and de-

scribed in some manner to permit accurate report- lnepectlon, RepIIIr, Allllnltlon, 8I1d Refilling
or In-ServIce Piping Systemll
age later. The damaged surfaces should also be
marked legibly if further action is required during API 570
SECOND EDITION. OCTOBER 11llI8
the shutdown. For carbon steels, a soapstone
marker is quite good for marking; stainless steels
and other bright alloys may require a paint marker.
When using paint markers, it is imperative they do
not contain high sulfur, chlorides, zinc, lead or
other elements whose residue can cause damage to
the metals during subsequent cutting or welding
operations. '
After the vessel interior is inspected, the exterior
......-
---
must also be examined for deterioration. This can
be very difficult and costly if the vessel is insulated --
as so many process vessels are. Damaged insulation
is often the first indication that insulation removal
and inspection may be required. If water can find
its way into the insulation via damaged vapor bar-
riers, the resulting moist, hot conditions can cause Figure 16. API 570. This code applies to
severe corrosion of the external surfaces. Radiogra- maintaining the piping integrity of chemical
phy and ultrasonic testing are often used to inspect service piping.

AWS Practical Reference Guide 17

IHS Intra/Spex technology and images copyright (c) IHS 2002

 STD.AWS PRGVT-ENGL 1999
VT of Pressure Piping and Pressure Vessels
small to permit personnel entry for internal inspec-
tion. Again, as for pressure vessels, damaged pip-
ing insulation is often an indication that further
external inspection is necessary after insulation re-
moval. RT and UT are very helpful in determining
the condition of piping, both internally and exter-
nally. When making spot inspections on piping, pri-
mary attention is often given to those areas more
likely to suffer erosion! corrosion such as locations
of changes in fluid direction at elbows, or areas of
high turbulence, such as branch connections or
valve and pump installations. Experience will often
dictate the trouble spots within a piping system.
Piping suffering from corrosion and wall thinning
may no longer be adequate for containing design
pressures. Sometimes it is possible to re-rate the
maximum pressure permitted to a lower value, but
often, piping suffering from wall thinning is
replaced. This same approach can be used for wall
thinning of vessels. A design engineer is given the
current condition of the piping or vessel and
through calculations determines the safe working
18 AWS Practical Reference Guide
IHS Intra/Spex technology and images copyright (c) IHS 2002
II 0784265 0519396 184 . .
temperatures and pressures for the damaged
equipment.
Summary
Several aspects of pressure containment equipment
inspection have been reviewed. Distinction was
made between those national codes pertaining to
the design and fabrication of new pressure equip-
ment and those with applicability to maintaining
equipment and piping integrity after the items have
been placed in service. There are numerous techni-
cal references that treat the subject in much greater
detail, and the serious inspector is encouraged to
seek these out and increase his or her knowledge
and understanding of the entire inspection process.
I have developed the very strong feeling that in-
spection does not cost money; it saves money. Man-
agement should look at their inspection forces not
as a drain on the economics of their business, but as
one of the more important divisions that protect
them from poor quality often leading to bankrupt-
ing lawsuits.
 STD.AWS PRGVT-ENGL 1999 . . 07842b5 0519397 OLD . .
VT of Pressure Piping and Pressure Vessels

Annex A-Technical and Scientific Organizations

Abrasives Engineering Society (AES) American Iron and Steel Institute (AISC)
P.O. Box 3157 110117th Street, N.W.
Butler, PA 16003 Washington, DC 20036-4700
(724) 282-6210; fax 282-6210 (202) 452-7100; fax 463-6573
Aluminum Association (AA) American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
900 19th Street, N.W. 11 W. 42nd Street
Suite 300 13th Floor
Washington, DC 20006 New York, NY 10036-8002
(202) 682-8000; fax 682-8115 (212) 642-4900; fax 398-0023

America Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) American Nuclear Society (ANS)
100 Barr Harbor Drive 555 N. Kensington Avenue
W. Conshohocken, PA 19428 La Grange, IL 60526
(708) 579-8200; fax 579-8283
(610) 832-9500; fax 832-9555
American Petroleum Institute (API)
American Association of State Highway &
1220 L Street, N.W.
Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
Washington, DC 20005-8029
444 N. Capital Street, N.W.
(202) 682-8000; fax 682-8115
Suite 249
Washington, DC 20001 American Railway Engineering Association
(202) 624-5800; fax 624-5806 (AREA)
50 F Street, N.W.
American Bureau of Shipping (ABS) Suite 7702
Two World Trade Center Washington, DC 20001-2183
106th Floor (202) 639-2190; fax 639-2183
New York, NY 10048
(212) 839-5000; fax 839-5130 American Society for NondestructiveTesting
(ASNT)
American Gas Association (AGA) 1711 Arlingate Lane
1515 Wilson Boulevard Columbus, OH 43228-0518
Arlington, VA 22209 (614) 274-6003; fax 274-6899
(703) 841-8400; fax 841-8406
American Society for Quality (ASQ)
American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical and 611 E. Wisconsin Avenue
Petroleum Engineers (AIME) Milwaukee, WI 53202
Three ParkAvenue (414) 272-8575; fax 272-1734
New York, NY 10016-5598 American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)
(212) 419-7676; fax 371-9622 1801 Alexander Bell Drive
American Institute of Plant Engineers (AIPE) Reston, VA 20191-4400
8180 Corporate Park Drive (703) 295-6000; fax 295-6222
Suite 305 American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
Cincinnati, OH 45242 Three ParkAvenue
(513) 489-2473; fax 247-7422 New York, NY 10016-5990
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) (800) 843-2763; fax (973) 882-1717
One E. Wacker Drive American Society of Safety Engineers (ASSE)
Suite 3100 1800 East Oakton Street
Chicago, IL 60601-2001 Des Plaines, IL 60018-2187
(312) 670-2400; fax 670-6573 (708) 692-4121; fax 296-9220

AWS Practical Reference Guide 19

IHS Intra/Spex technology and images copyright (c) IHS 2002

 STD.AWS PRGVT-ENGL 1999 . . 0784265 0519398 T57 . .
VT of Pressure Piping and Pressure Vessels

American Water Works Association (AWWA) International Oxygen Manufacturers' Association

6666 W. Quincy Avenue (lOMA)
Denver, CO 80235 P.O. Box 16248
(303) 794-7711; fax 794-7310 Cleveland, OH 44116-0248
American Welding Society (AWS) (216) 228-2166; fax 228-5810
550 N.W. LeJeune Road International Titanium Association (ITA)
Miami, FL 33126
1871 Folsom Street
(305) 443-9353; fax 443-7559
Suite 200
ASM International (ASM) Boulder, CO 80302-5714
9639 Kinsman Road (303) 443-7515; fax 443-4406
Materials Park, OH 44073
(440) 338-5151; fax 338-4634 Laser Institute (LI)
12424 Research Parkway
Association of American Railroads (AAR)
50 F Street, N.W. Suite 125
Washington, DC 20001 Orlando, FL 32826
(202) 639-2100; fax 639-2286 (407) 380-1553; fax 380-5588
Association of Iron and Steel Engineers (AISE) Material Handling Industry (MHI)
Three Gateway Center 8720 Red Oak Boulevard
Suite 1900 Suite 201
Pittsburgh, PA 15222 Charlotte, NC 28217-3957
(412) 281-6323; fax 471-4858 (704) 522-8644; fax 676-1199
Canadian Standards Association (CSA) National Association of Corrosion Engineers
178 Rexdale Boulevard (NACE)
Rexdale, Ontario
P.O. Box 218340
M9W lR3 Canada
Houston, TX 77218-8340
(416) 747-4000; fax 747-4149
(281) 228-6200; fax 228-6300
Compressed Gas Association (CGA)
1725 Jefferson Davis Highway National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Suite 1004 Inspectors (NBBPVI)
Arlington, VA 22202-4102 1055 Crupper Avenue
(703) 412-0900; fax 412-0128 Columbus, OH 43229
Edison Welding Institute (EWI) (614) 888-8320; fax 888-0750
1250 Arthur E. Adams Drive National Electrical Manufacturers' Association
Columbus, OH 43221 (NEMA)
(614) 486-5000; fax 688-5001 1300 N. 17th Street
Fabricators' and Manufacturers' Association Suite 1847
(FMA) Rosslyn, VA 22209
833 Featherstone Road (703) 841-3200; fax 841-5900
Rockford, IL 61107-6302
(815) 399-8700; fax 399-7279 National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
P.O. Box 9101
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
One Batterymarch Park
(IEEE)
Quincy, MA 02269-9101
Three ParkAvenue
(617) 770-3000; fax 770-0700
New York, NY 1006
(212) 419-7900; fax 752-4929 National Institute of Standards and Technology
Institute of Industrial Engineers (lIE) (NIST)
25 Technology Park 325 Broadway
Norcross, GA 30092 Boulder, CO 80303-3328
(770) 449-0460; fax 263-8532 (303) 497-3000

20 AWS Practical Reference Guide

IHS Intra/Spex technology and images copyright (c) IHS 2002

 STD.AWS PRGVT-ENGL 1999 II 0784265 0519399 993 II
VT of Pressure Piping and Pressure Vessels

National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE) Robotics Industries Association (RIA)

1420 King Street 900 Victors Way
Alexandria, VA 22314 Ann Arbor, MI48106
(703) 684-2800; fax 836-4875 (734)994-6088;994-3338

National Welding Supply Association (NWSA) Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE)

1900 Arch Street 222 Palisades Creek Drive
Philadelphia, PA 19103 Richardson, TX 75083
(215) 564-3484; fax 564-2175 (972) 952-9393; fax 952-9435
Society of Women Engineers (SWE)
Naval Inventory Point Center
120 Wall Street
700 Robins Avenue
New York, NY 10005-3902
Philadelphia, PA 19111
(212) 509-9577; fax 509-0224
(215) 697-2247; fax 697-5914
Steel Tank Institute (STI)
Order and Inquiry Desk 570 Oakwood Road
U.S. Government Printing Office Lake Zurich, IL 60047
Washington, DC 20402 (847) 438-8265; 438-9766
(202) 512-1800; fax 512-2250
Uniform Boiler and Pressure Vessel Laws Society
Resistance Welder Manufacturers' Association (UBPVLS)
(RWMA) 308 N. Evergreen Road
1900 Arch Street Suite 240
Philadelphia, PA 19103 Louisville, KY 40243-1010
(215) 564-3484; fax 963-9785 (502) 244-6029; fax 244-6030

AWS Practical Reference Guide 21

IHS Intra/Spex technology and images copyright (c) IHS 2002

 STD.AWS PRGVT-ENGL 1999 II 0784265 0519400 435 II
VT of Pressure Piping and Pressure Vessels

Annex B-1998 ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Sections

I-POWER BOILERS Division 2

II-MATERIALS Code for Concrete Reactor Vessels and Containments
Part A-Ferrous Material Specifications Division 3
Part B-Nonferrous Material Specifications Containment Systems and Transport Packaging for
Part C-Specifications for Welding Rods, Spent Nuclear Fuel and High-Level Radioactive
Electrodes and Filler Metals Waste
Part D-Properties IV-HEATING BOILERS
III-RULES IN CONSTRUCTION OF NUCLEAR
V-NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION
POWER PLANT COMPONENTS
VI-RECOMMENDED RULES FOR THE CARE
Subsection NCA-General Requirements for
AND OPERATION OF HEATING BOILERS
Division 1 and Division 2
Division 1 VII-RECOMMENDED GUIDELINES FOR THE
Subsection NB CARE OF POWER BOILERS
Class 1 Components VIII-PRESSURE VESSELS
Subsection NC Division 1
Class 2 Components Division 2-Altemative Rules
Subsection ND Division 3-Altemative Rules for Construction of
Class 3 Components High-Pressure Vessels
Subsection NE IX-WELDING AND BRAZING
Class MC Components QUALIFICATIONS
Subsection NF X-FIBER-REINFORCED PLASTIC PRESSURE
Supports VESSELS
Subsection NG XI-RULES FOR INSERVICE INSPECTION OF
Core Support Structures NUCLEAR POWER PLANT COMPONENTS
Subsection NH
Class 1 Components in Elevated Temperature Service Code Cases: Boilers and Pressure Vessels
Appendices Code Cases: Nuclear Components

22 AWS Practical Reference Guide

IHS Intra/Spex technology and images copyright (c) IHS 2002

 STD.AWS PRGVT-ENGL 1999 .. 0784265 0519401 371 . .
VT of Pressure PIPll1g and Pressure Vessels

Annex C-Discontinuities
(From AWS B1.10, Table 1)

Table 1. Common types of discontinuities.

Type of Discontinuity Location' Remarks

1. Porosity WM Porosity is also commonly found in the heat-affected zone

(a) Uniformly scattered if base metal is a casting
(b) Cluster
(c) Linear
(d) Piping

2. Inclusions WM
(a) Slag
(b) Tungsten

3. Incomplete fusion WM,BMIWM Also between passes

4. Incomplete joint penetration BM Weld root

5. Undercut BMIWM Adjacent to weld toe or weld root in base metal

6. Underfill WM Weld face or root surface

7. Overlap BMIWM Weld toe or root surface

8. Laminations BM Base metal, generally near midthickness of section

9. Delamination BM Base metal, generally near midthickness of section

10. Seam and laps Base metal surface almost always aligned with rolling
direction

11. Lamellar tears BM Base metal, near HAZ

12. Cracks (includes hot cracks and cold cracks)

(a) Longitudinal WM, HAZ Weld metal or base metal adjacent to weld interface
(b) Transverse WM,HAZ,BM Weld metal (may propagate into HAZ and base metal)
(c) Crater WM Weld metal at point where arc is terminated
(d) Throat WM Parallel to weld axis
(e) Toe BMIWM
(f) Root WM Root surface
(g) Underbead and heat-affected zone BMIWM

13. Insufficient throat WM Weld face

14. Convexity or weld reinforcement WM Weld face

15. Insufficient leg WM Fillet weld

'WM-Weld metal
BM-Base metal
HAZ-Heat-affected zone
BMIWM-Weld interface

AWS Practical Reference Guide 23

IHS Intra/Spex technology and images copyright (c) IHS 2002

 STD.AWS PRGVT-ENGL 1999 . . 0784265 0519402 208 . .
VT of Pressure Piping and Pressure Vessels

Annex C-Discontinuities (Continued)

(From AWS B1.10, Table 2)

Table 2. Discontinuities commonly encountered with welding processes.

Type of Discontinuity

Incomplete Incomplete
Welding Process Porosity Slag Fusion Penetration Undercut Overlap Cracks

Arc

SW-Stud welding X X X
PAW-Plasma arc welding X X X X
SAW-Submerged arc welding X X X X X X X
GTAW-Gas tungsten arc welding X X X X
GMAW-Gas metal arc welding X X X X X X X
FCAW-Flux cored arc welding X X X X X X X
SMAW-Shielded metal arc welding X X X X X X X
CAW-Carbon arc welding X X X X X X X

Resistance

RSW-Resistance spot welding X X

RSEW-Resistance seam welding X X
PW-Projection welding X X
FW-Flash welding X X
UW-Upset welding X X

Oxyfuel Gas

OAW-oxyacetylene welding X X X X X X
OHW-oxyhydrogen welding X X X X
PGW-Pressure gas welding X X X

Solid-State"

CW-Cold welding X X
DFW-Diffusion welding X X
EXW-Explosion welding X
FOW-Forge welding X
FRW-Friction welding X
USW-Ultrasonic welding X

Other

EBW-Electron beam welding X X X X

ESW-Electroslag welding X X X X X X X
IW-Induction welding X X
LBW-Laser beam welding X X X
PEW-Percussion welding X X
TW-Thermit welding X X X X

"Solid-state is not a fusion process, so incomplete joining is incomplete welding rather than incomplete fusion.

24 AWS Practical Reference Guide

IHS Intra/Spex technology and images copyright (c) IHS 2002

 STD.AWS PRGVT-ENGL 1999 .. 0784265 0519403 144 . .
VT of Pressure Piping and Pressure Vessels

Annex C-Discontinuities (Continued)

(From AW5-The Everyday Pocket Handbook for Visual Inspection and Weld Discontinuities-Causes and Remedies)

Cracks
A crack is defined as "A fracture type discontinuity characterized by a sharp tip and a high ratio of length
and width to opening displacement." Cracks are usually considered the most severe discontinuity because
of their tendency to propagate under stress. Cracks are usually further described by their location geometry,
time of occurrence, or common usage terms; see figure below for AWS crack terminology.

LEGEND: 7 ROOT SURFACE CRACK

1 CRATER CRACK 8 THROAT CRACK
2 FACE CRACK 9 TOE CRACK
3 HEATAFFECTED 10 TRANSVERSE CRACK
ZONE CRACK 11 UNDERBEAD CRACK
4 LAMELLAR TEAR 12 WELD INTERFACE CRACK
5 LONGITUDINAL CRACK 13 WELD METAL CRACK
6 ROOT CRACK

(8)

Inclusions
Inclusions are defined as "Entrapped foreign solid material, such as slag, flux, tungsten, or oxide." The in-
clusions may be found as single particles, aligned particles, or clustered particles. Slag inclusions are fre-
quently found on the weld surfaces, or along the toes of the weld due to improper cleaning techniques.
Tungsten inclusions are usually subsurface. Examples of inclusions are shown below. Inclusions on the sur-
face can be detected by VT; subsurface inclusions require UT or RT.

~ w
_<
Slag Inclusions (darkened areas)

Incomplete Fusion
Incomplete fusion is defined as "A weld discontinuity in which fusion did not occur between weld metal
and fusion faces or adjoining weld beads." Incomplete Fusion (IF) can occur on both groove welds and fillet
welds. The term specifically applies to fillet welds where the weld does not extend to the joint root. See the
figures below. .

AWS Practical Reference Guide 25

IHS Intra/Spex technology and images copyright (c) IHS 2002

 STD.AWS PRGVT-ENGL 1999 . . 0784265 0519404 080 . .
VT of Pressure Piping and Pressure Vessels

INCOMPLETE FUSION -,------.

INCOMPLETE FUSION (A) (C)

Incomplete Joint Penetration

Incomplete joint penetration is defined as "A joint root condition in a groove weld in which weld metal
does not extend through the joint thickness." Note that it applies to groove welds only, not fillet welds. Examples
of incomplete joint penetration (IJP) are shown in the following figures.

L...- ~r~ '-- .....

INCOMPLETE JOINT PENETRATION INCOMPLETE JOINT PENETRATION

Overlap
Overlap is defined as "The protrusion of weld metal beyond the weld toe or weld root." Examples are
shown below for fillet and groove welds.

OVERLAP

26 AWS Practical Reference Guide

IHS Intra/Spex technology and images copyright (c) IHS 2002

 STD.AWS PRGVT-ENGL 1999 .. 0784265 0519405 T17 . .
VT of Pressure Plpmg and Pressure Vessels

Porosity
Porosity is defined as "Cavity-type discontinuities formed by gas entrapment during solidification or in a
thermal spray deposit." The porosity may be surface or subsurface, a single cavity, aligned, or clustered, and
is represented by the following figures.

SCATTERED SURFACE POROSITY

Undercut
Undercut is defined as "A groove melted into the base metal adjacent to the weld toe or weld face and left
unfilled by weld metal" Examples are shown in the following figures.

AWS Practical Reference Guide 27

IHS Intra/Spex technology and images copyright (c) IHS 2002

 STD.AWS PRGVT-ENGL 1999 .. 0784265 0519406 953 . .
VT of Pressure Piping and Pressure Vessels

Annex D-Selected References

AW5-The Everyday Pocket Handbook for Visual Inspection and Weld Discontinuities.
AWS B1.lO-Guide for the Nondestructive Inspection of Welds.
AWS B1.11-Guide for the Visual Inspection of Welds.
AWS A3.o--Standard Welding Terms and Definitions.
AWS A2.4-Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing, and Nondestructive Examination.
AWS B2.1-Specification for Welding Procedure and Performance Qualification.
AW5-The Practical Reference Guidefor Corrosion of Welds-Causes and Cures.
NDE Handbook-Non-destructive examination methods for condition monitoring, edited by Knud G. Boving, avail-
able through AWS.
NACE-Process Industries Corrosion, available from National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Houston,
Texas.
NACE-NACE Corrosion Engineer's Reference Book, Second Edition, edited by R. S. Treseder, available from
National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Houston, Texas.

28 AWS Practical Reference Guide

IHS Intra/Spex technology and images copyright (c) IHS 2002