Professional Documents
Culture Documents
And Applications
By
Chapter Page
Thermoelastic Equation of Motion 145
Sound Wave Generation in a Stress-Free Sphere 146
Sound Wave Generation in a Sphere with Constrained
Boundary . 157
A Summary . 168
7. Applied Aspects 173
Potential Applications 173
Maximum Permissible Exposure 178
Other Biological Effects . 179
Introduction
H IS CHAPTER BEGINS with a consideration of microwave ra-
T
o diation and its relationship to other types of electromagnetic
radiation. A brief historical introduction to the field of biological
effects of microwave radiation is included to give an overview of
early contributions. A variety of references to more comprehensive
treatment of the general subject area will be found in the material
that follows.
MICROWAVE RADIATION
Microwave radiation is a form of electromagnetic radiation
which falls within the frequency range of 300 MHz to 300,000
MHz (megahertz == 106 Hz). It exists naturally as a part of the
radiant energy given off by the sun; it is also produced by vacuum
tubes and semiconductor devices. Man-made microwave energy
may be conducted from the source by coaxial transmission lines
or waveguides and emitted from transmitting antennas as a wave
with oscillating electric and magnetic fields which pass into free
space or material media. Microwave may be received by a receiv-
ing antenna and detected by diodes or similar devices. It propa-
gates at the speed of light, which in free space is approximately
3 x 10 8 m/ sec. The speed of propagation, v, is equal to the
product of microwave frequency, f, and the wavelength, A. That
is
v = fA ( 1.1 )
where the units of f and A are, respectively, hertz (Hz) and me-
ters (m).
At distances far from the transmitting antenna (usually ten
wavelengths or more), microwaves may be considered as plane
waves whose electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to each
other and both are perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
Moreover, the electric and magnetic field maxima occur at the
same location in space at any given moment, as depicted in Fig-
3
4 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications
Introduction 5
ure 1. In this case, the electric field strength in volts per meter is
far-field case, making the situation extremely complicated. It
related to the magnetic field strength in amperes per meter through
should be noted that various field regions generally do not affect
the constant known as intrinsic impedance, which in free space is
the basic mechanisms by which microwave radiation acts on bio-
approximately 377 ohms. For all other dielectric media, the intrin-
logical systems, although the quantitative aspect of the interaction
sic impedance is always smaller than that of free space. The power
may differ somewhat due to changes in energy absorption.
density (energy per unit time and per unit area) that impinges on
Microwave radiation, like visible light, is reflected, scattered,
a surface area normal to the direction of wave propagation is pro-
refracted, and absorbed by physical and biological materials.
portional to the square of the electric or magnetic field and is ex-
These properties are governed by the electromagnetic properties
pressed in milliwatts per square centimeter (mW / em") or watts
of the media, specifically its dielectric constant and conductivity.
per square meter (W / m"). Most field strength measuring instru-
They~1IlanIe as the frequency of the microwaves changes. In gen-
ments for microwave frequencies are calibrated directly in mW /
~~!~'considering the interaction of microwave radiation with
em",
~;!stemS, it is necessary to account for the frequency or
At distances less than ten wavelengths from the transmitting an-
tenna (the near-field), the maxima and minima of electric and
wiWWiIfh of the radiation and its relationship to the physical
dihiebsionsof the-biological system.
magnetic fields do not occur at the same location along the direc-
'When microwave radiation impinges on a planar tissue structure,
tion of propagation. That is, the electric and magnetic fields are
over 90 percent of the incident energy is reflected at the surface (see
out of time phase. The ratio of electric and magnetic field Chapter S). The transmitted fraction is attenuated exponentially
strengths is no longer constant; it varies from point to point. The as it penetrates into the tissue according to the formula
direction of propagation is also not as uniquely defined as in the
I = 1 0 e- 2a.z (1.2 )
y
where 10 is the transmitted power at the surface and I is the trans-
mitted power at a depth z. The depth of penetration, 1/ a, is de-
A fined as the depth at which I has been reduced to 14 percent of 10 ;
MAGNETIC FI~ it is a function of the tissue and microwave frequency involved and
is a measure of the lossy character of the medium.
I
In addition to frequency, the amplitude of microwave radiation
I
may also be altered in a definite pattern corresponding to the re-
I
quirements of a given application. However, for more efficient in-
I
formation transmission via a microwave communication system,
I
it is often necessary to use pulse modulation in which the ampli-
tude, width, or position of a set of pulses that modulate a sine-
wave carrier (cw microwave) is altered in accordance with the in-
<, formation to be transmitted. In the case of continuous-wave (cw)
PROPAGATION Z operation, a sine wave with constant amplitude is transmitted from
DIRECTION
Figure I. A plane wave of microwave radiation. The directions of electric the instant the power is switched on until it is switched off.
and magnetic fields are everywhere perpendicular and both are perpendicu- One of the more familiar applications of cw microwave energy
lar to the direction of propagation, is the microwave oven that can cook a hamburger in just a few
6 Microwave AuditoryEffects and Applications Introduction 7
seconds. A classical example of the applications of pulse-modulat- The preceding discussion has intentionally been kept brief and
ed microwave radiation is radar capable of detecting and locating is included only to facilitate the understanding of later material.
a target many kilometers away. Today, radar exists in many varied The reader who wishes to obtain a more detailed knowledge of the
forms, such as missile-guidance radar, weather-detecting radar, physical aspects of microwave radiation is referred to many readi-
air-traffic-control radar, etc. Even though such uses of microwave ly available texts on the subject (for example, see Collins, 1966).
energy are of great importance, the applications of microwaves ex-
~~!,, i~ tend much farther into a variety of areas of everyday use and into
A COMPARISON OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
Electromagnetic radiation is generally classified either by fre-
basic and applied research in medicine, chemistry, and agriculture.
lilili
I!I
In this book we are concerned mainly with pulse-modulated mi- quency or by wavelength. The energy carried by' electromagnetic
'I~ .Ii
/II crowave radiation. Figure 2 shows the waveform of rectangular radiation may be expressed in terms of the energy required to
IHi
pulses of microwave energy with a pulse width of to and a period eject or promote electrons from materials exposed to electromag-
Ilili
of T. The pulse repetition frequency or rate is given by 1IT. It netic radiation. Each ejected or promoted electron receives a defi-
t
I~,
t:'
r: is customary to characterize a microwave pulse by its duty cycle, nite amount of energy that is characteristic of the frequency of the
,h ,
which is defined as the ratio of pulse width to the period, i.e. to/T. impinging radiation. Electromagnetic energy can therefore be
,III
I~ I!
A duty cycle of 1.0 corresponds, therefore, to cw operation. In thought of as being divided into bundles or photons. The energy,
Ha
11'1' subsequent discussions of microwave-induced auditory effects, the E, of a photon is related.tothe frequency by
H>I
hll
11
!l
'1 pulse width involved is generally in. the microsecond range, and e: = hf (1.3)
lli the pulse repetition rate is around 1 Hz. The average power, P,
I,ll" (averaged over a period), is given by the product of the peak
where h is the Planck's constant, 6.625 x 10- 34 joule-sec, and f is
the frequency of the radiation in hertz. Therefore, the higher the
power, Pm, and the duty cycle. For short pulses with low pulse
frequency, the higher the energy per photon. The frequency and
repetition frequency, the average power can therefore be very low,
maximal energy for all radiations from radio-frequency waves to
even though the peak power may be in the kilowatt (kW) region.
gamma rays are shown in Table I.
Gamma rays and X-rays have a great deal of energy and are
POWER
TABLE I
ENERGIES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATIONS
-t
0::
400 W fects of high power electromagnetic radiation, the reader is re-
~ 300~o ferred to the books by Presman (1970) and Marha et al. (1971).
By 1966, substantial research in this area had been conducted,
~ ~
~ and it was generally believed that adequate understanding and
a:
200
200~m practical control through safety standards had been achieved. In
~
ex October, 1968, the United States Congress adopted the "Radiation
o o 100 ~ Control for Health and Safety Act of 1968" (PL90-602), to pro-
100 ~
tect the public from unnecessary exposure to potentially harmful
o' , . 0 radiation, including microwaves emitted by electronic products.
o 20 40 60 80 100 This act and the Soviet and Eastern European countries' more
EXPOSURE TIME (MINUTES) conservative exposure standards for long-term irradiation (see Ta-
Figure 3. Cataractogenic thresholds for rabbits exposed to near zone 2450 ble II) have posed new questions on the adequacy of both our
MHz continuous-wave radiation. Note that the time and power thresholds
current knowledge of its biological effects and the protection af-
reported by Williams nearly doubled those reported by Carpenter, while
Carpenter's data practically coincided with that obtained by Kramar (U of forded the general public from its harmful effects.
W). (From Kramer et al.: The ocular effects of microwaves on hypothermic The last few years have seen a resurgence of research interest
rabbits. Courtesy of Ann NY Acad Sci, 247:155-156,1975.)
TABLE II
radiation virtually ceased, with only sporadic activity in the United SELECTED SAFETY STANDARDS FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE
States. Lehmann and Guy (Lehmann et aI., 1962; Guy and Leh- Country Frequency Standard Remark
mann, 1966) experimentally verified Schwan's earlier theoretical
prediction that microwave radiation at 900 MHz or lower would USA (ANSI, 1974) 10 MHz to 100 10 mW /crn" 0.1 hr or longer
GHz 1 mWHr/em2 any 0.1 hr
be better for therapeutic purposes than 2450 MHz because of its Canada (1966) 10 MHz to 100 10 mW/ern~ 0.1 hr or longer
more desirable (deeper) heating patterns inside the tissue. Frey GHz 1 mWHr/em~ any 0.1 hr
USSR (1965) 300 MHz or above 1 mW/em~ 15 min/day
( 1961, 1962) reported that pulsed microwave radiation elicited
0.1 mW/em2 2 hr/day
an auditory response in humans and animals. The effect occurred 0.01 mW/em2 6 hr/day
Poland (1961) 300 MHz or above 1 mW/em:! 15 min/day
at average power densities as low as 100 JLW/ ern" and was de-
0.1 mW/em:! 2 hr/day
scribed as a buzzing, ticking, or knocking sound within or imme- 0.01 rnW/em:! 6 hr/day
diately behind the head. The important parameters were reported Czechoslovakia (1965) 300 MHz or above 0.025 mW /crrr' 8 hr/day, ew
0.01 mW/em:! 8 hr /day, pulsed
to be peak power density, carrier frequency, and modulation. The
16 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications Introduction 17
(Lin, 1975) in achieving 'a quantitative understanding of the rela- Hollmann, H. E.: Oas problem der behandlung biologishcher kroper in
tionships between the biological effects of microwave radiation Ultrakurze-wellen-strahlangefeld. In Ultrakurze-wellen in Ihen Medizin-
and the physical variables that cause them. Because it is known ische-biologischen Anwendungen. Leipzig, Germany, Thieme, 1938, pp.
that microwave radiation at sufficiently high power levels can pro- 232-249.
duce heating and associated adverse effects, the emphasis of cur- Imig, C. J., Thomson, J. P., and Hines, H. M.: Testicular degeneration as
a result of microwave irradiation. Proc Soc Exp Bioi Med, 69:382-386,
rent research is on investigating both the effects of exposures at 1948.
relatively low power densities and the mechanism underlying Kramar, P.O., Emery, A. F., Guy, A. W., and Lin, J. C.: The ocular effects
these effects. The following chapters will present an introduction of microwaves on hypothermic rabbits: A study of microwave catarac-
to the information which has been gathered in the area of audi- togenic mechanisms. Ann NY Acad Sci, 247:155-165, 1975.
tory effects induced by pulse-modulated microwave radiation- Krusen, F. H., Herrick, J. F., Leden, D., and Wakim, K. G.: Microkymato-
therapy: Preliminary report of experimental studies. of the heating ef-
one of the most significant and most widely accepted low-level
fect of microwave (radar) in living tissues. Proc Staff Meeting, Mayo
effects of microwave radiation on biological systems. Clin, 22:201-224, 1947.
Krusen, F. H.: Address of Welcome, Symp. on Physiologic and Pathologic
REFERENCES Effects of Microwaves. IRE Trans Med Elec, 4:3-4, 1956.
Carpenter, R. L. and Van Ummerson, C. A.: The action of microwave pow- Lehmann, J. F., Guy, A. W., Johnson, V. C., Brunner, G. D., and Bell,
er on the eye. J Microwave Power, 3:3-19, 1968. J. W.: Comparison of relative heating patterns produced in tissues by
Clarke, W. B.: Microwave diathermy in ophthalmology: clinical evaluation. exposure to microwave energy at frequencies of 2450 and 900 mega-
Trans Am Acad Ophthalmol Otolaryngol, 56:200, ]952. cycles. Arch Phys Med, 43:69-76, 1962.
Collins, R. E.: Foundations for Microwave Engineering. New York, Me- Licht, S.: History of therapeutic heat. In Licht, S. (Ed.): Therapeutic Heat
Graw, 1966. and Cold. New Haven, Conn, Licht, 1965, pp. 196-2.31.
Daily, L. E.: A clinical study of the results of exposure of laboratory person- Lidman, B. I. and Cohn, C.: Effects of radar emanations on the hematopo-
nel to radar and high frequency radio. US Nav Med Bull, 41:1052- ietic system. Air Surg Bull, 2:448-449, 1945.
1056,1943. Lin, J. C.: Biomedical Effects of Microwave Radiation-a review. Proc Natl
Daily, L., Wakim, K. G., Herrick, J. F., and Parkhill, E. M.: Effects of mi- Electronics Con], 30:224-232, 1975.
crowave diathermy on the eye. Am J Ophthalmol, 33:1241-]254, 1948. Marha, K., Musil, J., and Tuha, H.: Electromagnetic Fields and the Life)
Dodge, C. H.: Biological and medical aspects of microwaves. Foreign Sci- Environment. San Francisco, San Francisco Pr, 1971.
ence Bull, 1:7-19, 1965. Metalsky, I.: Nonionizing radiations. In Cralley, L. V. and Clayton, G. D.
Dodge, C. H.: Clinical and hygienic aspects of exposure to electromagnetic (Eds.): Industrial Hy giene Highlights, Vol. I. Pittsburgh, Industrial Hy-
fields. In Cleary, S. I. (Ed.): Bioi Effects and Health Implications of giene Foundation, ] 968, 140-179.
Microwave Radiation, Symp. Proc. USDHEW, Dept. BRH/OBE, 70- Michaelson, S. M.: The Tri-service program-a tribute to George M. Knauf,
2, ]970, pp. 140-149. USAF (MC). IEEE Trans Microwave Theory Tech, Special Issue on
Frey, A. H.: Auditory system response to radio frequency energy. Aerospace Bioi Effects of Microwaves, 19:131-146,1971.
Med. 32:1140-1142,1961. Michaelson, S. M.: Human exposure to nonionizing radiant energy-poten-
Frey, A. H.: Human auditory system response to modulated electromagnetic tial hazards and safety standards. Proc IEEE, 60:389-421, 1972.
energy. J Appl Physiol, 17:689-692, ]962. Mirault, M.: Les Micro-ondes en electrotherpic. Praxis, 39:927, 1950.
Moor, F. B.: Microwave diathermy. In Licht, S. (Ed.): Therapeutic Heat
Guy, A. W. and Lehmann, J. F.: On the determination of an optimum mi-
p ~nd Cold. New Haven, Conn, Licht, 1965, pp. 310-320.
crowave diathermy frequency for direct contact appl icator. IEEE Trans
attlshall, E. G. (Ed.): Proc Tri-service Conf Bioi Hazards of Microwave
Biomed Eng, 13:76-87, 1966.
p ~adiation, Wash, DC, George Wash U, 1957, ASTIA Doc. AD 11 5603.
Hemingway, A. and Stenstem, K. W.: Physical characteristics of short wave
attlshall, E. G. and Banghart, F. W. (Eds.): Proc 2nd Annual Tri-service
diathermy. In Handbook of Physical Therapy. Chicago, American Med
Con] Biol Effects of Microwave Energy. Charlottesville, U of Virginia,
Assoc Press, ] 939, pp. 2] 4-229. ]958, ASTIA Doc. AD 131 477.
18 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications
Chapter 2
Peyton, M. F. (Ed.): Biological Effects of Microwave Radiation. New York,
Plenum Pr, 1961.
Presman, A. S.: Electromagnetic Fields and Life. New York, Plenum Pr, The Auditory System
1970.
Rae, J. W., Martin, G. M., Treanor, W. J., and Krusen, F. H.: Clinical ex-
HE AUDITORY SYSTEM receives information from the sound
perience with microwave diathermy. Proc Staff Meeting, Mayo Clinic,
24:441,1950.
Richardson, A. W., Duane, T. D., and Hines, H. M.: Experimental lenticu-
T pressure waves in its surroundin.gs and transmits this infor-
mation to the central nervous system for processing and recogni-
lar opacities produced by microwave irradiation. Arch Phys Med, 29: tion. It is convenient to divide the auditory system into two com-
765-769, 1948. ponents according to their anatomic and functional characteristics.
Schwan, H. P. and Li, K.: Hazards due to total body irradiation by radar.
The peripheral portion. consists of the external ear, the middle ear,
Proc IRE, 44:1572-1581, 1956.
Southworth, G. C.: New experimental methods applicable to ultra short and the cochlea of the inner ear. The central portion is made up
waves. J Appl Phys, 8:660,1937. of the auditory nerve and pathways to various central neural struc-
Susskind, C. (Ed.): Proc 3rd Annual Tri-service Conf Bioi Hazards of Mi- tures.
crowave Radiating Equipment, Berkeley, U Calif, 1959. EXTERNAL AND MIDDLE EARS
Williams, D. B., Monahan, J. P., Nicholson, W. J., and Aldrich, J. S.: Bio-
The external ear consists of the auricle or pinna, the external
logic effects studies on microwave radiation: time and power thresholds
for production of lens opacities by 12.3 cm microwaves. IRE Trans Med auditory meatus or canal, and the tympanic membrane or eardrum
Electron, 4:17-22, 1956. (Fig. 4). The function of the auricle is to direct sound waves into
Williams, N. H.: Production and absorption of electromagnetic waves from the external auditory meatus; however, it is relatively ineffective
3-cm to 6-mm in length. J Appl Phys, 8:655,1937.
Wise, C..L., Castleman, B., and Watkins, A. L.: Effect of diathermy (short FOOTPLATE OF STAPES
wave and microwave) on bone growth in albino rat. J Bone Surg, 31A:
IN OVAL WINDOW
487-500, 1949.
AUDITORY NERVE
TYMPANIC
MEMBRANE
(EAR DRUt~)
AUDITORY TUBE
Figure 4. Anatomic features of the ear.
19
The Auditory System 21
20 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications
in man. The external auditory meatus is about 2.5 cm in length The obliquely positioned tympanic membrane completely sep-
(Wever and Lawrence, 1954) and 7.5 mm in diameter (Shaw, arates the external ear from the middle' ear. or tympanic cavity.
1974). Sound waves entering the external meatus are amplified The tympanic membrane is shaped like a shallow' cone with its
by it much the same way as a tubal resonator, so that the sound apex directed inward and somewhat below the ~enter. Its ~natomic
pressure at the tympanic membrane is higher than the pressure at area is about 65 mm" (Moller, 1974). The entire tympanic mem-
the entrance of the auditory meatus. A frequency response curve brane vibrates in response to the impinging sound waves. The
for the auditory meatus may be obtained by plotting the pressure mode of vibration depends upon the sound frequency. At the
difference between the tympanic membrane position and the cen- threshold of hearing in man, the membrane displacement ranges
ter of the entrance of the auditory meatus against the sound fre- from 10- 5 em for low frequencies to 10- 9 em at 3 kHz. (Bekesy,
quency. An average frequency response curve in sound pressure 1957) .
level is shown in. Figure 5. This curve is based on measurements The middle ear is an air-filled cavity in the temporal bone. It
by Wiener and Ross (1946) 'up to 8 kHz and by Djupesland and is separated from the external ear by the tympanic membrane and
Zwislocki (1972) up to 10kHz. The extrapolation to 12 kHz was from the inner ear by the oval and round windows. The middle ear
inferred from measurements on a human ear replica and a model is connected with the nasopharynx by the eustachian tube or audi-
ear (Shaw, 1974). The maximum increase in sound pressure oc- tory tube. The tube is normally closed, but it opens during chew-
curs first near 4 kHz, falls off on both sides of this resonant fre- ing, swallowing, and yawning, keeping the air pressure within the
quency, and peaks again near 12 kHz. The peaks are broad and middle ear equalized with the atmospheric pressure. The passage
round, indicating that the walls of the auditory meatus and the between the middle ear and the nasal pharynx is a natural pathway
tympanic membrane are not rigid. The sound energy impinging for the spreading of infections of nose and throat to the middle
on the tympanic membrane is partially reflected back into the air. ear. Stich infections may impair hearing temporarily or per-
Some of the incoming sound energy is also lost to the walls of the manently unless properly cared for.
external auditory meatus. The three small auditory ossicles-the malleus, incus, and
stapes-are housed in the middle ear. The handle of the malleus
12.5 - is directed downward and attached to the upper part of the tym-
~
t:Q 10 -
)1
~
, panic membrane. The head of the malleus is attached to the incus
which in turn is connected by its long process to the stapes. The
>Q
u....."
Z
UJUJ
::>en
7.5
j
r ,
~
,I: footplate of the stapes rests in the oval window. The malleus and
the incus vibrate as a 'unit; movement of the tympanic membrane
az 5
I-
~ J
UJO
0:::0..
u..en
2.5
~I
V \ I_ therefore causes the stapes also to move back and forth against the
oval window. Two small muscles, the tensor tympani and the
UJ
0:::
~~ ~
~ .....
'""'-.".,1 -.. ~tapedius, are also located in the middle ear. The tensor tympani
a IS attached to the handle of the malleus, and the stapedius is con-
a.2 a.3 a.5 O. 7 1 .0 2.0 3 4 5 7 1a 1 nected to the neck of the stapes. When the tensor tympani con-
FREQUENCY (KHZ) tracts, it moves the malleus inward and increases the tension on
Figure 5. Frequency response showing the ratio of the sound pressure level the. tympanic membrane. The stapedius pulls the stapes outward
at the tympanic membrane to the entrance of external auditory meatus. upon contraction. Contraction of either or both muscles will there-
(Adapted from Shaw: The external ear. In Keidel and Neff [Eds.]: Hand-
fore increase the stiffness of the middle ear mechanism and there-
book 0/ Sensory Physiology, Vol. 5(1). 1974. Springer-Verlag, New York.)
22 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications The Auditory System 23
by decreases the low frequency energy transmission. These reflex through the middle ear in different ways for different frequencies.
muscle contractions are initiated only by relatively loud sounds The elastic property predominates at high frequencies, and the
and perform a limited protective function against them. mass prevails at lower frequencies. Moreover, the mode of vibra-
The most important function of the middle ear is to transform tions of the tympanic membrane is also frequency-dependent. Fig-
the sound pressure from a gas to a liquid medium without sig- ure 6 is a plot of the frequency response of the middle ear of the
nificant loss of energy. It can be easily shown that, at an air-water cat as determined by measuring the stapedial displacement in re-
interface, only 0.1 percent of the sound energy is transmitted into sponse to sound pressures at the tympanic membrane (Guinan
water, the other 99.9 percent is reflected back to the air. The mid- and Peake, 1967). It is seen that the ear is most sensitive in the
dle ear has two arrangements that practically eliminate this po- region of 1 kHz for the cat. It is important to note that the middle
tential loss. The area of the tympanic membrane is approximately ears of man and cat are not the same, although they are qualita-
65 mm" and the stapedial footplate has an anatomic area of about tively similar in their functions.
3.2 mm". Since the mode of vibrations of the tympanic membrane
is not simple, the ratio of the effective areas is around 14 to 1. In THE INNER EAR
addition, the pressure exerted on the stapes is amplified by the The inner ear or labyrinth consists of an osseous or bony
lever action of the ossicles by a factor of 1.3 to 1 (Wever and labyrinth and a membranous labyrinth. The bony labyrinth is a
Lawrence, 1954). Thus, there is a total gain factor of 18 between series of canals and chambers in the petrous portion of the
the pressure at the tympanic membrane and at the oval window. temporal bone. The membranous labyrinth lies within the bony
The frequency response of the middle ear is not flat over the labyrinth and is surrounded by the perilymph, Its inside is filled
audible frequency range. The mass of the middle ear ossicles and with endolymph. The labyrinth is divided into three parts: the
the elasticity of the muscles influence the transmission of sound vestibule, the semicircular canals, and the cochlea. The semicircu-
lar canals contain part of the sensory organ for balance. The
7 en
2:
vestibule is a chamber separated from the tympanic cavity by a
a:
3 5 e:Q thin partition of bone in which is found the oval window.
0
UJ
a: 2 0 The cochlea is shaped like a snail shell which spirals for about
~
en
en
3 N
ro-
UJ
a: 2 .... two and three-quarter turns. The base of the cochlea is broad and
a- 1 c( -
en
.... UJ z tapers as it spirals to a narrow apex. The cochlea is divided by the
7 0 0
i 1x10- ~ ~ basilar and Reissner's membranes into three chambers or scalae
~ _ 0.5 ...J 2:
a: UJ a--
UJ
a-
z 7 2: (Fig. 7). The upper scala vestibuli ends at the oval window. The
~ 0.3 c(
....
zC"')"- 5 ~
c(
lower scala tympani ends at the round window which is closed by
UJ
2: ~ 0.2 UJ
UJ
u - 3 a-
I the secondary tympanic membrane. Both of these chambers are
c(
...J
....0I filled with perilymph and they are separated by the scala media
a-
en 0.1 2 ~
c(
0 UJ
a- except at the apex of the cochlea where they are continuous. The
0.05 1x10-6 scala media contains endolymph and is continuous with the mem-
30 100 1000 10~OOO
branous labyrinth. It is separated from the scala vestibuli by the
FREQUENCY (HZ)
Reissner's membrane and is cut off from the scala tympani by the
Figure 6. Amplitude of stapedial vibration in cats. (Adapted from Guinan
and Peake: Middle ear characteristics of anesthetized cats. J Acous Soc Am, basilar membrane. The essential organ of hearing, the organ of
50:1237-1261, ]967.) Corti, is located in the scala media.
24 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications The A uditory System 25
lng the spiral ganglia form the auditory portion of the eighth
cranial nerve which enters the dorsal and ventral cochlear nuclei
bone of the medulla oblongata.
by a thin but elastic tectorial membrane which makes contact wi Figure 8. The auditory ossicles and the way their movement translates
the cilia of the hair cells. The fibers of the cochlear branch of t movements of the tympanic membrane into a wave in the cochlear fluid.
auditory nerve arborize around the hair cells. The cell bodies (From Ganong: Review of Medical Physiology, 6th ed., 1973. Courtesy of
Lange, Los Altos.)
these afferent neurons make up the spiral ganglia. The axons lea
28 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications
The Auditory System 29
Electrical Activity of the Cochlea Some examples of cochlear microphonics recorded from three
There are several characteristic electrical potentials in sites along the cochlea of a guinea pig are shown in Figure 11. In
cochlea. The endocochlear potential (EP) is a DC potential exist Figure 11, the waveforms illustrated in A and B are typical for
ing between the endolymph and the perilymph. At rest, this p acoustic transients, and those shown in C and D are typical for
tential difference is about +80 mV relative to the perilymph. Th acoustic tones. The cochlear microphonic responses to acoustic
intracellular potential of the large cells in the organ of Corti, in~ tones correspond closely to the waveform of applied sound energy.
eluding the. hair cells, is some 70 mV negative to the perilymp The microphonic shows increasing latency with distance from the
The potential difference between the hair cells and the endolymp. oval window, consistent with the traveling waves described by
is therefore 150 mV. This potential is highly dependent on th Bekesy. The responses to bursts of tone at low frequencies are the
oxygen supply. Bekesy (1952) suggested that this DC potential] largest at the apical tum but spread out over the entire cochlear
in the presence of a boundary membrane that could vary i duct. The cochlear microphonic generated is maximum in the
electrical resistance as a function of mechanical stress, might basal turn when a burst of high frequency tone is used. Moreover,
the source of cochlear phonics and microphonics. Building on the it is distorted and shows a strong asymmetrical nonlinearity in the
suggestion, Davis (1953, 1957, 1961, 1965) has extensive!' second turn.
studied the mechanism of cochlear microphonic generation ani The peak-to-peak potentials for the cochlear microphonic re-
postulated that the 150 mV DC potential could be modulated b
resistance changes at the reticular laminar to produce cochle A B
microphonic oscillations with amplitude up to 3-10 mY. This r
sistance production mechanism has gained the widest acceptanc 1& . . , J~v ~ _ lJ~v
(Dallos, 1973; Horubia and Ward, 1970), and most experiment
observations are consistent with this hypothesis.
The cochlear microphonic is a potential that faithfully dupli-
cates the waveform of the applied sound stimulus. It may be rei
~ 1 MSEC ~ 1 MSEC
corded from within or near the cochlea and a popular recordin
--II::
C D
site is the round window. The cochlear microphonic appears wit
out threshold and has negligible latency (Wever, 1966). It i I~: [-."-"-"II-A_-
__.-__
stable over long periods of time (Simmons and Beatty, 1962). I
increases linearly with an increase in the pressure of the appli
sound wave 'until the potential reaches 1 mY, and it then decreas
with further increase in sound pressure (Wever and Lawrence
'-----4 2 MSEC ~ 1 MSEC
1954 ). It is highly resistant to such changes in the physiologi
state of the test animal as cold, fatigue, and drug administration Figure 11. Cochlear microphonics recorded from the first (top), second
At death, the cochlear microphonic drops to a low level, but it per- (middle), and third (bottom) turns of the guinea pig cochlea in response
sists at this level for up to thirty minutes or longer (Bekesys to !our different acoustic stimuli. A. Wide band click. B. 650 Hz click. C.
1960). Its existence, however, appears to depend upon the pre: S~ Hz pip. D. 4000 Hz burst. (Adapted from Eldredge: Inner ear. In
KeIdel and Neff [Eds.]: Handbook of Sensory Physiology, Vol 5(1). 1974.
ence of normal hair cells (Butler et aI., 1962). Springer-Verlag, New York.)
30 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications The Auditory System 31
sponses to tones are shown in Figure 12 as a function of frequen quency. At higher pressures, the cochlear microphonic response
using the applied sound pressure level at the tympanic membra becomes nonlinear and the deviations from linearity increase as
as a parameter (Engebretson, 1970). (Sound pressure level is a function of both frequency and sound pressure (Eldredge,
scribed later in this chapter.) The solid curves are measuremen 1974). Cochlear microphonics up to 100 kHz have been recorded
made with the auditory bulla (tympanic bone) opened. The from bats, cats, rats, and guinea pigs (Vernon and Meikle, 1974).
creased stiffness due to the compliance of the small volume of There are two additional cochlear potentials generated when
enclosed behind the tympanic membrane would change the slo sound impinges on the ear (Davis, 1958). Moderate to strong
of each curve by the difference between the solid curve and sound pressure decreases the potential difference between the scala
broken curve shown for the 30 db case. It is interesting to n media and the scala vestibuli, and this decrease is maintained as
that the cochlear microphonic response is almost frequency in, long as the applied sound pressure persists. Similar to the cochlear
pendent. The cochlear microphonic potential increases linearly microphonic, this negative summating potential shows no thresh-
a function of applied sound pressure up to 80 db at any given f: old and negligible latency. Unlike the microphonic, its amplitude
continues to increase with increasing sound pressure. It is general-
CM FREQUENCY RESPONSE ly more resistant to drugs and anoxia and depends on the integrity
of the inner hair cells. Under certain circumstances (namely, in
sol I 'I I 111:~ I~B SP~ I i i I 1111 J10,000 fresh animal preparations and low sound pressures) the direction
of change of the potential in the scala media is positive with re-
~90 ~
spect to the scala tympani: It is then called the positive summat-
D.. 60 DB il000 ing potential. The summating potential recorded in the basal turn
cL ~80DB ~ when low frequency sound is used is usually small and positive.
~ 40 ~70 DB ~ -1100
ACTION POTENTIALS OF THE AUDITORY NERVE
~ ~DB ~
~ 20 ~O DB ----...... 110 The manner by which movement of the basilar membrane con-
~
~O
l')
DB '"
V
Il verts sound energy into nerve impulses is not completely known.
z
- 0 DB ,,/
~r -------.......
It is believed that the cochlear potentials elicit action potentials
~ 0 BULLA .,.,.. . " 11 in the nerve fibers that arborize around the hair cells, and that
OPEN,,"" BULLA from these nerve fibers the action potential passes through the
,,~ CLOSED
-20J-.. . " ............... ' -t 0.1 aUditory nerve into the brain. The action potential of the auditory
nerve as a whole can best be recorded following stimulation by an
acoustic click. It consists of two distinct components, N 1 and N 2 ,
each about one millisecond in duration (Fig. 13). The latency of
0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10 the action potential relative to cochlear microphonic is a function
FREQUENCY IN KHz
of SOund pressure amplitude, of the rate of rise of sound pressure,
and of the frequency (Pestalozza and Davis, 1956). The mini-
Figure 12. Peak-to-peak cochlear microphonic potential near the round
dow as a function of frequency in guinea pig. (Adapted from Engebre ~um latency for N 1 is about 0.55 milliseconds and the maximum
A Study of the Linear and Nonlinear Characteristics of Microphonic Yo, ~ about 2.3 milliseconds (Davis et al., 1950). The amplitudes of
age in the Cochlea. Sc.D. dissertation, Washington U, St. Louis, 1970.) , 1 and N 2 are nonlinear functions of sound pressure (Rosen-
32 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications The Auditory System 33
11 k[
100
the loudness difference appears most significant. The auditory K
gests that when a complex sound with a broad spectrum impi 2.0
on the head it is diffracted by the head and the auricles.
auricles selectively increase the high frequency sound inte
For each direction, characteristic changes are superimposed on o~ill'- 0.25 0.5 1 2
FREQUENCY (KHz)
incident sound wave which are recognized and utilized to d
mine the location of the sound source. Figure 16. Plane wave sound localization in the median plane by sound
spectrum. Sound waves with frequencies predominantly around 1 kHz and
This hypothesis is supported by the observation that if no 0'. above 8 kHz are localized behind the listener (back). Sound waves below
~
directional cues are present, irrespective of the actual directs 500 Hz and 3 kHz produce front localization. Sound waves containing most-
sound waves with energy predominantly around 1 kHz are }, ly 8 kHz energy appear to originate from overhead. (Adapted from Schroe-
ized behind the listener. Frequencies below 500 Hz and ar der: Models of hearing. Proc IEEE, 63:1332-1350, 1975.)
3 kHz appear in front of the subject. Sound waves with mosf
their energy centered around 8 kHz are localized overhead ( external location with earphone listening and consequently asso-
Fig. 16). ciates the sound sources with inside the head, which is the only al-
The experience of hearing sound as originating from within ternative location. Recent demonstrations, in which earphone lis-
head when listening over earphones has previously been explai teners externalized the sound sources when the standing waves are
on the basis of the adaptive nature of sound coming through effectively removed from the external auditory meatus and the ef-
earphones, because earphones follow head motions. Further, fects of head diffraction in a free-field are accounted for, lend con-
earphone sound waves arrive at the two tympanic membran siderable credence to the spectral theory.
approximately the same instant of time. The phenomenon has
been attributed to the difference in spectral characteristics bet DEAFNESS
earphone listening and free-field listening (Schroeder, 19 Deafness, including partial hearing loss, is classified into two
With earphones, standing waves are created in the auditory me . major categories: conduction deafness and nerve deafness. Any
between the tympanic membrane and the membrane of the condition which interferes with the transmission of sound through
phone. These standing waves have time-varying spectra which the external and middle ears to the cochlea is classified as a con-
different from those caused by diffraction at the subject's he ductive hearing loss. Common causes are wax or foreign body in
a free-field listening situation. Thus, the subject can associate the external auditory meatus, repeated blockage of the auditory
40 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications The Auditory System 41
tube, destruction of middle ear ossicles, thickening of the tymp fIICC differs from the above threshold value by 15 to 20 db. This
membrane as a result of infection, and abnormal rigidity of th ~ause the audiometric reference is the average of normal hear-
tachments of the stapes. Nerve deafness means failure of the
tory nerve impulses to reach the cerebral cortex because of
=.. for different p~r.e tones an~ the measurements were made in
lesS than ideal condItIOns (see FIg. 15).
age to the cochlea itself or to the central neural pathways for An audiogram is a plot of a subject's auditory threshold for
tory signals. Causes of nerve deafness include chemotoxic d various frequencies relative to normal hearing. It provides an ob-
eration of the auditory nerve produced by streptomysin, tu jective measurement of the degree of deafness and an assessment
of the auditory nerve, and damage of the hair cells induced by of the total frequency range affected. Figure 17 shows the audio-
posure to excessive noise. Neural hearing loss has also bee~
tributed to viruses such as mumps, as well as to old age. AI
sram of a subject with normal hearing. Figure 18 displays the
audiogram of a subject who has conductive hearing loss. Approxi-
all older people develop some degree of neural hearing loss mately 50 db of extra sound intensity had to be used in order for
cially for very high frequency sound,
the subject to hear the sound at 4000 Hz through air conduction.
AUDIOMETRY However, the hearing was even better than normal for bone-con-
ducted sound, which means that the cochlea and central auditory
Auditory activity is commonly measured with an audiom
pathways were normal. The conduction of sound through the os-
This device is also used clinically to distinguish conduction
sicular system must therefore have been impaired. If both air and
nerve deafness. It presents the subject with pure tones which
from 250 to 8.000 Hz at octave- or half-octave intervals. The s bone conduction routes showed considerable loss, some degree of
intensity used can vary from zero db to 100 db. nerve deafness would have been indicated.
The decibel (db) scale is a relative measure of the root-
square (RMS) sound pressure. The standard reference s -10
pressure is 0.0002 dyne/ern" in air. This reference was ad o .L
~~
~~
........ ~
by the Acoustic Society of America and it approximates the / --....... """- """'-
tory threshold of the average young adult at 1000 Hz. The so' 20 -II
@
pressure-level (SPL) in db is therefore given by .8
en 40
en
o
SPL(db) = 20 log p/p o ..J
~ 60
where P is the RMS sound pressure, P 0 is the reference s 0=
et
w
pressure, and log is the logarithm to base 10. It is useful to ::E: 80
that because sound intensity is proportional to the square of s
pressure, equation 2.1 may also be written as 100
db - 10 log (S/so) 125 250 500 1000 .2000 4000 BOOO
FREQUENCY (Hz)
where S and So are the measured and reference sound intensi o RIGHT EAR
respectively. D LEFT EAR
The reference sound pressure value used in audiometry, Figure 17. Audiogram of subject with normal hearing.
42 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications The Auditory System 43
Davis, H.: Biophysics and physiology of the inner ear. Physiol Rev, 37:1-
-10 49, 1957.
~~
a ~~~ / '\. Davis, H.: Some principles of sensory receptor action. Physiol Rev, 41:391-
@ 20
~V ~ r '\ 416, 1961.
Davis, H.: A model for transducer action in the cochlea. In Cold Spring
.!3 ~ I Harbor Symp Quant Biol, 30:181-190, 1965.
/
"
CI)
frequency) sound. The sensation occurred instantaneously at aver- (the limit of loudspeaker's frequency response). These two ob-
age incident power densities well below that necessary for known servations suggested that a necessary condition for perceiving the
biological damage and appeared to originate from within or neat microwave-induced sound was the ability to perceive acoustic en-
the back of the head; the orientation of the subject in the micro- ergy above approximately 5 kHz through the bone conduction
wave field was not an important factor. It was found that one per- route.
son with an average air conduction hearing loss of 50 db, but with In the following year, Frey (1962) reported that people with
good bone conduction, could hear the microwave-induced sound a notch in their audiogram around 5 kHz may also fail to perceive
at approximately the same average incident power densities as microwave-induced sound. He has extended his observations down
normal subjects could. On the other hand, another subject with to 425 MHz microwaves. Using a fairly wide range of microwave
clinically normal hearing was unable to perceive pulse-modulated parameters, Frey attempted to establish a threshold relationship
microwave energy. An audiogram taken from this subject is shown for microwave-induced hearing. The results of this experiment are
in Figure 19. It can be seen that although the individual's hearing presented in Figure 20. It can be seen that the peak incident pow-
mechanism for air conduction was fairly normal, he had about a er is a critical factor: With nearly 90 db of ambient acoustic
60 to 80 db bone conduction loss. Furthermore, his hearing was noise, a peak incident power density of approximately 275 mW/
very poor for frequencies above 5 kHz. A second finding was that em" was needed to elicit auditory response at frequencies be-
subjects who were asked to compare the perceived sound with
conventional acoustic energy invariably choose their parallels from 10.0
the higher frequencies and eliminated all frequencies below 5 kHz
".....
N
-10 ~
U
<,
o ~
~~ ~~ >
10 ~
t-
20
'/
":r-, ../l (I)
Z
w
~l 1\
Q
_30 a::
w 1.0
~ \ \ x
0
~ \
: 40 Q.
o
..J t-
z
~ 50 w
\\ Q
,
~ ~ t
~ 60 U
%:
~r \ \\ ~
70
80
~ ~" \ ~
<C
w
Q.
~~
90
100 0.1' , ,
125 250 500 1000 2000 qooo 8000
o RIGHT AIR FREQUENCY (HZ) RIEHT BONE
o 1000 2000 3000
D LEFT AIR 6 LEFT BO~E FREQUENCY (rtlz)
Figure 19. Audiogram of a subject with clinically normal hearing but with Figure 20. Peak incident power density required for auditory perception
substantial bone conduction loss. (Adapted from Frey: Auditory system of pulse-modulated microwaves. (Adapted from Frey: Human auditory sys-
response. Aerospace Med, 32:1140-1142, 1961.) tem response. J Appl Physiol, 17:689-692, 1962.)
48 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications Psychophysical Observations 49
tween 425 MHz and 1310 MHz. The high value for 2982 MHz SHIELDED ROOM
was attributed to the difference in the penetration of microwave
energy into the head at various frequencies. In two subsequent
papers (Frey and Messenger, 1972, 1973), additional data was ~~~~: I- 1 ,
presented which indicated that the perception of microwave-in- MICROWAVE
ABSORBING
duced sound was primarily a function of the peak power density HORN ANTENNA MATERIAL
and secondarily dependent on pulse width. They also reported that
a band of optimal pulse widths seems to exist for the auditory sen-
sation. DIRECTIONAl
COUPLER
Guy et al. (1973, 1975) conducted a similar study for the pur-
pose of more precisely measuring the exposure parameters. Two co-
investigators served as subjects. The microwave energy was de-
Figure 21. Experimental arrangement for measuring the threshold of micro-
rived from an Applied Microwave Laboratory pulse signal source
wave-induced auditory sensation.
(PH 40k). The source was capable of providing up to 10 kW
peak power pulses with the pulse width varying from 0.5 to 32 of the subject to eliminate reflections. The horn antenna, absorb-
usee and was used to feed a 2450 MHz (3~ em x 26 cm) aper- ing material, and test subject were situated in a shielded room
ture horn by means of an RG8 coaxial cable. The incident power completely isolated from the power generating equipment and ex-
to the horn and reflected power were monitored by means of a perimenter in order to eliminate disturbing noises. Cable-con-
Hewlett-Packard 477 bolometer and 430C power meter combina- nectors to the horn and bidirectional couplers were made through
tion connected to a Microlab FXR 30 db bidirectional coupler in- bulkhead connections on the wall of the shielded room. The sub-
serted between the coaxial cable and the horn. The pulse width ject used a light switch to signal the experimenter when an audi-
and pulse repetition frequency were controlled by an external tory sensation was perceived.
pulse generator and monitored on an oscilloscope. Prior to the tests, standard audiograms of the subjects were ta-.
The subject sat with the back of his head directly in front of the ken. The first subject had normal hearing, while a pronounced
horn, 15 to 30 em from the aperture (Fig. 21). Placement of the notch at 3500 Hz was noted for both ears of the second subject.
subject's head in the near zone field of the horn was necessary in Similar results were obtained for both air and bone conduction.
order to obtain the full dynamic range of pulse widths and power The ambient noise level in the exposure chamber was measured
levels necessary for evoking an auditory sensation. The average as 45 db, re 0.0002 dyne-em", with a sound level meter (Gen-
power density at the location of the exposed surface of the sub- eral Radio 1551-A). Each subject was exposed to a range of mi-
ject's head was measured with a Narda 8100 power monitor at crowave pulse widths varying from 1 usee to 32 usee. The pulses
high pulse repetition frequencies and at low peak power levels as were presented as a train of three pulses 100 msec apart every
a function of incident power to the horn with the subject absent. second, to maintain an average power density well below 1 mW/
The values for higher power and lower pulse repetition frequency cm-.
were obtained by linear extrapolation from the monitored incident It was reported that each individual pulse could be heard as a
power to the horn. Microwave. absorbing materials (Emerson & distinct click originating from somewhere within or near the back
Cuming, Inc., Eccosorbv CH490) were placed around the vicinity of the head. Short pulse trains could be heard as chirps with the
50 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications Psychophysical Observations 51
tone corresponding to the pulse repetition frequency. When the with a peak power density in the range of 100 to 300 mW jcm 2
pulse generator was keyed manually, transmitted digital codes and an average incident power density as low as 0.4 mW jcm2
could be accurately interpreted by the subject. The auditory sensa- The pulse width varied from 1 to 100 psec. Although some mea-
tion perceived for two pulses within several hundred microseconds surements were attempted at 8900 MHz, the results were negative
of each other was the same as one pulse with the same total en- at the power densities used (Frey, 1962). The microwave-in-
ergy as the pulse combination. It is significant to note that the duced sound appears as an audible click, buzz, or chirp depend-
energy required for audition by the subject with normal hearing ing on such factors as pulse width and p'ulse repetition frequency
was approximately a third to a quarter of that required for the of the impinging radiation and usually is perceived as originating
subject with sensori-neural conduction impairment. The de- from within and near the back of the head. When the pulses are
termination of incident power and modulation characteristics at delivered manually, transmitted digital codes could be reliably in-
the threshold for auditory sensation in humans will be discussed terpreted by the human.
in the following section. In addition to the above reports, there have been qualitative
Rissmann and Cain (1975) also investigated the microwave- accounts of auditory sensation generated in pulse-modulated mi-
induced auditory sensation in humans. Before the experimental crowave fields (see, for example, Meahl, 1961; Ingalls, 1967; and
session, standard audiograms were obtained for each of the eight Justesen, 1975).
volunteer subjects. Although there were some variations in hearing Threshold Determination
ability, none of the subjects had a pronounced hearing loss greater
than 25 db. Each subject was asked to place his or her head under Since the first report that pulse-modulated microwave radiation
a horn antenna which was driven by a 15 JLsec pulse of 3000 induces an auditory sensation in the human, several investigators
MHz microwave energy. Five subjects reported hearing a click have attempted to assess the thresholds for sensation as a function
which seemed to originate from inside the head. Three subjects of microwave parameters. Frey (1962) had obtained an approxi-
had difficulty in perceiving a microwave-induced sound when the mate threshold for perception in a high ambient noise environment
maximum power output of the microwave source was used with (70-90 db, General Radio Model 1551-13 sound level meter) fOf'
a pulse width of 15 usee, but they had no difficulty in hearing a frequencies between 425 and 1310 MHz. The threshold peak
click when the pulse width was increased to 20 usee. This indi- power density stayed fairly close to 257 mW jcm2 and the aver-
cated that, although the audiograms revealed no significant dif- age power density was 0.4 mW jcm2 Guy et al. (1973, 1975)
ferences in hearing ability among the subjects, they only gave in- found that the threshold of audibility of 2450 MHz microwave-
formation up to a maximum frequency of 8 kHz. It is possible induced sound in humans was about 40 }LJ jcm 2 per pulse. Psy-
that microwave-induced sound in humans contains a significant chophysical tests with four human subjects indicated that the audi-
portion of its energy above 8 kHz (see Chapter 6). Thus it is pos- tory threshold for 1245 MHz microwave pulses was around 80
sible that the three subjects had an inordinate amount of hearing mW jcm2 and was primarily dependent upon peak power density.
loss at higher frequencies. This has in fact been documented re- Thresholds for pulse-modulated 3000 MHz radiation varied from
cently (Cain and Rissmann, in Press) . 225 to 2500 mW jcm 2 of peak power density and 2.3 to 2.0
The results of the above studies confirm the claims made by ILJ/cm2 of energy per pulse (Rissmann and Cain, 1975). The
Frey that humans can hear pulsed microwave radiation. Specifical- following paragraphs will describe in detail some of these efforts
ly, human beings receive an auditory sensation when the head is to establish the threshold of microwave-induced auditory sensa-
exposed to 200 to 3000 MHz pulse-modulated microwave energy tion.
52 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications 100
In the Frey and Messenger (1973) study, four trained subjects
with clinically normal hearing were tested individually in a micro-
wave anechoic chamber. Each subject sat on a wooden stool with
his back to the horn antenna. Microwave energy was derived from (/)
(/)
UJ
a laboratory pulse source (Applied Microwave Laboratory, Model z
Q
~
o
PG5K) which operated at 1245 MHz. A pulse repetition rate of ...J
UJ
50 pulses per second was used. At this rate, a buzzing sound was ::: 10
~
perceived by the subjects. The subject's head was fixed in space :5
UJ
peak power density was varied while holding the average power ~
:::::)
50
0
density constant by changing the pulse width. It can be seen that ..J
1 .................... 40 40 120 o
2 .................... 20 40 120 o 10. 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
4 .................... 10 40 120 PULSE WIDTH (~SEC)
5 ....... 8 40 120
Figure 24. Variation of perceived loudnes~ as a function of pulse width as
""""".".""""""" "
UJ 100
Q
~
z
20
en
Q
UJ
Q
r c==J CONTROL GROUP
en ....J
en
0
0:::
UJ
Z
I ~ EXPERIMENTAL GROUP
U en
u,
z
~
0
0::: ~
UJ
c:Q UJ 50
~ .10
:
z ~
z u,
c( 0
UJ
: ~
z
UJ
U
0:::
UJ
Q..
Z
c(
UJ
:
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
o 15 30 45 60 75
TIME FROM START OF SESSION (MIN.)
TIME FROM START OF SESSION (MIN.)
Figure 27. Means of cumulative number of crossings for rats in a free-
Figure 28. Residence preference of rats tested during pulse-modulated mi-
choice, microwave-induced avoidance conditioning experiment.
crowave exposure.
62 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications Psychophysical Observations 63
tion cues led the investigators to conclude that the rats could per-
. MICROWAVE
ceive pulse-modulated microwave energy. This perception would FEED APPLICATOR
depend on pulse-modulated microwaves possessing some stimul MECHANISM I '\\
properties. Frey and Feld reported that rats seemed to find the
pulsed microwave to be aversive and are motivated to actively ~L1GHT
__ ~ SOURCE
avoid it. Furthermore, they observed comparable weight gain i LOGIC
both the control and experimental group, suggesting that the ani- CIRCUITRY
mals remained in comparable good health throughout the entir PHOTO
experiment. ELECTRIC ABSORBING
RELAY MATERIAL
Additional investigations of microwave-induced auditory sensa STRIP
CHART POLYFOAM RAT HOLDER
tion involved a discriminative control of appetitive behavior b
pulse-modulated microwaves in rats (Johnson .et aI., 1976). Th
Figure 29. Schematic diagram of apparatus for testing head-raising-for-
aim of this investigation was to substitute pulse-modulated micr
food response of rats.
wave for the previously well-discriminated tone cue (acousti
click) . their heads through the opening. The holder with the rat was then
The subjects were six female white rats (Wistar-derived strain) placed in a receiver as shown in Figure 31. The receiver posi-
from 300 to 350 g in weight. The animals were partially deprive tioned the rat in such a way that the rat could move its head in a
of food until their weight fell to 80 percent of that before depriva short vertical arc. The small head movement, allowing its nose to
tion. They were then placed in a body-movement restrainer an, interrupt the light beam, constituted the operant behavior. The in-
trained to perform a head-raising response for food pellets. Durin
daily ninety-minute sessions, individual rats were presented alter
nating five-minute stimulus-on/stimulus-off periods during whic
food was made available as a reward for responding only durin.
stimulus-on periods. The initial stimulus was a 7.5 kHz acousti
click produced by a high frequency speaker driven by a 1 volt
3 JLsec wide rectangular pulse at the rate of 10 pulses per second
The general arrangements for the behavioral test are shown i
Figure 29. The rat holder shown in Fig. 30 was designed to pr l
/,-/r-/r-r/,-/ 30 SEC
Figure 31. Rat in a restrainer placed on a baseplate receiver with head ex- PROOE
tended into operant device. RAT 12
6/ 16/75
terrupted light beam caused a switch to close which led to the de-
livery of food. An external feeder caused a small, 45 mg food pel- CONlROL OF BEHAVIOR BY ~STIC
let to be delivered via a polyethylene tube to a receptacle which AND MICROWAVE CUES
was constructed of the same material as the holder and located di-
fr-/~/
rectly below the rat's head. The rat was able to eat the food-pellet
with only a slight downward movement of its head. Standard re- /r-/J
lays, counters, and recorders were used to program the stimuli and
record the responses. A closed circuit television system was used ACOUSTIC _ t- MICROWAVE
t- -t
CUE CUE
to observe the animal's behavior during each test session. This
system provided a consistent means of investigating behavior RAT 12
adaptable to the special requirements of microwave radiation in 6/18 /75
the exposure chamber (Lin et aI., 1974; Johnson et aI., 1976; Lin Figure 32. Cumulative record showing an animal's performance. Top: In
et aI., 1977). response to thirty-second microwave probe, rat begins to respond as if
After these animals learned to inhibit their responses so that 85 acoustic cue had been presented. Bottom: Rat responds equally well during
to 90 percent of a given session's total responses were made dur- presentation of acoustic and microwave stimulation. (From Johnson et al.:
in.g the appropriate stimulus-on periods, individual animals were Discriminative control. In Johnson and Shore (Eds.): Biological Effects of
Electromagnetic Waves, HEW Publication, 1976.)
then exposed to thirty seconds of pulse-modulated 918 MHz mi-
66 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications Psychophysical Observations 67
COAX
MICROWAVE
PULSE :5
GENERATOR
3 PIEZOELECTRIC
CRYSTAL
COMPUTER
AVERAGE
TRANSIENTS
3
~
5
-~............... ...,--...-
I
~r--~.....,. ~....,... ~. "",-_
~
. ~
~ ,. .." -- Figure 37. Thermograms showing the effect of a metallic coaxial electrode,
similar to those used by Frey, on the microwave absorption pattern in the
,
....,...
brain of a cat irradiated with near zone 918 MHz continuous wave radia-
tion. The bright spots on the C-scans show patterns of microwave absorp-
tion. The C-scan obtained with a high-threshold shows clearly the increased
energy absorption in the region where the tip of the electrode is located.
10 The differences between the curves in the B-scans are proportional to ab-
.......... r--'b ..... ~ ., ~ fA
sorbed energy. The incident power density is 2.5 mW / em- and is directed
along A with the electric field oriented in the plane of the paper. Scale:
11 ~ - ---- 1 div == 2 em. (From Guy et al.: The effect of microwave radiation. Proc
Int Microwave Power Symp, May 1972.)
12
..... ...-" ...... - ........
Figure 36. Averaged brain-stern-evoked response data. Electrode tip was
and Guy et al., 1972). Therefore, by using this electrode, the pos-
sibility of brain tissue stimulation by microwave current directly
in the area of the subthalamic nucleus, 1, 2; reticular formation, 3, 4; in- induced on the electrode cannot be completely ruled out.
ferior olivary nucleus, 5-8; and paramedian reticular nucleus, 9-12. Traces Much stronger evidence for pulse-modulated microwave-evoked
1,3, 5, and 9 were obtained during irradiation with pulsed RF energy a few
electrical activities in the brain stem came from the electrophysio-
minutes after death. Substituting pulsed acoustic energy for RF energy,
traces 7 and 11 were obtained before death and 8 and 12 after death. logical data reported by Guy et al. (1973, 1975) and Taylor and
(From Frey: Biological function as influenced by low-power modulated RF Ashleman ( 1974 ) . Using a glass microelectrode filled with
energy. Courtesy of IEEE Trans Microwave Theory Tech, 19:153-164, Ringer's solution and with a tip diameter of 80 to 100 microm-
1971. ) eters, these investigators recorded compound action potentials
76 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications Neurophysiological Correlations 77
from the medial geniculate body of cats exposed to 918 and 2450 Acoustic clicks were presented to the animal by exciting either
MHz microwave pulses. Because the dielectric properties of Ring- the loudspeaker placed 17 em to the right of the center line of the
er's solution and brain tissues are similar, the glass pipettes filled eat's head for air conduction or the piezoelectric transducer with
with Ringer's solution were essentially transparent to microwaves square pulses 1 to 30 JLsec in duration at 1 pulse per second from
when used for recording bioelectric signals from the depth of the a Hewlett-Packard Model 214A pulse generator. Microwave
brain (Guy et aI., 1972; Johnson and Guy, 1972). pulses 918 or 2450 MHz of the same pulse characteristics were
Cats were anesthetized intravenously with alpha-chloralose (55 provided by horn or aperture antennas located 8 em away from
mg/kg ) in Ringer's solution (20 cc), and 0.2 mg of atropine sul- the occipital pole of the cat and driven by an AML PH 40K sig-
fate was administered intramuscularly after induction of anes- nal source. In the absen.ce of the cat, a Narda 8100 power mon-
thesia. Cats were paralyzed with Flaxedilf (20 mg) and then main- itor was used to measure the average incident power density to the
tained on artificial respiration. The body temperature of the cats location where the eat's head was placed, and the bi-directional
was held constant at 38C by a heating pad connected to a rectal coupler and power meter were used to measure incident power to
temperature control unit. A pair of wooden ear bars was used to the antennas.
hold the cat in a Kopf stereotaxic instrument. In order to mini- Figure 38 presents some typical evoked responses recorded
mize the distortion of the fields around the eat's head, all metal from the medial geniculate body due to acoustic and 2450 MHz
pieces for fixing the inferior orbit and the upper jaw were replaced
by wooden pieces. MEDIAL GENICULATE
Following exposure of the dorsal surface of the skull by conven-
tional methods of skin incision and reflection of the underlying
muscle, a burr hole was made in the parietal bone. Before in-
A B~
sertion of the electrode, each cat was fitted with a piezoelectric
crystal transducer for providing acoustic stimuli by bone conduc-
tion (see previous section). The electrode was directed toward the
medial geniculate body by the standard stereotaxic method (Sni-
der and Niemer, 1961). The electrode and accompanying ground
connection were coupled via high resistance 1000 ohms-ern car-
bon-loaded plastic conductors which are transparent to micro- C D~~,J,....
. waves in air, through a low pass microwave filter, to a high input
impedance physiological signal processing amplifier, oscilloscope,
computer of average transients, and X- Y plotter (see Fig. 34). The
responses evoked by acoustic clicks from a loudspeaker were con-
Figure 38. Evoked responses from medial geniculate body of the cat to
tinuously monitored as the electrode was advanced vertically.
acoustic (A & B) and pulsed microwave stimulation (C & D) before and
Proper placement of the electrode tip was assumed when the after cochlear ablation. A & C recorded before and B & D after bilateral de-
evoked responses displayed the proper latency period. The elec- struction of the cochlea. (From Taylor and Ashleman: Analysis of central
trode placement was verified in some of the animals by histolog- nervous system involvement in the microwave auditory effect. Courtesy of
ical examination of the brains. Brain Research, 74:201-208, 1974.)
78 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications
~~OI04 -
~'R~~NG"SITE
~
II
The late slow wave in the general somatosensory thalamic re- =;:
gion (VPL) was the same for both conventional acoustic click H :~~~:. VPL -+-t+~
rr-
.........
....--.
and pulsed microwave stimulation (Fig. 39). That such pulses ~.-;-r-t
~.ttttt:l++tt+:J:!11::;:J:::~!
....:-.T
",.-r: ~,
+-++- .. -
~
+~-t+
~
"
~_:~
.-
ELECTRIC SHOCK
~. ~~f::::8:~': 'LJ:i::=::,:~
quencies between 8.67 GHz and 9.16 GHz. The required energy ~+1-H-t
n -,.:..... ~ ~d~- .-- ~E'.
+t.'E.~ . -+--0 . . ~-+ - t -t - ....... - -
,:t;:~t:::t+-t+~
" .,. _ _.:..-l ......... _,_._ ..,;..
+-.... :ITl +-f-l- ~-:....._"'.I. __ .4
per pulse to elicit the responses was significantly higher than re- -+- .-!llif#
t-r tr: ff
1-':-
!
+'
t I ' -~ ~
9~+-
- -.-,. ,--;--
-+-.
. . . . . . ..,.--
+:- .~1~""
-.. . . . . . .-
quired for the other frequencies. For this case, the X-band horn MEDIAL -'HttMICROWAVE PULSE
had to be placed within a few centimeters from the exposed brain GENICULATE X BAND 9.19 GHz=
surface of the animal (through the 1.0 em diameter electrode ac-
~~~
cess hole in the skull). No response could be elicited for an animal p- . 2
~+""'1
in which the electrode access port through the skull was limited .. r rr
+-~
to a diameter slightly larger than the electrode. When the skull was H-t-t-t+.... 4~~VPL >4+H+++Hf, MICROWAVE PULSE
bared, there was still no elicited response; when the hole in the +'_-i-
- ~:~ ::::; 1~q
+:X''1H~';;d-d+~-:-=~r=~=r:;~~t
+ BAND 9.19 GHZI
+ +- :
skull was enlarged, however, a response was obtained. ...:G ~ .:
,H+p-
t.1 HM'
;-: 1q:-
tffltIJTI'u<
~"~ :~--;t;:~
.~ .~. !:
+w.. "t, :.!-Lt-1... ;., ., ++" ., i1: '1" :~ ~ 1r =--Fr, 1-" .' t:': -1'"
-
ITffiITIT'
::!: 1'::: .. ::
l ; - i ...J i
l,.
-_..
,i
-
:~~-
t ;
':':~'::l:':::=:
Rissmann and Cain (1975) also reported recordings of evoked ,'. :~ .:L;.nt~~:: I::~ J:::: Ii::: I::;;1 d~:
electrical activities from the inferior colliculus of cats exposed to ~~~~+--+-t+--: :-,'r:-;-:-:-;::. MICROWAV~_BJLSE
10 usee wide 3000 MHz microwave pulses. They also used glass crT'" , , , , , " V P L : :.:S BAND 2450 MHz
F,~- t J T t~~:: :1~ .~ . ,... _.;
microelectrodes filled with Ringer's solution. The experimental
procedures were closely related to those just described. They
foun.d that the evoked potentials in response to acoustic and
. STIMUL~TI9N ~~~Tf:~~T ~:'. ;;~; ~msSJt~+;g~
pulsed microwave stimuli disappeared in these animals following
replacement of the antenna with a dummy load and following
P .:. : .:
i! I
+ ..
r I -- - - . - - .. .... - t - - -
death. Figure 39. Evoked cross-modal brain responses due to acoustic and micro-
Wave stimuli. (From Guy et al.: Microwave induced acoustic effects.
Courtesy of Ann NY A cad Sci, 247:194-218,1975.)
80 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications Neurophysiological Correlations 81
Eighth Cranial Nerve the internal auditory meatus. A dissecting microscope and a mi-
Three cats, from a group of nine cats- weighing from 2.0 to 3.4 cromanipulator were used to insert a Ringer's solution filled 100
JL diameter tip glass microelectrode within the nerve. The expo-
kg used to establish the site of interaction of microwave-induced
auditory sensation (Taylor and Ashleman, 1974; Guy et al. sure apparatus and recording instrumentation were similar to that
1975), were anesthetized with sodium pentobarbital (50 mgykgj] shown in Figure 34. During recording, the auditory nerve and
following premedication with Acepromazinev. The cats were place surrounding tissue were covered with warm mineral oil.
in the head holder described previously. After reflection of th Acoustic-click- and microwave-pulse-evoked signals in the
auricle and removal of the underlying muscles to expose th eighth cranial nerve are shown in Figure 40. Unilateral ablation
temporal bone, a hole was drilled to remove most of the squamou led to total loss of these evoked potentials to both acoustic and mi-
portion and a portion of the parietal bone. Through this opening crowave stimuli. It can be seen that microwave-induced activity
brain tissue was removed to expose the tentorium cerebelli. Usin is very similar to that evoked by a conventional acoustic click
a drill and rongeur, an opening approximately 1.5 em in diamete from a piezoelectric transducer.
was made in the tentorium. The dissection was then continue Cochlear Round Window
with the aid of a B & L dissecting microscope. Cerebellar tissu
was removed to expose the eighth cranial nerve as it emerged fro In another series of experiments (Guy et aI., 1972, 1975) a
high resistance carbon electrode similar to that employed in the
cortical recordings was applied to the round window of the
RECORDINGS FROM AUDITORY NERVE cochlea to record' activity evoked by acoustic clicks an.d micro-
wave pulses.
Before the cats were placed in the stereotaxic instrument, the
lateral and ventral surface of the auditory bulla as exposed by
reflection and removal of the overlying soft tissue. The lateral wall
of the bulla was perforated with a drill and was enlarged with a
small rongeur until the round window of the cochlea could be
clearly visualized. A carbon electrode was cemented to the round
CRYSTAL window and connected to a low pass microwave filter for further
signal processing (Fig. 34). The remaining surgical procedure was
similar to that performed for the medial geniculate experiments,
including the attachment of the piezoelectric transducer.
It can be seen from Figure 41 that both acoustic stimuli and mi-
crowave pulses elicited activity at the round window. The first
trace shows the composite cochlear microphonic and N, and N 2
f aUditory nerve responses elicited by a loudspeaker pulse from an
'STIMULUS ARTI FACT O.2mv ~2ms"
animal. The cochlear microphonic was quite strong in amplitude.
! When the auditory system of the same animal was stimulated by
Figure 40. Auditory nerve responses of cat irradiated with acoustic and rni microwave pulses, a microwave artifact pulse and clear N, and N 2
crowave pulses. aUditory nerve responses were elicited, but there was no evidence
82 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications Neurophysiological Correlations 83
of a cochlear microphonic as seen from the second trace in Figure interesting to note that Wever (1966) has pointed out a number
41. The cochlear microphonic in this case is either extremely brief of factors that would prevent the observance of a cochlear micro-
and lost in the microwave artifact, greatly attenuated, or absent phonic, especially at low stimulus intensity. These were reported
completely. in studies in which the auditory thresholds of cats, as determined
The role of the cochlea in microwave-induced auditory phe- by behavioral tasks, were established as being 40 db below the
nomena has been discounted, partly on the basis of not observing first stimulus level effective in eliciting cochlear microphonics of
a microphonic in either cats or guinea pigs (Frey, 1967, 1971). sufficient amplitude to be observed with the conventional oscillo-
Guy et aI., however, have found in some animals that the cochlear scopes. Thus, considering the fact that the microwave pulse gen-
microphonic is considerably reduced (third trace in Figure 41) erator used was capable of only providing 10 to 17 db gain in
or not present at all (fourth trace in Figure 41) when the audi- peak power over that corresponding to the threshold of evoked re-
tory system of the animal is stimulated by an acoustic click. It is sponses, the absence of a microwave-evoked cochlear microphonic
does not necessarily rule out the hypothesis that microwave-in-
RECORDINGS FROM ROUND WINDOW OF COCHLEA duced auditory sensation is mediated at the periphery as are con-
ventional acoustic stimuli.
Cochlear Microphonics
L...---J~I
2ms The findings in the eighth cranial nerve, the brain stem, and the
primary auditory cortex described in the previous sections indicat-
ed that the microwave-induced auditory effect is exerted on the
animal in a manner similar to that of conventional acoustic stim-
A ~VE PI
~\ uli. Also, the elimination of the first stage of sound transduction
L.--.J --
2 ms 2450 MHz
affected the central nervous system's response to acoustic and mi-
crowave energy in the same way, i.e. the evoked electrical activ-
ities of all three sites were abolished by cochlear disablement, sug-
L...---J
~---.~
2 ms gesting that the locus of initial interaction of pulse-modulated mi-
SPEAKER CAT NO.
CLICK crowave energy with the auditory system resides peripherally with
respect to the cochlea. On the other hand, cochlear microphonic,
the signature of mechanical distortion of cochlear hair-cell, has
l.---J
Ims never been observed under experimental situations. This has led
CRYSTAL
\ STIMULUS ]
to the suggestion that pulsed microwaves, in contrast to conven-
tional acoustic stimuli, might not act on any sensor prior to acting
ARTIFACT 0.2 mv directly on the inner ear apparatus.
As mentioned in the previous section, failure to observe any mi-
Figure 41. Recordings from the round window of the cat cochlea elicited
by acoustic and microwave stimuli. (From Guy et al.: Microwave induced crowave-induced cochlear microphonic in experimental animals
acoustic effects. Courtesy of Ann NY Acad Sci, 247:194-218,1975.) may have been due to limitations of the output of the microwave
84 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications Neurophysiological Correlations 85
pulse generator or a large microwave-pulse-artifact which con- wave-transparent polystyrene foam block inside the cavity. With
cealed the cochlear microphonic. Chou et al. (1975) have suc- the animal's head inside, the cavity was tuned for maximum power
cessfully demonstrated the existence of microwave-induced to the head by adjusting the position of a sliding short located on
cochlear microphonics in laboratory animals with clearly visible one end and the depth of penetration of the animal's head. Since
acoustically evoked cochlear microphonics by minimizing the only 0.1 percent of the input power was detected to be leaking
problems just mentioned. around the neck of the guinea pig, the available power was as-
Five guinea pigs weighing 400 to 600 g were anesthetized with sumed to be completely absorbed by the subject. It was estimated
sodium pentobarbital (40 mg zkg) and allowed to breathe nor- that the average en.ergy absorbed per pulse was an order of mag-
mally through a trachial cannula. After clearing either the left or nitude greater than those used in all previous experiments. The
right auditory bulla, a fine carbon electrode was inserted against microwave pulse artifacts were greatly reduced by locating the mi-
the roun.d window and cemented onto the bulla. The animals crowave source (AML model PH 40K), the cavity, and the ani-
were then screened on the basis of whether the amplitude of the mal in a shielded room (Fig. 43) and recording the cochlear po-
cochlear microphonic evoked by an acoustic click exceeded 0.5 tentials via coaxial cables connected to differential amplifiers out-
mV. If the answer was positive, the guinea pig's head was then side the shielded room.
placed in the cylindrical cavity through an opening on the side of The animals were intermittently exposed to 918 MHz micro-
the waveguide (Fig. 42). The head was supported by a micro-
SHIELDED ROOM
MICROWAVE
PULSE
GENERATOR
NI
5 J.ls
(A)
A
10 ~s
(s)
B
GUINEA PIG
918 MHz 10 KW PEAK POWER
(c) COCHLEAR MICROPHONICS
ROUND WINDOW
c
~50UV
0.2 MS
~
20 ~s
I50 ltv
Figure 44. Evoked round window response in the guinea pig. (a) Acoustic
click stimulus. (b) Single 918 MHz microwave pulse 10 Jlsec wide. The Figure 45. Cochlear microphonics evoked by 918 MHz microwave pulses
absorbed energy density is 1.33 j/kg, (c) Time expansion trace of (b). at a peak power of 10 kW, but variable pulse width. (From Chou et al.:
Initial 200 usee. (From Chou et al.: Cochlear microphonics generated by Cochlear microphonics generated by microwave pulses. Courtesy of ] Mi-
microwave pulses. Courtesy of] Microwave Power, 10:361-367, 1975.) crowave Power, 10:361-367, 1975.)
88 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications Neurophysiological Correlations 89
played back from the tape. It can be seen that, while the frequency] TABLE IV
of the cochlear microphonic remained constant, its amplitude in, THRESHOLD OF EVOKED AUDITORY RESPONSES IN CAT EXPOSED
creased as pulse width increased, and the energy absorption cor' TO 918 MHz MICROWAVE PULSES AT ONE PULSE/SEC.
respondingly increased. Further, latency of cochlear microphoni BACKGROUND NOISE 64 DB
occurrence was nearly the same for all three cases. Following th -
Peak Incident A vg. Incident Incident Energy Peak Rate of
death of the animal, whether by anoxia or by drug overdose, mi pulse Widtlt Power Density Power Density Density per Pulse Absorption
(f-Lsec) (W/crn:!) (p.W /cm') (p.//crn 2 ) (W/g)
crowave-evoked nerve responses disappeared before the cochlea
microphonic. Similar disappearances occurred during acoustica 3 .......... 5.80 17.4 17.4 4.1
stimulation of the dead animal. After many minutes, the CM als 5 .......... 3.88 19.4 19.4 2.76
10 .......... 2.26 22.6 22.6 1.6
disappeared, but the artifact persisted, indicating that the 50 k 15 .......... 1.37 20.6 20.6 0.97
oscillatory sign.al is a genuine physiological response. More recent 20 . . . . . . . . .. 1.17 20.6 20.6 0.83
25 ........... 0.97 24.3 24.3 0.69
ly, Chou et al. (1976, 1977) have recorded 38kHz cochlear mi 32 ........... 0.80 28.3 28.3 0.63
crophonics from the round window of cats irradiated with 91
MHz microwaves.
microwave-evoked auditory response. The experimental protocols
In summary, the electrophysiological evidence presently avail
were analogous to those described in the "Brain Stem" section.
able indicates that an auditory sensation can be induced in labora
Tables IV and V present the threshold of 918 and 2450 MHz mi-
tory animals by pulse-modulated microwave energy. The result
crowave-pulse-evoked thalamic responses. The peak absorbed en-
of the above studies suggest that microwave-induced auditory sen
ergy density per pulse in these tables was measured with a thermo-
sation is detected by the animal in a manner very similar to con
graphic method discussed previously by Guy (1971) and the re-
ventional sound detection and that the site of conversion from mi
sults compared favorably with that calculated using a spherical
crowave to acoustic energy resides somewhere peripheral to th,
model of the head (Johnson and Guy, 1972).
cochlea. It is not known, however, what structure in the hea
transduces the microwave energy to acoustic energy. The mech TABLE V
anism of interaction and the physiological implication are still no THRESHOLD EVOKED AUD-ITORY RESPONSES IN CAT EXPOSED TO
clear. 2450 MHz MICROWAVE PULSES AT ONE PULSE/SEC.
BACKGROUND NOISE 64 DB
"THRESHOLD" DETERMINATION
Peak Incident A vg. Incident Incident Energy Peak Rate of
In Chapter 3 a brief account of psychophysical efforts to estab Pulse Width Power Density Power Density Density Per Pulse Absorption
lish the "threshold" of microwave-induced auditory sensation i (usee) (W/crn:!) (p.W /cm") (p.//crn 2) (W/g)
humans was given. Several investigators attempted to ascertain th
0.5 .......... 35.6 17.8 17.8 20.2
minimally effective magnitudes of pulsed microwave energy fo: 1 .......... 17.8 17.8 17.8 10.1
evoking auditory system. responses in laboratory animals. Thes 2 .......... 10.0 20.3 20.3 5.3
4 .................. 5.0 20.3 20.3 2.4
"threshold" determinations, however, must be considered incom 5 ............... 4.0 20.3 20.3 2.32
plete because measurements were usually attempted with too fe 10 ................... 2.2 21.6 21.6 1.23
15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9 28.0 28.0 1.06
subjects and at only a single frequency. 20 ................... 1.7 33.0 33.0 0.94
Using potentials from the medial geniculate body of the cat 25 ............... 0.6 15.2 15.2 0.35
Guy et a1. (1973, 1975) studied the threshold of pulse-modulate, 32 ............... 1.5 47.0 47.0 0.83
90 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications Neurophysiological Correlations 91
It can be seen from these tables that as the pulse width was in-
.2
creased, the peak incident power density required to elicit an audi- C"'.)
s::
~ ~;"
~
~~;."
C"'.)
( 1975) to conclude that the threshold for the pulsed microwave- 0 ~'=ll::
"""'''~ 1
0
~~~
0 0
;:; ~ ~--
NV'\oO
--
auditory responses and the peak incident or absorbed power den .. ~~
~:j .S
..~
sity, as well as the pulse width of the incident microwave pulses. o:t ~-~
U s::::::
tlJU ~ C"'.)
~S::-'
Chou et al. (1975) had exposed guinea pigs to 2450 MHz mi- f-lZ 't: ~ E
crowave pulse in a cavity and found that the threshold peak ab- ~ ~O
<~
.::~~I,,:,,:~
..:<~~ M-O
sorbed power density for producing an identifiable cochlear micro-
> ~
~~--
tlJ 0 vI ~~
~ 0 f-l
phonic response was nearly 2 W /s for a 10 usee wide square ~ ~<
-e~u C
pulse. The peak absorbed power density was determined by mea- E-c eI'}
~~
Z .~ ~--
S I'"
~ C"'.) ~
suring the induced temperature in the guinea pig's head using a ~eI'}
~Lt.l '=l:: r--
~~ <, N~oO
thermographic procedure (Chou and Guy, 1975). One would ex- NeI'}
:c Z O(J~~ --
~ ~--
pect the threshold value to be higher than those determined using ~~ s::
oel'} ~~
evoked responses from the thalamus. It is known, at least in cats, oLt.l U
~~ ~b
that the auditory threshold determined by behavioral tasks is 40 ~> ~'c:;
o~ ~~~
db below the sound levels first effective in producing cochlear mi-
crophonic potentials of sufficient amplitude to be identified with
0
Of-l
~~
~ '=l,,"""'"'"
..:<~~
I'"M-O
'" ~
...
0 0 ~~'-
conventional oscilloscopes (Wever, 1966). :t~ ~~
eI'}<
tlJ
Rissmann and Cain (1975) determined the microwave-induced ~
~-.
The threshold peak incident power densities were determined as
a function of the pulse width of the impinging 3000 MHz micro-
~ ~C"'.)
~
~--
~
::t
--
V'\OV'\
92 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications
11 o
6
CAT
CHINCHILLA 5,,10,,15 ~SEC
I
I
I
r
waves for two cats, two chinchillas and one dog. The results of o DOG 5,,10,,15 ~SEC
I
I
I
this study are presented in Table VI. It can be seen that the peak 5
I
I
I
PULSE WIDTH" I
incident power density required to elicit an auditory response de- ix ........
~SEC
I
I
I
creased as the pulse width increased in all cases, although not -> 4 I
I
I
proportionately. The threshold energy density per pulse seemed ~
en I
I
z I
I
to stay relatively constant for cats and chinchillas in agreement &&.I
Q
I
I
I
with the results reported by Guy et al. (1973, 1975) for the ffi 3 I
~
Q. I
I
I
pulse widths used. There was, however, no apparent relationship ~
Z
10
I
I
~
&&.I I
Q
between audible threshold and energy density per pulse for the U
z 2 I
I
I
I
dog, although in this case an increase in pulse width was accompa- I
y\
~ I
4(
UJ
I
nied by a decrease in peak power density required. Q.
I
I
I
I
The threshold parameters required to elicit a response from the 1 ,, I
I
, I
medial geniculate body of the cat were assessed in two animals for ,, I
I
~
X-band pulses at frequencies between 8670 and 9160 MHz (Guy 0"
o 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
et aI., 1973, 1975). Table VII shows that the incident power den- MHz
sity and the energy density per pulse required were much higher Figure 46. Threshold peak incident power for cat, chinchilla, and dog ir-
than those required for other frequen.cies. radiated with pulse-modulated microwaves for various pulse widths in-
The results of the above studies strongly indicate a "threshold" volved. Note the rapid decrease of incident power required with increasing
pulse width.
in microwave-induced auditory sensation, but the exact numerical
value must await further experimentation. If the available thresh- 3.0 o CAT
PULSE WIDTH
old data are analyzed as a function of microwave frequency (Ta- li. GUINEA PIG 10 ~SEC
ble VIII, Figs. 46 and 47), it becomes-clear, both in terms of peak
incident power density and peak rate of en.ergy absorption, that
the threshold differs for different frequencies even in the same ani- C'
<,
~
mals. Changes in efficiency of absorption of microwave energy and z
o
2.0 li.
LL
o
UJ
I-
TABLE VII : 15
APPROXIMATE THRESHOLD OF EVOKED AUDITORY RESPONSES* ~ 1.0
~
IN CAT EXPOSED TO X-BAND MICROWAVE PULSES AT
ONE PULSE/SECOND, BACKGROUND NOISE 64 DB
Figure 47. Threshold peak rate of absorption (absorbed power density) for
::: Application of power directly to top of exposed skull required to elicit
responses. cat and guinea pig with pulse width as a parameter for different microwave
frequencies. Note the rapid decrease of required absorption with increasing
pulse width.
94 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications Neurophysiological Correlations 95
~I~~
~ ~~
old as a function of pulse width, which seems to indicate the
00
existence of a minimum or optimum pulse width for efficient con-
~
.r;; version of microwave to acoustic energy in the. mammalian cranial
s:::
~
~
structu-re. This has been suggested previously by Frey and Mes-
..... 1r-\oN
0\0tf")
a....
~ """"" ...
o~o
senger (1973; also see Chapter 3, section on "Detection in Lab-
$
0 .......... oratory Animals"); however, experimental confirmation has yet
~~
<,
0 ~~ to come.
~
VJ ~
a.... --- EFFECT OF MASKING
~ ~ <:::> 10~~ 8
~ ~ """"" ...
\OMf"o-
~~o N
~ ~
...::c
Guy et al. (1975) have investigated the effect of ambient noise
~(/} l:::S
o~ ~ level on the threshold of the microwave-induced auditory effect
~
~< .......... in cats. Animals weighing 2.2 to 3.3 kg were prepared under al-
o~
~~
~
~ I \ON'"
I':~~
~
I')
~Z MN~ pha-chloralose anesthesia for recording electrical responses from
S< -e
the medial geniculate body evoked by pulsed microwaves and con-
OZ ~
~~
~(/} ~ ventional acoustic inputs. The electrode used was a glass pipette
(/}E-c
~u ~
~
:::$
~
~
00
..
OOV)
0
00 filled with Ringer's solution with a tip diameter of 80-100 fLm.
~~ o~ \C5
~
E-c~
l-ol~
1 N The detailed experimental procedures were similar to those de-
~
Z~ .r;; scribed earlier in the "Brain Stem" section. Each cat was fitted
~ ~> s:::
I r-Ooc
~
== O~ with a piezoelectric transducer for providing sound stimuli via the
.> ~O t:::la.... I') tf")0\V)
...
O~
N V)
L1J ~ t:: ~
$..........
"""""
~~o 00 bone conduction route (see Fig. 33). A loudspeaker located 17
~ ~O o ~,
~ O;J Q.,. E em to the right of the eat's head centerline was used to deliver the
~ ~<
~
~ ...........
;
UJ
N o 3 )JS modulated microwaves.
...
H
o
c
5 JIS
10 J.IS
REFERENCES
~ ChoU, C. K., Galambos, R., Guy, A. W., and Lovely, R. H.: Cochlear micro-
N t-
e
u phonics generated by microwave pulses. J Microwave Power, 10:361-
..,'" o
::a.. ~ 367, 1975.
100 // 10
:::>
oo Chou, C. K. and Guy, A. W.: The effects of electromagnetic fields on the
UJ ex nervous system. University of Washington, School of Medicine, Bio-
en
...J
::>
f -: / / a: electromagnetic Research Laboratory Scientific Rept. #6, August, 1975.
e,
UJ
' / -: / / ' e Chou, C. K., Guy, A. W., and Galambos, R.: Microwave-induced cochlea
~ ///
UJ
en microphonics in cats. J Microwave Power, 11:171-173, 1976.
~o
..J
Chou, C. K., Guy, A. W., and Galambos, R.: Characteristics of microwave-
~
/ ::>
~
a:
induced cochlear microphonics. Special Supplement, Biological Effects
of Electromagnetic Waves, Radio Science, 12/ SS-l :221-227, 1977.
u, ~
o >- Frey, A. H.: Brain stem evoked responses associated with low intensity
>-
t- 10 1.0
~ pulse UHF energy. J Appl Physiol, 23:984-988, 1967.
UJ
en
z
Z
UJ
Frey, A. H., Fraser, A., Siefert, E., and Brish, T.: A coaxial pathway for
~ t- recording from the cat brain stem during illumination with UHF energy.
>- ~ Physiol Behav, 3:363-365, 1968.
~ THRESHOLDS OF RESPONSES i: Frey, A. H.: Biological function as influenced by low-power modulated RF
l&J
Z AT MEDIAL GENICULATE OF CAT UJ energy. IEEE Trans Microwave Theory Tech, 19:153-164,1971.
l&J >
t-
Z
EVOKED BY ACOUSTIC AND
MICROWAVE PULSES AS A
ti...J Frey, A. H. and Messenger, R., Jr.: Human perception of illumination with
pulsed ultra-high-frequency electromagnetic energy. Science, 181 :356-
~ FUNCTION OF NOISE LEVEL ~
(; 358, 1973.
~ Guy, A. W.: Analysis of electromagnetic fields induced in biological tissues
1.0 I I I I 'al
60 70 80 by thermographic studies on equivalent phantom models. IEEE Trans
Microwave Theory Tech, Special issue on biological effects of micro-
ROOM NOISE LEVEL (db) waves, 19:205-214, 1971.
Figure 48. Evoked medial geniculate response thresholds as a function of Guy, A. W., Lin, J. C., and Harris, F. A.: The effect of microwave radiation
background noise. (From Guy et al.: Microwave induced acoustic effects. on evoked tactile and auditory CNS responses in cats. Proc Int Micro-
Courtesy of Ann NY A cad Sci, 247:194-218, 1975.) wave Power Symp, Canada, Int Microwave Power Inst, 1972, pp. 120-
129.
the threshold for the piezoelectric transducer attached to the skull. Guy, A. W., Taylor, E. M., Ashleman, B., and Lin, J. C.: Microwave inter-
action with the auditory systems of humans and cats. Proc IEEE Int
There was also a large increase in the threshold response evoked
Microwave Symp, Boulder, June 1973, pp. 321-323.
by the loudspeaker. These results suggest that the acoustic energy Guy, A. W., Chou, C. K., Lin, J. C., and Christensen, D.: Microwave in-
produced by pulse-modulated microwaves probably lies predom- duced acoustic effects in mammalian auditory systems and physical ma-
inately in the frequency range above 15 kHz in cats, since the eat's terials. Ann NY Acad Sci, 247:194-218, 1975.
98 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications
MECHANISM OF INTERACTION
While there is considerable evidence for the existence of micr
wave-induced auditory effects in mammals, the questions of wher
and how the transduction occurs have not been satisfactorily an, 10 3
swered. The results summarized in the previous section seem t
indicate that the effect was exerted on the peripheral portion of th
auditory system. A peripheral response to microwave puIs 102
should involve mechanical displacement of the bones of the sku 1011FOREll"EAfi:::::::'::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::j:j:j:1 THRESHOLD BONE CONDUCT ION
with resultant dynamic effects on the fluids of the cochlea.
Several transduction mechanisms have been suggested involvin i :ii:::i:il:~~18l2::J\:\i.\\II:i\i:i:::::\::::i:::i:::::i: : i: : : : i: : : : :I: : S~LL AREA
vibrations of the skull for microwave-induced auditory sensation ~z 100
Sommer and von Gierke (1964) have considered radiation pres ~ 10- e: : : : : :-:.: : :-: :y?: : : : : : : : : : : : : : :.: :;:.: : : :;: : :/: : : : ;: :;: :.: .~ ~:~:~~~ D~o~~T~~~UCT ION
sure exerted by the pulse-modulated microwave on the surface 0: 1
0:::
the irradiated cranium, which may then launch an acoustic sign
~ 10- p::::::::::::::::jl):::::}:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::7::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::] ;~~~S~~~~D~O:~T~o~~~~r~~'
of sufficient amplitude to be detected by the inner ear throug 2
bone conduction. Although the radiation pressure computed usin 0..
~
~
~
:::
~
::t
~
,
~
.-:::o -::: . . . .
N N
:I::I:
~~
....
CI
00
....
Cl
N
NN:I:N
:I::I:0:I:
~~~~
........ 0 ....
....
N
:I:X:I:
~~~
I
.... 00 '0
dol
N N
-
-
TABLE X
MICROWAVE PROPERTIES OF BIOLOGICAL MATERIAL
~t
~ .... .... V')
........
~
........................
-V V')-V V')-v V')
.... .... -
1'-00~\Ooo
V')V')-V~~
~~ 433
750
5.6
5.6
37.9-118
49.8-138
0.030-0.080
0.039-0.106
0 915 5.6 55.6-147 0.044-0.113
U
<: ~:-:
:::: E 2450 5.5 96.4-213 0.077 -0.169
Q ~~V')~oo 0 00 5.5 110-234 0.088-0.186
~,
::: ~
ooMOoo~V) I'- 1'-0 3000
UJ
~ ~~
0\0\00\00
0\0\ .... 0\ ........ ....
0 0\1-
.... 5000 5.5 162-309 0.130-0.247
:> 8000 4.7 255-431 0.221-0.372
(J) ~
~
E
~
I II creases in the frequency range of interest (100 to 10000 MHz).
It is interesting to note that tissues of different species exhibit sim-
ilar electric behavior, at least around 2450 MHz (Lin, 1975). The
"'0 computed attenuation coefficient a, using e, and (T as functions
I
~
e
~
c; of frequency, is also given in the table. It shows that for higher
V'J
I = I oe- 2a z ,
where c == [( A. + 2JL) / p ] 1;2 is the bulk velocity of acoustic wave
o < t < to,
(5.1 ) propagation in the medium, and G(z,t) is the generating function
= 0, elsewhere
proportional to force per unit mass in newtons per kilogram. For
where a is the attenuation coefficient which describes the absorbing the development presented here the temperature variations of p
characteristics of the medium. This microwave energy corresponds and c are neglected. Although an acoustic wave is, in general, at-
to a rectangular pulse with pulse width to. It may exert a radiation tenuated as it progresses through the medium, we will neglect at-
pressure on the surface of the absorbing medium and launch an tenuation in formulating the mathematical description of the re-
acoustic wave, or it may generate sufficient body forces via dielec- sponse. That is, we assume the fraction of acoustic energy dissi-
tric expansion, or it may be absorbed by the lossy dielectric and pated in the medium to be relatively small. However, in analyzing
converted to an acoustic wave as a result of rapid thermal expan- the data, we should take attenuation into consideration.
sion. In what follows, the D'Alembert's method of solution (Ty-
We assume the dielectric medium possesses linear, isotropic chonov and Samarski, 1964) of the governing differential equa-
elastic properties characterized by Lame's constant A. and JL and tion (5.2) is used to obtain displacements and pressures for the
a volume density p. Allowing particle displacement u only along one-dimensional response of a half-space due to power deposi-
the z direction, the equation of motion of the particles (Love, tion. The method is very useful for obtaining results for many
1927; Sokolnikoff, 1956) in the medium responding to an applied types of volume-force excitation. Most of the development appears
here for the first time. Previous results have all been derived using
the usual transform techniques, which required considerable
AIR TISSUE mathematical manipulations.
If equation (5.2) is solved by assuming that the surface is rigid-
ly constrained * and is initially at rest, that is, at Z == 0,
fo.JC,o.JOQ Po.JRSO.JCT"
and
u(O,t) = (5.3 )
X 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII!: u(z,O)
a
= at u(z,O) = (5.4 )
lilii~ii.
then the displacement as a function of z and t for a generating
function G(z,t) is given by
z DIRECTION OF
PROPAGATION 1 t
f
z+ct-ct'
~~ ~~ ~
u(z,t) = 2c dt' fz-ct+ct' G(x,t')dx, t < z/c
y
\\jjj\1\1\1\ j\1\1\1\11j\1\1\111\\\\\ 1 t z+ct-ct' (5.5)
= 2c ! dt' f
Iz-ct+ct' I
G(x,t')dx, t > z/c
z=o ::: Only the case of a rigidly constrained surface is considered because the
Figure 51. A plane wave impinging normally on a semi-infinite tissue me- resulting pressure for a constrained surface is greater than that given by a
dium. stress-free surface (see Gournay, 1966 or Chapter 6).
114 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications The Interactive Mechanism 115
It is readily verified by substitution that equation (5.5) formally
satisfies the equation of motion and the auxiliary conditions. P +AP
Radiation Pressure
When a plane wave impinges on an infinite plane surface, a
pressure is exerted by the impinging microwave on the medium
(Stratton, 1941; Smythe, 1968). If the surface is entirely within
a medium that supports essentially no shearing stress (JLIA. << 1),
which is the case in soft tissues, the total pressure P is given by
1/2
AREA)
P(z,t) = (~oor) l(z,t) (5.6)
~
where I (Z, t) is that expressed by equation (5.1), e, is the relative
dielectric constant of the medium, and Eo and JLo are the vacuum
permittivity and permeability, respectively. The net force acting on
z +~Z
BI
total force per unit mass as a result of rapid heating of the elastic p(z, r ) = (3A + 2~)_o_e-2o.z cosh 2Clze- 2o.ct+2o.z_ e2o.z, t<t o; t>z/c
dielectric medium is pchc
1 dPZ(Z,t)
G(z,t) = - - d (5.30) zocc , cosh 2o.c (t-t o) + sinh 2o.c (t-t o) - e 2o.z
P z
+ cosh 2o.z e -2o.ct+2o.z - Znc t , ,
Substituting equation (5.28) in equation (5.30) produces
to<t<to+z/c; t>z/c
By combining equations (5.25), (5.26), and (5.31), the generat- - 2o.cto, t > to + z / c ; t > Z/ c
A Numerical Example
sinh Znc t - sinh 2o.c(t - to) - 2o.ctocosh Zuc I t; - to),
It is instructive to examine quantitatively the explicit expres-
t>t o; t<z/c
sions describing the formation of acoustic waves in a semi-infi-
nite. biological medium. For a 2450 MHz microwave pulse im-
sinh Zuz e -2o.ct+2o.z + Znc (t-z/ c) e- 2o.z - 2o.ct,
2 3 pinging normally on the surface of brain material the physical pa-
2o.c c t<t o; t>z/c
hP rameters required are given in the section on "Physical Properties
of Biological Materials." The results of computer calculations
sinh Znz e -2o.ct+2o.z + 2o.c(t-z/c)e 2o.z - sinh 2o.c(t-t
o
)
made with to == 10 JLsec and I.. == 1000 mW/cm 2 are shown in
-2o.ctocosh 2o.c(t-t o), to<t<to+z/c; t>z/c Figures 53 to 64.
In Figures 53 and 54 the development and propagation into the
2sinh Zuz e -2o.c(t-Z/C)fflct o (o.ctoeo.cto - sinh o.ct
o)' medium of displacement and pressure, induced by radiation pres-
t>to+z/c; t>z/c sure, is shown as a function of time and depth. Note that the dis-
placement is zero while the pressure is the highest at z == a (con-
120 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications The Interactive Mechanism 121
til
c 2
aT
-0
~ RP II)
~ -;i+ RP
....o N
....
0
><
-~
i:
o _...
~
~.
0
8 Uo
a
(f)
1-2
z. "-
wo ~~
c.
~
w -0
u
~
-oJ w
Q.o ex:
(f) ... :J
CO (f)8
fn
a: o
e,
8
o. r zr=: z-o.o ---- ---- '"
0
0I
To = 10~sec To = 10j.tsec
0.02 o.~ 0.06 0.08
TIME (SEC) (XlO') 0.02 o.~ 0.0& 0.01
TIME (SEC) ()ClO')
Figure 53. Displacement induced by radiation pressure in a semi-infinite
Figure 54. Pressure induced by radiation pressure in a semi-infinite brain
brain model exposed to 2450 MHz microwave radiation. to 10 usee and 10= model exposed to 2450 MHz microwave radiation. to = 10 usee and 10 = 1000
= 1000 mW/cm 2
mW/cm 2
strained-surface). The displacement close to the surface is char- The results of calculations made for electrostriction are given
acterized by a rapid rise-time and a slightly slower fall-time. These in Figures 57 to 60. As expected, the waveform and the depen-
times become increasingly symmetric as the distance into the me- dence of maximum displacement and pressure on distance are al-
dium increases. The pressure wave is initially monophasic and be- most the same as for radiation pressure, except that the magni-
comes diphasic with increasing penetration into the medium. Both tudes are greater by approximately a factor of ten.
displacement and pressure attain the asymptotic traveling wave- Figure 61 shows examples of displacement elicited in the planar
form after passing out of the region of effective energy deposition brain model by microwave-induced thermoelastic stress. The
(depth of penetration). This is shown clearly by Figures 55 and curves are qualitatively similar to those obtained from radiation
56 where the maximum displacement and pressure are plotted as pressure and electrostriction, except that the peak displacement
a function of distance. It is seen that the maximum displacement is greater by a factor of one thousand. Figure 62 depicts typical
increases to a limiting value and the maximum pressure decreases pressures developed as a result of thermoelastic expansion. In this
to a minimum value after z = 1 /o == 2.32 em. case, we choose to show only the traveling component of the pres-
122 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications
The Interactive Mechanism 123
sure wave by removing from equation (5.34) terms proportional
to 2act or 2act o wherever appropriate. It is seen that the travel- .o.
ing component of the thermoelastically generated pressure wave
is similar to radiation pressure and electrostrlction, but with a
N~
peak pressure greater by two to three orders of magnitude. Fig- o~
"'0
ures 63 and 64 illustrate the variation of peak displacement and ~
~en
&I tIJ
0 Ell
.0
--J
i
C')
0...
~
0
o
i:2
u
_0 or RP
~
Z
I 2.00 ".00 &.00
OI5TANCE (CM)
1.00
tIJ
ER
tIJ.
Figure 56. Spatial dependence of peak pressure induced by radiation pres-
uo
a: =
sure in brain materials irradiated with 2450 MHz microwave pulses. to 10
-'
CL usee and 10 == 1000 mW/ cm 2
....
(f)
2
X O plicit expressions describing the formation of acoustic waves via
a:
E microwave-induced radiation pressure (5.16 ) , electrostriction
(5.23), and thermoelastic expansion (5.34) have been obtained
8
Q using the D'Alembert method of solution. The development and
propagation of the displacement and pressure waves into a brain
half-space irradiated with a 10 JLsec-wide 2450 MHz microwave
pulse are shown in Figures 53 and 54 for radiation pressure, in
2.00 ".00 &.00 1.00
OI5TANCE (CM) Figures 57 and 58 for electrostriction, and in Figures 61 and 62
Figure 55. Spatial dependence of peak displacement induced by radiation for thermoelastic expansion.
pressure in brain materials irradiated with 2450 MHz microwave pulses. It can be seen from the results of the previous section .that the
to == 10 usee and 10 == 1000 mW/cm2
peak compressive or tensile stress (pressure) always occurs at the
124 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications
The Interactive Mechanism 125
51 sure magnitudes predicted by the three mechanisms for producing
o
acoustic energy. Comparing equations (5.24) and (5.16) we have
magnitude of pressure due to e1ectrostriction = r
magnitude of pressure due to radiation pressure 3 (5.35)
~
-a ES
~ where we have assumed Er >> 1. A consideration of equations
...
o
~
(5.34) and (5.16) yields
~ (5.36 )
0' magnitude of pressure due to thermoelastic stress _ l c~B ~_
~
8 magnitude of pressure due to radiation pressure - 2 ( )1/2
ch ~oor
1-2
z. where we have made use of the fact that ILIA << 1. These ratios
bJa
s: are tabulated in Table XIII for brain, muscle, and water. They
bJ
u
a::
-oJ
CLa
en'" ~
00 0
an
-~t ES
z=o.o ...
...
0
To ~ 10 IJ.sec
_...
es
s:.
a
0.\2 o.~ 0.0& 0.08 ua
TIME (SEC) (XI03) a
en
Figure 57. Displacement induced by electrostriction in a semi-infinite brain
model exposed to 2450 MHz microwave radiation. to == 10 usee and 1 =~!
"~I!I
o.
1000 mW/cm 2 0 -a
bJ
a:
~
surface regardless of which mechanism is involved in its develop-
~8
bJe
ment. In fact, a direct comparison of the maximum pressures) a:a
CL
shown in Figures 56, 58, and 62 indicates that microwave-induced!
thermoelastic stress exceeds radiation pressure by almost three or-
ders of magnitude; pressure generated by electrostriction is about
ten times as high as that produced by the radiation pressure mech-
anism. Thus, while the electrostrictive "force mechanism is effec- To = 10 IJ. sec
tive in comparison with radiation pressure, it is much less effec-
0.\2 o.~ 0.0& 0.08
tive than thermoelastic expansion in developing acoustic waves in TIME (SEC) (XIO')
brain matters. Figure 58. Pressure induced by e1ectrostriction in a semi-infinite brain
It is instructive to obtain a simple relationship among the pres- model exposed to 2450 MHz microwave radiation. to == 10 usee and 10
1000 mW/cm 2
126 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications The Interactive Mechanism 127
TABLE XIII !
A COMPARISON OF THREE PHYSICAL MECHANISMS OF ACOUSTIC o
ENERGY PRODUCTION IN SEMI-INFINITE MODELS OF BIOLOGICAL
MATERIALS EXPOSED TO SHORT MICROWAVE PULSES*
...
o~
~
Electrostriction/ ~
Stress/ Stress/
Material Radiation Pressure Radiation Pressure Electrostriction
~
u~
Brain 10.67 1301 122 o
enO ES
Muscle 15.67 1290 82
Water 26.0 1225 47 '"
z
)0-
S
:;: Given as the relative amplitude of acoustic waves generated by impingin 2
2450 MHz microwave pulses.
lLIo
en
en
LU
s
o fB
)(
~
E
...-19. so
...
0
~
~B
U'
_0
....
r / ES
2.00 '1.00 6.aD
DISTANCE (CM)
1.00
w
a:
KI ::l
eno
o eno
Wei
a:
a,
~ ~
-0 TE a
2 I
....
o
x I To = 10 ~ sec
-~ 0"
o U)
ci
~ 10~OO 0.01& 0.06 0.01 0.10
8 0.02
TIME (SEC) (XI03 )
~O
z ... Figure 62. Pressure induced by thermoelastic expansion in a semi-infinite
WO
2:
brain irradiated with 2450 MHz microwave pulses. to == 10 usee and 10 ==
W 1000 mW/cm 2
U
~
-J
~19 waves in the human. head. They do, however, show the impor-
CO
tance and applicability of various transduction mechanisms. In
particular, the analysis indicates that the amplitude of a thermo-
g elastically generated acoustic signal is of such magnitude that it
ci I === --:=;
z=o.o is likely to be the most attractive physical mechanism to explain
To = 10 ~sec the microwave-induced auditory effect in humans.
lQ i
Q Q
-a
o ~
...
0 0
0
~~!
s:...
u
_0 I i:
u
a
TE ~ol TE
<,
~ z
z )-
w
s:o
0
~
w~ 5J
uo wo
a:: a:
-J
a.. ::l
en
....en en
w
c~ a:a
a..=-;
x 0 0
a:: x
s: a:
s:
g
a :i!
0
Sharp, J. C., Grove, H. M., and Gandhi, O. P.: Generation of acoustic sig- Chapter 6
nals by pulsed microwave energy. IEEE Trans Microwave Theory Tech,
22:583-584, 1974.
Smythe, W. R.: Static and Dynamic Electricity. New York, McGraw, 1968. The Spherical Model
Sokolnikoff, I. S.: Mathematical Theory of Elasticity. New York, McGraw,
1956.
Sommer, H. C. and Von Gierke, H. E.: Hearing sensations in electric fields.
Aerospace Med, 35:834-839, 1964.
Stratton, J. A.: Electromagnetic Theory. New York, McGraw, 1941.
T H E PRECEDING CHAPTERS have demonstrated that an audible
sound occurs when human subjects are exposed to pulse-
modulated microwave energy which appears to originate from
Taylor, E. M. and Ashlemann, B. T.: Analysis of central nervous system in- within or immediately behind the head, and that immediate de-
volvement in the microwave auditory effect. Brain Research, 74:201-
tection of pulsed microwaves can be mediated by the auditory sys-
208, 1974.
Tychonov, A. N. and Samarski, A. S.: Partial Differential Equations 0/ tem of laboratory animals.
Mathematical Physics. San Francisco, Holden-Day, 1964. It was also shown that auditory activities may be evoked by ir-
Weast, R. C. (Ed.): Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. Cleveland, CRe i radiating the heads of cats, chinchillas, and guinea pigs with
Press, 1974. pulsed microwave energy. Electrophysiological responses elicited
White, R. M.: Generation of elastic waves by transient surface heating, in cats by both conventional acoustic stimuli and by pulsed micro-
J Appl Physics, 34:3559-3567, 1963.
waves disappear following destruction of the round window of the
cochlea, and following death. Furthermore, cochlear microphon-
ics have been recorded from the round window of guinea pigs and
cats exposed to pulsed microwaves at 918 MHz. These results in-
dicate that microwave-induced audition is transduced by a mech-
anism similar to that responsible for conventional acoustic recep-
tion and that the primary site of interaction resides peripherally
with respect to the cochlea. It is therefore reasonable to conclude
that the microwave-induced auditory effect is a cochlear response
to acoustic signals that are generated, presumably in the head, by
pulsed microwaves.
While the effect is widely accepted as a genuine biological effect
occurring at low average power densities, some controversy exists
regarding the mechanism by which pulsed microwave energy is
converted to sound in humans and animals. Several physical
mechanisms were advanced in Chapter 5 for the conversion of mi-
crowave to acoustic energies, including radiation pressure, electro-
striction, and thermoelastic expansion. A comparison of these
three mechanisms revealed that the thermoelastic expansion is the
most effective mechanism, since pressures generated by thermo-
elastic stress may be one thousand or more times greater than by
135
136 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications The Spherical Model 137
L i
_ _
. (. + 1) [a.M 1. - ib. N 1] (6.2)
j=1 J J J 0 J J e J
Rectangular Pulse," and "Theoretical Analysis"; their numerical
interpretations appear in "Computed Frequency of Sound," "Com- where Eo is the incident electric field strength; w == 27ff, f being
puted Displacement and Pressure," "Computed Frequency of frequency, a, and b, are magnetic and electric oscillations, re-
Sound," and "Computed Pressure and Displacement." However, spectively; and M and N are vector spherical wave functions. A
the reader will probably be rewarded by a better understanding derivation of equation (6.2) is given by Stratton (1941). The
of the model if he or she elects to read at least the narrative por- basic idea is that for a plane wave linearly polarized in the x direc-
tions of these sections. tion and propagating along the positive z direction, the incident
and induced fields may be expanded in terms of vector spherical
MICROWAVE ABSORPTION
wave functions. The expansion coefficients a, 3:!1d b, are then
Let us consider a homogeneous spherical mod-el of the head ex- found from boundary conditions at the surface of the sphere. Since
posed to a plane wave of pulsed microwave energy (Fig. 65). The the general formulation is readily available, we shall refer the in-
rate of absorbed microwave energy per unit volume W (r.t) at any terested reader to the above mentioned reference. It is emphasized
point inside the head is given by that the idealized model does not account for the effect of the neck
W(r, t ) = 2"0
1 1-12
E , 0 _< t <
_ to
and the rest of the body.
(6.1 ) Several investigators have presented results of computer cal-
= 0 t > to culations of microwave energy absorption using spherical head
where (T is the electrical conductivity of brain matter and to is the models (Shapiro et aI., 1971; Kritikos and Schwan, 1972, 1975;
138 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications The Spherical Model 139
FRED = 918 MHZ Pi = 1 mW/cn2
ONE-LRYERED SPHERE k. RRDIUS = 3.0 CM Pi = 1 mW/CM2
ONE-LRYERED SPHERE
10- 1 2 5 100 ? 5 101 ka
1 2 5 1rfJ ? 5
100
I
3 .24 6 .28 10-
~~~IN --- - - I I I ~A
~
r"-.. PEAK (mNIcJn3)
5 II
fA
2
C I f'-'1"h. I}"
~
~ .r 100 I I PEAK (mW/an3)---_""T""T""".I.-I
~
cJ)
z 2 /1// !\.
~rt:
~- ~
~
5
~
w
0
Q:
w
lO- 1 /l ~i\ AlEFW:.JNEA
-t---I--
(mW,tm2)-::
en
z
w
0 2
- II I
l-----+--+--r--1.,...jt7DyJE~RAG:/AFti-~---/\Q---"""'----_.&.-.I
3
0 ~
~ / 1:-:1 ntN/cm21 J --l (mW/an31.::i
1~_~_
a, 5 I w
/ """" <, 3 10-
0
0 ~
w V I <, e,
> r-, 5
CD
/ 0
I
Q::
0 2 .- w ./
V
cJ) CD
MJWV~b.
CD a:: ./ /
cr 0 2
10-
5=
-
~~ ~~-=~
cJ)
CD
ex
lO-.~L
;r......-
/
5= ~j
~
V"
5
~7
~
'/ I I
v ~ S
3.30
5. 20
100
2 5 101 2 5 rz=
I I I 1111 I I I IH:l
RAO Ius Of SPHERE (C") 2.40 102
2 5 103 2 5 10
FREQlNCY (~Z)
FRED ='2450 MHZ Pi = 1 mN/Cf12
RRDIUS = 7.0 CM Pi = 1 mW/C~
ONE-LRYERED SPHERE
ko
ONE-LRYERED SPHERE ka
10- 1 2 5 100 2 5__ 101 2
4.81 2 5 100 2 5 101
====
3.22
I I I I I I r r
1nWtm31 L~
m
~
2
100
2
100
L-.-
B~
I
-T I 1 ~ II
en
~
~ ~ ..,
z
w
5
cJ)
5
-
L ....--.-
o
Q: 2
z
w
0
---
"--
~
_/-3 I 1 r'1
~ ~MJWiEJ. ~
W
~
~ V ~I (mW ).
w 2 '--
~ 10- ~ v I
~
CD
5
0
a..
0 lO-1
F /~~
f-- TTTI
w
~ CD
a:: ~1L / -- IWWV~
=--~lf
cJ)
CD
2 0 5 //
cJ)
ex I
lO-
CD
ex LLL
S
2 ~1
?l /1 I I
I
-
2.48
2 5 100 2
RADIUS OF SPtRE Itnl
5 101 2 3.90
7. ~~- 2
10
L..-.-
2 5 103 2 5
--.... 10
FREQUENCY (~Z)
Figure 66. Typical absorption characteristics for homogeneous spherical Nonionizing electromagnetic wave effects. Courtesy of Proc IEEE, 60:692-
models of the head exposed to 1 mW/cm2 microwave power density as a 718, 1972.)
function of sphere size and microwave frequency. (From Johnson and Guy:
Johnson and Guy, 1972; Lin et aI., 1973; Lin, 1976a; Ho et aI., exposed to an incident power density of one mW/cm 2 are shown
1975; Weil, 1975). The peak absorbed power density, the average in Figure 66 as a function of sphere size and microwave frequen-
absorbed power density per unit volume, and the average absorbed cy. It can be seen that the absorbed power varies widely with
power density per unit surface area for spheres of brain material sphere sizes and frequencies. In general, the absorption initially
140 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications
The Spherical Model 141
'\z
\
II
Ii'!\. 1\
I~
1[\
side the sphere. Hot spots do occur, however, in spheres with radii 0:.3 r IL J I ~ \ It\ ~.3 ~ \.. JJ \ I\l-\ \
f\ ./
between 2 and 8 em at 918 MHz and between 0.9 and 5 em at .2
r, K 1\ J "i I
-
, J /1\ \ / \1/ \/ v
\../ \~ r-..\I{
\lfiV ~~ \17
.2
V/ r-, \ \V'"
2450 MHz. It is significant to note that sizes for human and a ma- ~ to--
. . 0 -2.4 -1.8 -1.2 -.6 -.0 .6 1.7
t-\: I'---
1.8 7.4 3.
.1
I
y
-
-~.O -4.0 -3.0 -2.0 -1.0 0 1.0
".......-
2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
jority of laboratory animal heads all fall within these ranges. For CM C"
spheres whose radii exceed the size ranges mentioned above, the
I mW/cm 2 FRED = 2450 MHZ 2
FRED = 2450 MHZ P" P,' IrrtN/cm
maximum absorption appears at the exposed surface of the sphere, BRAlN
MAX HEATING, 0 396 mW/cm3
BRAIN MAX ~ATN:; '040nW'cm)
and the penetration depth at the surface becomes a dominating 1.0 1.0
.9 .9
.8 v .8 \
FRED = 918 MHZ
BRAIN
PI = I mW/cm 2 FRED = 918 MHZ
BRAIN P.= I rrtN/~ ~.7
\ '
~.7
\z
\ .6 \
MAX HEATING =0814 mW/cm3 MAX. HEATING- 078rrtNlcm'
1.0
/1\
1.0 i6 \\ I 't' \
.9 I~ V ~ ~.5 ~.5
/ ~ \
.9
/ ~ 1/ / \\y \ ~.4
\ 1\ If\
~.4
I
.8
/~ \ rt\-
.8
Zl / \\ 0:.3
X\\ I V
0:.3
\x /
~.7
1/ \X \ / \~
~.7
I / \ \ .2 \" / /\ / I .2
\\ /
~.6
/ \ \ v / r-..
i 6
/ // \ \' \ .1
<, "0< ~ ~ ~ ~/ ~ V/ r--'
.1 ~ / ~
~.5 ~.5 I "---- .-:.-:- r---~ ~ V"- I'--- ~ "'-- / .c; l..---: --:::. V
~.4
I /
I v >k1\ r.
V \ ~.4
-- / /I \\ \
y
-~.0-S.6-4.2-2.8-1.4
~
/ y/
\ '\ / -, I / \ \ / r-...--::...,.
.2
.1
I
/
- .-/'
/ \
'\....../
A
"-.... I--.--
.2
.1 .--r----L/
-..../
\ ~ ~ tf "'"
Figure 68. Microwave absorption pattern along the three rectangular co-
ordinate axes of spherical models of the head exposed to 2450 MHz plane
-Q.0-2.4-1.8-1.2-.6 -.0 .6 1.21.82.43.0 _~I.O -4.0 -3.0 -2.0 -1.0 a 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 wave. (From Lin et al.: Microwave selective brain heating. Courtesy of
CM CM
J Microwave Power, 8:275-286, 1973.)
FRED = 918 MHZ PI = I mW/cm 2 FREQ = 918 MHZ P,=I rrfNIurIl
BRAIN BRAIN MAX HEATING = 0 24 mNlcm'
MAX HEATING =0458 mW/cm3
1.0
.9
.8
XI II
I yll \ \
\
')(
, I. )
.9
.8
~
\
1\\
A
Z
factor. The planar model discussed in Chapter 5 may be applied to
obtain a theoretical estimation of the absorbed energy in this case.
~.7
I /I ~ \
~.7
~ X
f\
~ I""
r\\ 'I
I The frequency dependence of microwave absorption is illustrat-
i6
~.5
I Iz \' \ i 6
~ I YII \\1\ ed in the lower graphs in Figure 66 for the head of a small animal,
~.5
<,
~.4 '-.) ( \
II I I \\ \ (\ \) C\ I / I \l \ IJ'("U such as a cat or rhesus monkey, and a human head-size sphere.
./""\ I II \ J r J ~.4
\\ I~ I \ II\ .........
0:.3
--...
'-...
vrx \\J \ I
Q::.3
~/J f\J ' / -" In addition to the resonant behavior described previously, the
\1 ~ v-
.2 ...., .2
~ "--.......... .-/ IV r----- V-
.1 .1 peak absorption at the surface is seen to increase with increasing
I
.I'
-Q.0-5.6-4.2-2.8-1.4 -.0 1.42.8 4.2 5.6 7.0 -~.o -7.2 -5.4 -3.6 -1.8 -.0 1.8 3.6 5.4 7.2 9.0 frequency for frequencies beyond the last resonant peak. At these
CM C"
Figure 67. Microwave absorption pattern along the three rectangular co- frequencies, the constant incident power is absorbed in a decreas-
ordinate axes of spherical models of the head exposed to 918 MHz plane ingly smaller volume as a result of shortened penetration depth.
wave. (From Lin et al.: Microwave selective brain heating. Courtesy of It is interesting to note that the highest peak absorption for a hu-
J Microwave Power, 8:275-286, 1973.)
N=3:A=2 eM
142 Microwave Auditory Effects .and Applications
...8
man head-size sphere (a == 7 em) occurs around 1000 MHz. This
is close to the carrier frequency reported to be optimal for hearing
induced by pulse-modulated microwaves. Ie
Q
The absorbed energy distributions inside the spherical head
models are shown in Figure 67 and 68. In each of these figures, ~
"-
the patterns are normalized to the maximum along anyone of the f~
z
-0
three rectangular coordinate axes. The prints on top of each figure <,
~
head exposed to 918 MHz radiation. For some frequencies and g
ci
The results will be the same if W = Wo sinN7rr/a + W is assumed for the pattern
1
N7rr/a
of absorbed energy distribution. since WI is small compared with Woo WI is a
constant included to account for the uniform component.
-1.50 0.00 1.50
A (CM)
Figure 70. Approximate distribution of absorbed microwaves for N == 6.
144 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications
The Spherical Model 145
sphere sizes, the integer N may be changed to account for the dif-~
ference in absorption patterns. For instance, N == 6 may be chosen] THERMOELASTIC EQUATION OF MOTION
to approximate the absorption pattern inside a 3 or 7 em radius] Considering the spherical head with homogeneous brain matter
spherical head exposed to 2450 or 918 MHz radiations (Fig. 70) as an isotropic, linear, elastic medium without viscous damping,
For other frequencies and sphere sizes, a different function will be) and taking advantage of the spherical symmetry, we may express
required to describe the absorbed energy distribution. the thermoelastic equation of motion in spherical coordinates
TEMPERATURE RISE when A > > JL as follows (Love, 1927; Sokolnikoff, 1956):
2 2
We take advantage of the symmetry of the absorbed energy pat- ~ + ~ au _ ..L u _ 1:... ~ = --L- av
(6.8)
tern by expressing the heat conduction equation as a function of ar 2 r ar r2 c 2 at2 A+2~ ar
r alone (Carslow and Jaeger, 1959). That is, where u is the displacement of brain matter, c == [(A+2JL)/p]%
is the velocity of bulk acoustic wave propagation, 'Y == {3(3A+2JL),
1 a 2 av
--r
r 2 ar
- - - - = -w
1 Bv
-
ar K at K
f3 is the coefficient of linear thermal expansion, and A and JL are
where v is temperature; K and K are the thermal diffusivity andl Lame's constants. It should be noted that the curl of u equals zero
conductivity of brain matter, respectively; and W is the heat pro- since u is in the radial direction only. The right-hand side of
duction rate, which is the same as the absorbed microwave energy: equation (6.8) is the change in temperature which gives rise to
pattern and is assumed for the moment to be constant over time. the displacement. We may express it as
Because microwave absorption occurs in a very short time inter-
--L- av = uoF (r)F (t)
val, there will be little chance for heat conduction to take place.] A+2~ ar r t (6.9)
such that
We may therefore neglect the spatial derivatives in equation (6.4 )~<
such that u0 = ..!!L --L- (6.10)
PCh A+2~
1 dv W
K dt = K and
F (r) = ~ sin{NlTr/a)
Equation (6.5) may be integrated, directly, to give the change inJ r dr (NlTr/a) (6.11 )
temperature by setting the initial temperatures equal to zero. Thus, From equations (6.6) and (6.7), we have
v{r
,
t ) = JiLsin{NlTr/a) t
PCh (NlTr/a) Ft{t) = It'
~ t ~ to
(6.12 )
to t ~ to
where p and C h are the density and specific heat of brain matter,'
respectively, and PCh == K/K. If the surface of the sphere is stress-free, the boundary condi-
In biological materials, the stress-wave development times arei tion at r == a is given by
short compared with temperature equilibrium times. The tempera-
ture decay is therefore a slowly varying function of time and be-.
(A+2~)
au u
ar (a,t) + 2A ~ (a,t) = yv{a,t) = (6.13 )
comes significant only for times greater than milliseconds. We may] If the surface of the sphere is rigidly constrained, the boundary
thus assume for a rectangular pulse of microwave energy (to == condition at the surface requires the displacement
pulse width) that, immediately after power is removed, the tem-
perature stays constant at
u{a,t) = (6.14 )
The initial conditions for both cases are
v{r,t) = ~ sin{NlTr/a)
PCh (NlTr/a) to u{r,O) = au{r,O)
at = (6.15 )
146 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications The Spherical Model 147
Our approach in the following derivations is first to obtain a~
The solution to (6.17) is therefore given by
solution for the case of F t (t) = 1, and then to extend the solution
1 . N1Tr 4u r { 1 , 3 , S , ..
to a rectangular pulse using Duhamel's principle (Lin, 1977a,b). u (r) = u ( - ) [a J (-) - - -], N =
s 0 N1T 1 a 3A+2~ N1T 2,4,6, . (6.24 )
SOUND WAVE GENERATION IN A STRESS-FREE SPHERE Next we let
ut(r,t) = R(r) T(t) (6.25)
Solution for F, (t) = 1
and use the method of separation of variables to solve equation
We first write the displacement u(r,t) in the form of a linear
combination (6.18) for the time-varying component. Inserting equation (6.25)
u(r,t) = user) +ut(r,t)
into equation (6.18) yields
(6.16)
1 -2 4~ N =
1 , 3 , S , ... and W m is the angular frequency of vibration of the sphere. Note
D= U. (Nn) 3A+2~' { 2.4.6 ... (6.23 )
that the frequency of vibration fill = W m / 21T is independent of the
148 Microwave Auditory Effects .and Applications The Spherical Model 149
absorbed energy pattern. It is a function only of the spherical head =..!... . (N'JTr) + ~_r_
1,3,5,
Q N'JT J 1 a - 3:\+2l.l 2 2 ' N = (6.39)
size.and of the acoustic properties of the medium, which supports N 'JT
{
2,4,6,
negligible shear stress. The radial stress or pressure in terms of displacement (Love,
To evaluate the constants Am, we need the initial condition given 1927; Sokolnikoff, 1956) is
in equation (6.15). Thus,
P (r t) = (:\+21.1) au + 2:\ ~ _ yv (6.40)
r ' ar r
a a 2. . N'JTr 41.1 1 2 a 3.
Am = -u o {N'JT !
r J 1 (kmr)J 1 (----;-)dr 3:\+21.1 (N'JT) r J (kmr)dr}/
1
!
We therefore have, by substituting equations (6.6), (6.7), and
(6.32)
a 2
{Jr [ j1 (k r)]2d r}, N =
{1,3,5, (6.38) into the above relation,
o m 2,4,6,
P (r,t) = 41.1 uoS + ~ A k M cos W t
The integrals in the above equation may be evaluated with the r m=1 m m m m (6.41 )
help of Jahnke and Emde (1945) to give where
a 2 3
ka
f r j 1 (k r) j 1 (N'JTr ) d r = =+= N j (k a) [ 0 ; 2] S = (1:...) 2 _ j (N'JTr)/ (N'JTr) _ { 1, 3 , 5 , .
o m a 'JT m (k a) _ (N'JT) N'JT 1 a a' N- (6.42)
m 2,4,6,
1 , 3 , 5 , . (6.33 ) M = [(:\+21.1) jo(kmr) - 41.1j1(k
N = m mr)/(kmr)] (6.43 )
{
2,4,6,
Solution for Rectangular Pulse
a 3
! r3j1(kmr)dr = ~ j2(k
We can now obtain the displacement and pressure for a rec-
ma) (6.34 )
m tangular pulse of microwave energy by applying Duhamel's prin-
a 3
J r
2[j1(k
d r= a {[j1(k - jo(k (6.35)
ciple (Churchill, 1958) to the solutions expressed by equations
mr)]2 2 ma)]2 ma)j2(kma)}
(6.38) and (6.41). That is,
where j2(k ma) is the second order spherical Bessel function of the
a t
first kind. Using these relations, (6.32) becomes u(r,t) = at! Ft(t-t')u'(r,t') dt' (6.44 )
2 1 2
A = =+= uoa ("N) { 2 }
m 'JT [j1(k a)] - jo(k a)j2(k a)
where u'(r,t) is the solution given by equation (6.38) for the case
m m m
of Ft(t) == 1. An equivalent expression can, of course, be written
{3'~2
A l.l
(t:-)
m
a j 2 (k a) - k a j
m m
0 (k a)
m
2
1
(k a) _ (N'JT)
'1 } ,
(6.36 ) for the pressure. Therefore, by substituting equations (6.12) and
m (6.38) into equation (6.44), we have for the displacement
1,3,5, . 00 sin w t
N = { u(r,t) = uoQt + ~ A j1 (kmr) ~ , 0 ~ t :: to
2,4,6, m (6.45)
m=1 m
For kma == m1T == N, equation (6.36) simplifies to sin w t sinw (t-t o)
u (r , t) = u 0 Qt 0 + ~ A j 1 (k r) [ m_ - m ], t > to (6.46)
A = -u a(-.!..)[1 + ~ (-.!..)2] (6.37) ~1
m m w
m
w
m
-
m 0 N'JT 3:\+21.1 N'JT
Similarly, we have for the pressure
The displacement of the sphere in response to Ft(t) == 1 is now
given by introducing equation (6.36) in equation (6.30) and then P (r , t ) = 41.1 u , St + ~ A k M
sin w t
m_, 0 ~ t < to
combining it with equations (6.24) and (6.16). We then have r m=1 m m m w (6.47 )
m
sin wt sin w (t-t o )
u(r,t) = UoQ + ~ A j1(k r) cos w t P (r,t) = 41.1 o St o + ~ A k M [ m (6.48 )
m=1 m m m (6.38) U
-~---], t ~ to
r m=1 m m m wm
m
150 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications The Spherical Model 151
where k m, Am, 0, S, and M, are as given in equations (6.31), 80
(6.36), (6.39), (6.42), and (6.43). Equations (6.45) to (6.48)
represent the general solution for the displacement and pressure
in a spherical head exposed to rectangular-pulse-modulated micro-
wave radiation as a function of the microwave, thermal, elastic, """"
N
...
CI'
placement and the pressure are proportional to the peak absorbed
power density. It is easy to see that the displacement and radial
-
>
I&..
0
stress also depend linearly on the peak incident power density. >
u
z lIO
At the center of the sphere, r == 0, both equations (6.45) and I&J
::
0
( 6.46) reduce to zero and there is no displacement at the center I&J
CI'
I&..
of the model. On the other hand, at the surface (r == a), equation -oJ
C
~
(6.42) becomes naught. The radial stress is given by the summa- z
tion of the harmonic time functions alone. !c
Q
z 20
::
I&..
Computed Frequency of Sound
The fundamental frequency of sound generated inside the
spherical head, according to equation (6.31), is given by
f 1 = c/2a (6.49)
00 2 4 6 8 10
where a is radius of the sphere and c is the velocity of sound prop-
RADIUS OF SPHERICAL HEAD (CM)
agation in, brain matter (see Table IX). A plot of the funda-
Figure 71. The fundamental frequencies of sound generated inside surface-
mental frequency of sound as a function of head radius is shown
stress-free spherical head as a function of head radii.
in Figure 71. The frequency exceeds 80 kHz at a radius of 1 cm
and decreases rapidly to a value of 25 kHz at a = 3 ern. For larger theoretical formulation is extended to constrained surfaces in the
head sizes, between 7 and 10 ern, it gradually decreases to about following section.
7.3 to 10.4 kHz (Lin, 1976c).
The radius of a guinea pig's head is between 1.5 and 2.5 cm; Computed Displacement and Pressure
Figure 71 therefore predicts a fundamental sound frequency be- Using the physical parameters for brain matter given in Tables
tween 29 and 48 kHz. This is slightly lower than the cochlear IX to XII, we can estimate the amplitude of the acoustic signals
microphonic oscillations recorded from the round window of generated in the heads of animals and humans irradiated with rec-
guinea pigs (Chou et aI., 1975). Similar comparisons for cats tangular pulses of microwave energy. Results of many displacement
show that the computed fundamental frequency for this stress-free and pressure computations are available (Lin, 1976c, 1977 a,c ) .
model is usually smaller than the measured results. However, it Figures 72 and 73 show the computed displacement of brain
should be noted that much better agreement is obtained when the matter in a 3 em and a 7 em radius spherical head exposed to
152 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications
The Spherical Model 153
~
~
r=1.5
2
....
0 0
~.
- 2~
es
r=3.5
i:
8~ i:
8~
t-
Z
lLJ t-
s: Z
lLJ
r=o.o
~~I\ s:
lLJ
--I
(L ~~I~
-
en
Cl
.n
--I
(L ,
-
c.n
-.J~ Cl
-
CX
Cl
CX
a::
I
r=3.0
-.J~
cx
_I
o
r=7.0
cx
a::
2
I A=3.0cm ~
A='lOcm
To=10u sec
To=10""sec
1.
00 .02 .01& .06 .08 .10
TIME (SEC) (XI03) .02 .01& .06 .08
Figure 72. Radial displacement as a function of time for a 3 em radius TIME (SEC) 0(10 3 )
spherical head exposed to 2450 MHz plane wave. The peak absorption is Figure 73. Radial displacement as a function of time for a 7 ern radius
1000 mW/cmi{. spherical head exposed to 918 MHz plane wave. The peak absorption is
1000 mW/cmi{.
pulsed 2450 MHz and 918 MHz microwave radiation, respective-
Figures 74 and 75 for the displacements shown in Figures 72 and
ly. The pulse width is 10 usee and the peak rate of microwave
73. It is interesting to note that the sound pressure begins with
absorption is 1000 mW/cm 3 As expected, the displacement at the
zero amplitude and then grows to an intermediate value. With a
center of the sphere is zero. At other locations, the displacement
sudden rise of amplitude the main body of the pressure wave ar-
increases almost linearly as a function of time until t == to, the
rives, oscillating at a constant pressure level in the absence of
pulse width; it then starts to oscillate around that value. In both
elastic loss.
cases shown, the maximum displacements are on the order of
Table XIV and XV show, for a peak absorption of 1000 mW/
10- 13 meters. The displacements stay constant after a transient
ern", that the pressures generated at the center of the sphere are
buildup because of the lossless assumption for the elastic media.
70 to 90 db above 0.0002 dyne/em". At this rate of energy ab-
The apparent higher frequency of oscillation seems to stem from
sorption, the rate of temperature rise at the center of both spheres
the contribution of higher order modes.
is O.258C/sec in the absence of heat conduction. The temperature
The sound pressures in the spherical head models are shown in
rise in 10 usee is, therefore, approximately 2.6 x la-6 o C.
154 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications The Spherical Model 155
8 Q
ui Q
8
:i 8
cD
~
U o
o i:
o(f)N u
<,
8
Z o
(f)~
>- <,
e z
>-
811 e
(f)
(f)
lLJ (()
8.
a:: (()
t- w
(f)o a::
o ~
-
...J (()Q
a:C}J C)
...J
Cl
a: ~=r
a:: 0
o a:
o a::
:;;
I A=3.0cm 0
C)
=
To 10l-tsec ~t A=IOcm
o
o
To=10/-lsec
cf I I I I I I
.00 .02 .QII .06 .08 .10
TIME (SEC) (XI03) .02 .QII .06 .08
Figure 74. Radial stress (sound pressure) generated in a 3 em radius TIME (SEC) (XI03)
spherical head exposed to 2450 MHz plane wave. The peak absorption is Figure 75. Radial stress (sound pressure) generated in a 7 em radius spher-
1000 mW/em a. ical head exposed to 918 MHz plane wave. The peak absorption is 10(/0
mW/cm3
~ ~ lUI
lar pulses from 0.1 to 100 usee while keeping the peak incident
(or absorbed) power density constant. Pulse-modulated, micro-
wave-induced sound pressure amplitudes clearly depend on the
pulse width of the impinging radiation. Moreover, there is ap-
N
U
<,
E:
UJ
5
!\ 5
parently a minimum pulse width for efficient sound pressure gen- ~41 I \ , I I II 1111111 -1 4
eration which varies according to the sphere size and the frequen-
cy of the impinging microwaves. In general, sound pressure first
3, I , I II 1111111 i3
rises rapidly to a maximum and then alternates around a constant
average amplitude.
Examination of the numerical results given in Table XIV indi-
cates that the incident power density required to produce the
threshold sound pressure of 120 db (Corso, 1963) necessary for
perception through bone conduction is about 14,500 mW jcm2
:[ / I
3 O. 1 1.0 10 100
PULSE WIDTH (f1SEC)
Figure 77. Sound pressure amplitude generated in a 7 em radius spherical
head exposed to 918 MHz plane wave as a function of pulse width. The
peak rate of absorbed energy density is 1000 mW/cm 3 .
N
A = 3 CM
E:
~2
UJ
This is approximately 6.5 times greater than the 2200 mW jcm 2
z
>
..9 incident power reported by Guy et al. (1973, 1975). The sound
UJ
a::
pressure generated in a surface-stress-free spherical head model
::::
(I)
(I)
UJ
is therefore smaller than known results. However, we should em-
a::
Q.
Q
phasize this happens only if the surface of the sphere is stress free.
z
g 1
(I)
The agreement between theory and measurement is much better
if the boundary of the sphere is assumed to be rigidly constrained,
as we shall see in the following discussions.
SOUND WAVE GENERATION IN A SPHERE WITH
CONSTRAINED BOUNDARY
0.10 1. 00 10.0 100.0 Theoretical Analysis
PULSE WIDTH ("'SEC)
If the surface of the sphere is rigidly constrained, the boundary
Figure 76. Sound pressure amplitude generated in a 3 em radius spherical
head exposed to 2450 MHz plane wave as a function of pulse width. The condition at the surface requires that the displacement
peak rate of absorbed energy density is 1000 mW/ ern", u(a,t) = 0 (6.14 )
158 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications The Spherical Model 159
Following the procedures set forth in the previous section, we frequency of sound generated inside a spherical head with con-
may first obtain a solution for F, (t) = 1 by expressing the dis- strained boundary without shear stress is given by
placement u(r,t) as a summation. That is
1 = k 1c/(2n) = 4.49 c/(2na) (6.55)
u(r,t) = u (r) + u (r,t)
s t ( 6.50)
It can be seen that the fundamental frequency under constrained
where u, (r) is found using the boundary condition Us (a) = 0 surface condition is significantly higher than that given by the
to be stress-free case. As before, the frequency of the acoustic wave gen-
us(r) = (~) [a j (N7fr) +~ ] _ {1,3,5, ... erated is a function of the acoustic property (velocity of propaga-
N7f 1 a N7f' N- (6.51 )
2,4,6, ...
tion) and size of the sphere.
and where the time-varying component is given by To determine the coefficient Am in equation (6.52), we may in-
u (r,t) = L A j1(k r) cos w t
sert equations (6.51) and (6.52) into equation (6.50) and make
t m=1 m m m ( 6.52) use of the initial condition of equation (6.15). Because the func-
where kill is the positive zeroes of tion jt (kmr) is orthogonal, we get, after integration over r from
Oto a,
j1 (ka ) = 0 1
(6.53 ) (_ 1_ ) j (k a) k aj 0 (kma) (k a) 2 _ (Nn) 2
and
w = k c o
'k a
1 2 -1m~
A = 2u a (Nn)
2 m m
-----:;r-
m
[. (k a)] 2 _ j (k a) j 2 (k a)
-=-__..
m m (6.54 ) m J 1 mOm m
(6.56)
The solution of equation (6.53) is an infinite sequence of eigen- 1,3,5, ..
N= {
values, kill. Since fm = W m / 21T represents the frequency of vibra- 2,4,6,
tion of the spherical head model, there are therefore an infinite
The displacement of brain matter inside the spherical model is
number of modes of vibration of the spherical head irradiated with therefore given by
appropriate pulse modulated microwave energy. The values of
kllla for m == 1 to 11 are listed in Table XVI. The fundamental u(r,t) = uoD + L A j1(k r) cos w t,
m=1 m m m (6.57)
where
TABLE XVI 1,3,5, ...
D= 1:... raj (N7fr) + (L.)] Nc { (6.58 )
N7f 1 a Nn'
ZEROES OF j.Ika) = 0 2,4,6, .
m kma
and Am is given by equation (6.56). The pressure p.Ir.t) is ob-
tained from the displacement using
1 . . 4.493411
2 ................................... 7.725252 p (r t ) = (A + 211) dU + 2A ~ - yv (6.59)
3 r ' dt' r
............... . . 10.904122
4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.066194 and is given by
5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.220755 p (r, c) = uoP 0 + L Ak P cos w t,
6 r m=1 m m m m (6.60)
....... . . 20.371303
7 .... . . 23.519453 where
8 ....................................... -411a j (Nnr { 1"3 5,
26.666054 P o = -N- -) + (3A+2 .... (l)2
11 ) -
9 .......... . . 29.811598 nr 1 a N7f ,. N- (6.61 )
2,4,6, .
10 ............. . . 32.956389
11 411
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36.100622 P = (A+211) jo(k r) - k j1(k r)
m m r m (6.62)
m
160 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications The Spherical Model 161
The solutions expressed by equations (6.57) and (6.60) apply
to the case of Ft(t) == 1. This solution may be extended to the Computed Frequency of Sound
case of a rectangular pulse using Duhamel's principle according The fundamental frequency of sound generated in a spherical
to equation (6.44). Therefore, by letting u'(r,t) be equal to equa- head with constrained-boundary is given by equation (6.55). As
tion (6.57), we have for the displacement of the spherical head mentioned before, the frequency is completely independent of the
in response to a rectangular pulse of microwave energy with pulse microwave absorption pattern; it is only a function of the size of
width to, in the absence of shear stress, the spherical head and the acoustic properties of the tissue in-
sin w t volved. This indicates that the frequency of sound perceived by
u (r, t ) = u , Dt + L A j 1 (k r) m_ 0 < t < to
m=l m m wm (6.63) a subject irradiated by rectangular pulses of microwave energy
will be the same regardless of the frequency of the impinging ra-
sin w t sin w (t-t o)
u(r,t)=uoDt o + L Ajl(kr) [
m m w
m__ m
w
], t > to (6.64) diation.
m=1 m m
The fundamental frequency is plotted as a function of spher-
In a similar manner, we have for the pressure ical head radius in Figure 78. It is readily observed that the fre-
sin w t quency in various subjects differs according to their equivalent
p (r,t) = uoPot + L A k P __ , 0 < t < to
m
(6.65)
r m=l m mm wm
~lO t \
\
\
0
wave radiation. Since u., is related to peak absorbed power density 5 8 \
W0, the sound pressure generated is also proportional to peak power
0
(/) \
\',1
density.
u,
0
\
G 6 \
The dependence of sound pressure on pulse width is more com- z \
plicated in general. For short pulses (wlllt o << 1), however, equa-
UJ
::J
o CONSTRAINED SURFACE
tion (6.66) simplifies to UJ
~ 4
...J
sin w t sin w (t-t o)
Pr(r,t) = uoPot o + L AmkmPm [ - w -m- - wm ]
' t > to (6.67) .-
z
m=1 m m UJ <,
~ 2 <,
We see that for short pulses, the pressure generated in the head
model is also proportional to the product of power density and
0
Z
::J
u,
FREE
~ ...........
------. -----
pulse width or energy density per pulse. From Table XVI and oa 2 4 6 8 10
equation (6.54), it is seen that the maximum pulse width for
SPHERICAL HEAD RADIUS (CM)
which equation (6.67) is applicable is approximately one usee
Figure 78. Fundamental frequency of sound generated inside spherical
for a == 7 em and 0.5 usee for a == 3 ern. models of the head.
162 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications The Spherical Model 163
spherical head sizes, i.e, the smaller the head size, the higher the
frequency. For example, the average head radius for guinea pigs N= 6
is about 1.5 to 2.5 ern: Figure 78 yields a range of 40 to 70 kHz A = 3.0 eM
for the corresponding fundamental sound frequency. The average 8 To = 10 ~SEC
u!J
head radius for cats is approximately 2.5 to 3.5 em; the corre-
sponding fundamental sound frequency is between 30 to 40 kHz.
It is significant to note that these frequencies are very close to the 8
:i R = 0.0
50 kHz cochlear microphonics reported for guinea pigs (Chou
et aI., 1975) and 38 kHz oscillations reported for cats (Chou
~
et al., 1976). Human head sizes are known to vary from 7 to 10 u g
cm for adults. From Figure 78, we see that the estimated funda- o
(flN
<,
mental sound frequency ranges from 10 to 15 kHz. This is certain- Z
)0-
cD I I I I I I
two approaches. '0.00 0.02 o.~ 0.06 0.08
TIME (SEC) (XI03)
Computed Pressure and Displacement
Figure 79. Sound pressure in a 3 em radius spherical head exposed to 2450
Figure 79 is a plot of pressure in a 3 em radius spherical head ~1Hz microwave energy. The rate of absorbed energy density is 1000 mw/
irradiated with 2450 MHz radiation as a function of time for a 10 ern".
usee pulse. The curves are evaluated at r == 0, 1.5, and 3.0 em. It
is seen that the pressure is the highest in the center of the spher- spherical head is 3.69 dyne-em" for a peak absorption of 1000
ical head. After a transient buildup, which lasted for the duration mw /cm 3 , which corresponds to 589 mW /cm 2 of incident power
of the pulse-width, the pressure oscillates at a constant level be- (Lin et aI., 1973). This pressure is considerably higher than that
cause of the lossless assumption for the elastic medium. It is also obtained from the surface stress-free model.
important to note that the high frequency oscillation is modulated There are two sets of experimental data that are particularly
by a low-frequency envelope whose frequency is the same as the suitable for comparison with the results described above. In one
fundamental frequency of sound given in Figure 78 for a spherical case the threshold incident power density was reported to be 2200
head with a == 3 cm. The pressure generated at the center of the mw /cm" (Guy et aI., 1973, 1975). For the other, the threshold
164 Microwave Auditory Effects .and Applications The Spherical Model 165
was said to be about 1300 mW jcm2 (Rissmann and Cain,
1975). The corresponding pressure amplitude is therefore between
8.1 and 14 dyneycm", i.e. 92 to 97 db relative to 0.0002 dyne/ ])
em". Assuming that perception by bone conduction for cats is the
same as for humans, the minimum audible sound pressure at 40
kHz is about 120 db according to Corso (1963). Thus, the theo-
retically predicted threshold incident power density is very close ,-..
N~
to the measured value. U
<,
uJ
The computed pressure as a function of pulse width is shown Z
>-
o
in Figures 80 and 81 for a 3 em radius sphere exposed to 2450 uJ
0::
MHz radiation and for a 7 cm radius sphere exposed to 918 MHz :::l
(/)
(/)
uJ
radiation, respectively. The curves are evaluated at an absorbed g: ~
1.0 10 50
4 A=3 CM
......... PULSE WIDTH (~ SEC)
N~
U
<, Figrre 81. Sound pressure generated inside a 7 em spherical head with
UJ
Z corstrained boundary as a function of pulse width of impinging microwave
~
........ 3 pules. Peak absorption is 1000 roW/cm3 .
UJ
0:::
::::
en
en
UJ
microwave-induced pressure peaks around 2 JLsec for the first case
g: 2 and peaks around 5 usee for the second case. We may, therefore,
Q
Z
::::
consider these values as the optimum pulse widths required for ef-
o
en ficient conversion of pulsed microwave to acoustic energy. This
is [ualitatively similar to the free-surface formulation, although
1
the detailed dependence on pulse width differs somewhat for the
twe approaches.
The displacement in the spherical model of the eat's head is
0.1 shewn in Figure 82. As expected, the displacement is zero at both
PULSE WIDTH (~ SEC) the center and the surface of the sphere. For the case shown, the
Figure 80. Sound pressure generated in a 3 em spherical head with con- maximum displacement is around 10-13 meters. The frequency
strained surface as a function of pulse width of impinging microwave of mechanical oscillation compares exactly with that predicted in
pulses. Peak absorption is 1000 mW / ern". Figure 78.
166 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications The Spherical Model 167
Q
Q
of ' ~
LJ o .
o
(3
(flPJ
<,
Z
>-
0.02 O.Qij 0.06 0.08 ee
TIME (SEC) (XI03) ~.L--~-
(flO
Figure 82. Displacement in a 3 cm radius spherical head exposed to 2450 (J')
w
MHz radiation. Peak absorption is 1000 mW/cm:{. a::
~
(J')c:::a
Q
cf~
Computations of pressure and displacement have also been per- -..
Cl
~
formed for a 7 em radius sphere simulating an adult human head a::
exposed to 918 MHz radiation (see Figs. 83 and 84) . For this c:::a
o
cDI
case, the pressure at the center is 6.82 dyne/ern" for a peak ab-
sorption of 1000 mW/cm 3 and an incident power density of
2183 mW/cm 2 Although specific measurements have not been c:::a
Q
made for humans exposed to 918 MHz radiation, Frey and Mes- ai I I I I I I
0.00 0.02 o.~ 0.06 0.08
senger (1973) have conducted a series of measurements at 1245 TI ME (SEC) (X103 )
MHz for humans and have reported the threshold peak incident Figure 83. Sound pressure in a 7 em radius spherical head exposed to 918
power density to be around 80 mW/cm 2 Assuming that the MHz radiation. Peak absorption is 1000 mW/cm3 .
168 Microwave A uditory Effects .and Applications The Spherical Model 169
N= 6 "'"
~
~ ~~
o c E
A = 7.0 ~
'
.....
\oJ V)O'\NM
~oooooo
~~
~V)N-
To = 10 ~SEC -N
o ~!
"'0 ::::
0:11
-0 """""
es .....
::::...-.
3.5 ~ E
R = ~ \oJ \O-~r---
i: o \oJ;:i -V)MO'\
UM N""';o\M
111~
-0 ~~
~<
t-
Oel')
Z o~
l&.J
x: :E~
o;:J ...-.
l&.J~ ~ ~E
u. <~
a:o ~~::
::::: \.) ooO'\-N
-J
(L :I::>E ~~ 0\0\000
~Mo\~
(f) ~<~ "'" t::
...... <~~ ~~
CJ
o uoe
-J- ~~o
a: Q
...... ~~o
CJ :I::E~
a:
a::
R -
_(0.0
7.0
~~~
eI')
== ~:s ~
0
~
~
0lJ
'a
~.:=
ro
~"Cj
r::
;::j
ro
o ro
o .:> ~;:J ~
.~ ~.-
r::
or ' >< zCJ<
~
~
(1) C'V r::
r:: U
'50lJ
C'V
EE
ro
~ ~z~ V)
;::j::S
~ ~<Z ~..c::
~ ~~O
<
-
o
91"
0.00
I
0.02
I I I
~
UU~
<~f-i
~~~
~U~
eI')(1)O
~
\oJ
::::
~
:::::
0.011 0.06 0.08 0.10 ~{/)eI')
~~~
~ ~
~
~
~
;:JO<
A SUMMARY eI')~
eI')~
~
We have presented a model for sound wave generation in ~<
~~
~o
spheres simulating heads of laboratory animals and human beings ~<
<~
by assuming a spherically symmetric microwave absorption pat- UJ~
~~
tern. The impinging microwaves are taken to be plane wave rec-
tangular pulses. The problem has been formulated in terms of
thermoelastic theory in which the absorbed microwave energy
represents the volume heat source. The thermoelastic equation of t.:l
:::::
motion without shear stress is solved for the sound wave under ~
i;:s...-.
~ E NMV)t"-
-e
~
---
:....
~
\oJ
~
170 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications The Spherical Model 171
both stress-free and constrained-surface conditions using boundary Chou, C. K., Galambos, R., Guy, A. W., and Lovely, R. H.: Cochlear mi-
value technique and Duhamel's principle. crophonics generated by microwave pulses. J Microwave Power, 10:
The results indicate that the frequency of the auditory signals 361-367, 1975.
Chou, C. K., Guy, A. W., and Galambos, R.: Microwave-induced cochlear
generated is independent of both the frequency of the incident mi- microphonics in cats. J Microwave Power, 11: 171-173, 1976.
crowave and the absorbed energy distribution; it is only a function Churchill, R. V.: Operational Mathematics, 2nd ed. New York, McGraw,
of head size and the tissue acoustic property (velocity of acoustic 1958.
wave propagation). In particular, the frequency varies inversely Corso, J. F.: Bone-conduction thresholds for sonic and ultrasonic frequen-
with sphere radius: the higher the frequency, the smaller the ra- cies. J Acoust Soc Am, 35:1738-1743,1963.
Frey, A. H. and Messenger, R., Jr.: Human perception of illumination with
dius. It should be noted that the fundamental frequency predicted
pulsed ultra-high frequency electromagnetic energy. Science, 11:356-
by the constrained-surface formulation is about 70 percent higher
358, 1973.
than that computed from the stress-free expression and it is ex- Guy, A. W., Taylor, E. M., Ashleman, B., and Lin, J. C.: Microwave inter-
tremely close to the experimental data reported to date (see Fig. action with the auditory systems of humans and cats. IEEE/ MTT In-
78). ternational Symposium Digest, 321-323, 1973.
Extensive numerical computations have shown that, although Guy, A. W., Chou, C. K., Lin, J. C., and Christensen, D.: Microwave in-
duced acoustic effects in mammalian auditory systems and physical ma-
the resultant waveforms are qualitatively similar, pressures that
terials. Ann NY Acad Sci, 247:194-215,1975.
are computed based on the constrained-surface formulation are
Ho, H. S. and Guy, A. W.: Development of dosimetry for RF and micro-
consistently higher than those calculated using the stress-free ex- wave radiation. Health Physics, 29:317-324, 1975.
pression. Moreover, agreement between theory and experiment is Jahnke, E. and Emde, F.: Tables of Functions, 4th ed., New York, Dover,
excellent for the constrained-boundary formulation. 1945.
Table XVII is a summary of peak pressure and displacement Johnson, C. C. and Guy, A. W.: Nonionizing electromagnetic wave effects
in four animals irradiated with 10 JLsec wide pulses at the same in biological materials and systems. Proc IEEE, 60:692-718, 1972.
Kritikos, H. N. and Schwan, H. P., Hot spot generated in conduction
absorbed energy level. The incident power density and frequency
spheres by EM waves and biological implications. IEEE Trans Biomed
differ according to the species involved. Although the pulse width
Eng, 19:53-58, 1972.
and peak absorption are the same in each case, the pressure and Kritikos, H. N. and Schwan, H. P.: The distribution of heating potential in-
displacement differ somewhat. The results shown in Figures 76, side lossy spheres. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng, 22:457-463, 1975.
77, 80, and 81 indicate that there is a minimum or optimum pulse Lin, J. C., Guy, A. W., and Kraft, G. H.: Microwave selection brain heat-
width for the efficient conversion of microwaves to acoustic en- ing. J Microwave Power, 8:275-286, 1973.
ergy, as has been suggested on experimental grounds (see Chapter Lin, J. C.: Interaction of two cross-polarized electromagnetic waves with
mammalian cranial structures. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng, 23:371-375,
3, section on "Experimental Human Exposures," and Chapter 4,
1976a.
section on "<Threshold' Determination"). Finally, the general Lin, J. C.: Microwave auditory effect-a comparison of some possible trans-
agreement between theoretical calculations and reported experi- duction mechanisms. J Microwave Power, 11 :77-81, 1976b.
mental measurements of sound frequency and threshold param- Lin, J. C.: Microwave-induced hearing: Some preliminary theoretical ob-
eters clearly demonstrates the applicability of the model to micro- servations. J Microwave Power, 11:295 . . 298, 1976c.
wave-induced hearing in mammals. Lin, J. C.: On microwave-induced hearing sensation. IEEE Trans Micro-
wave Theory Tech, 25:605-613, 1977a.
REFERENCES Lin, J. C.: Further studies on the microwave auditory effect. IEEE Trans
Carslow, H. S. and Jaeger, J. C.: Conduction of Heat in Solids, 2nd ed. Microwave Theory Tech, 25:938-943, 1977b.
London, Oxford Pr, 1959. Lin, J. C.: Theoretical calculation of frequencies and thresholds of micro-
172 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications
Research Uses
There are at least two experimental situations in which the mi-
crowave auditory effect offers a unique potential as a research
tool. First is in the area of microwave auditory stimulation in be-
havioral investigations. It is clear from the material treated in RIGHT HEMISPHERE
Chapter 3 that appropriate pulse-modulated microwaves can con- POSTERIOR
ECTOSYI,.V IAN)
trol or disrupt the behavior of experimental animals in terms of AREA {PES
induced auditory stimulation, as does conventional acoustic en- Figure 86. Tonal localization in the dog's auditory cortex, with the low fre-
ergy. Microwave auditory stimulation therefore appears to be a quencies represented posteriorly and high frequencies anteriorly. An intensi-
ty distribution (db) is found in the mediolateral direction. (Adapted from
useful research tool for specialized psychophysical experimenta-
Tunturi: A difference in the representation of auditory signals. Am J Physiol,
tion on the auditory system.
168:712-727,1952.)
L....-.-..
Applied Aspects 179
178 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications
field strength allowed by the safety guide for a 0.1 usee pulse re-
auditory signals occur instantaneously at average power densities
peated once every 0.1 hour would exceed the breakdown field
well below those reported to produce biological damage, and the
strength of air. Clearly, the safety standard needs to be refined to
acoustic frequencies are in the ten's of kilohertz range, these sig-
account for field strength and modulation as more knowledge is
nals can be a unique stimulus for mapping the tonal locations of
the primary auditory cortex in response to ultrasonic frequencies. gained in these areas.
The possibility of using microwave auditory effect as a warning
In addition to bilateral stimulus presentation, independent of the
signal against exposure to hazardous levels of microwave energy
subject's orientation with respect to the microwave field, this ap-
(radar, for example) has also been discussed briefly (Michaelson,
proach eliminates such problems as attenuation and distortion of
1975). Although the thresholds for the auditory effect have not
ultrasonic pulses through air and through bony structures of the
yet been adequately determined, we have shown that exposure to
cranium. The points of maximal electrical activity may be record-
pulse-modulated microwaves with average incident power density
ed using either strychnine spikes or microelectrode techniques.
well below one mW/cm2 produces distinct hearing sensations
MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE (see Chapter 3). Thus, exposure to radar fields whose average
Recommendations for permissible exposure levels for the popu- power densities exceed 100 mW/ em" should yield very noticeable
lation have been developed by the American National Standard auditory effects. On the other hand, the warning property of the
Institute (ANSI C95 .1-1974 ). The levels are set to prevent pos- microwave auditory effect may be limited in operational situa-
sible thermal biological injury to the individual from exposure to tions because of high ambient acoustic noise and other psycholog-
microwave radiation. The thermal effects were considered to be ical factors attendant to human response to warning signals in gen-
the most harmful and have therefore been used as the basis for es- eral.
OTHER BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
tablishing the permissible exposure levels.
For normal environmental conditions, an individual should not Up to this point we have concentrated our discussion on the
be exposed to power densities greater than 10 mW /cm 2 for con- auditory effect of pulse-modulated microwaves on biological sys-
tinuous-wave (cw) radiation. This is exclusive of deliberate med- tems. Attention is now directed to considering the general effects
ical exposure. For modulated fields, the average energy density of pulsed microwave energy on the physiology and behavior of ex-
over any 0.1 hour period should not exceed 1 mWHr/cm 2 Values posed subjects. We present a brief account of results obtained in
for other exposure conditions can be found in the above mentioned five different areas of research. It is possible that some of these re-
standards. These recommendations pertain to both whole body ported findings may be related to incidental microwave-induced
andpartial body exposure. acoustic stimulation including displacement and pressure.
It is known that anatomic details and microwave frequency and Cardiac Rhythm
its penetration ability affect the amount of energy absorbed.
The effects of pulse-modulated microwave radiation on heart
Hence, the recommended values are related in a complicated man-
rate have been investigated by several researchers; however, there
ner to the power levels at which injuries have been observed to oc-
has been no general agreement as to the nature of these effects.
cur. It should be understood that recommended levels are maxi-
Levitina (1964) of the Soviet Union exposed twelve localized
mum values and that every attempt should be made, especially un-
areas of the rabbit body, including the frontal and occipital parts
der moderate to severe heat stress, to minimize exposure.
of the head from the dorsal and ventral aspects, to a series of short
The applicability of the safety guide to situations involving short
microwave pulses (see Table XVIII for pulse parameters used).
pulses of microwave energy with low pulse repetition frequency
He found bradycardia (reduced heart rate) in 60 percent of the
is questionable. For example, the equivalent free-space electric
180 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications Applied Aspects 181
~
o
~
~
;..,
~
;..,
~
;..,
rhythm change via direct current pickup or stimulation of the skin
::: ca ca
~
~ ~ (1) (1)
receptors at the point of electrode contact by induced current on
~
E "'tj ..c:: ..c:: ~
f-4
< E .~ ] "'tj
(1)
"'tj
(1) the electrode) is not relevant here, since, if induced current stim-
~
c ~ >. ~ ~ ~
U ulation of the skin receptors was involved, one would expect to
f-4
U"'tj-
00 0 o o
~ ~..o~ ~ ~
<
~
observe the same rhythm changes regardless of the physiologic
~
::c ...... state of the exposed area of the body.
~
zo
(J')
~
~ ~
~'a
::::=
~
- -o-
o
N
o
tr)
Frey and Siefert (1968), using isolated frog hearts and pulse-
modulated 1425 MHz radiation synchronized with the p-wave of
;> ~ the electrocardiogram, have shown significant heart rate increase.
<
~ ~ ~ On the other hand, Clapman and Cain (1975) have found no ef-
o ~ .9
==
~ ~
u c ~.5 o
~ ~ ~ fect when isolated frog hearts were irradiated using essentially the
:> ~ ~ SE N
same protocol. The frequency and power density of the impinging
>< ::s ~Q
~ 0 radiation used in these studies are indicated in Table XVIII. It
..J ~
~ ~ ~, ~E
< < ~ \::s ~ \..)
,-.. should be noted that related examinations by Liu et al. (1976)
f-4 ~ \:S , ~""'-..
otr) o o o
~~\:)
\0 otr) \0
also showed a gross insensitivity of frog heart rate to pulse-modu-
::> ~~~E
M
c
o
'-' tr)
related to the wavefront of the impinging radiation and the geom- Analeptic Effects
etry of the object under irradiation, it is entirely possible that the
A series of studies by McAfee on alterations in animal behavior
absorbed energy differences associated with these studies pro-
and neurophysiology under pulsed microwave exposure has indi-
duced an effect in one and had no effect in the other. Also, the
cated an analeptic effect (1961, 1962, 1971). In these studies, the
hearts in the Frey and Seifert study came from decapitated frogs,
heads of rats were exposed to 20 to 40 mW/cm2 average power
whereas they came from curarized frogs in the Liu et al. study.
densities of 10,000 MHz radiation at 300', 600, or 1000, pulses per
Because d-tubocurarine is known to produce a variety of mild ef-
second. The pulse shape was presumably rectangular in character.
fects in sympathetic ganglion cells of the frog, among others, it is
At approximately five minutes of exposure, a sleeping or anesthe-
possible that curarization suppressed what otherwise might have
tized animal was aroused and the alertness of an awake animal in-
been an unmistakable sensitivity to microwaves (Liu et aI., 1976).
creased; little or no noticeable rectal temperature change was seen
On the other hand, Clapman and Cain (1975) reported that
at this stage. The rats' blood pressure was unchanged initially and
the heart rate of an isolated frog heart is extremely sensitive to
then suddenly decreased with arousal. Respiratory hyperpnea reg-
stimulation by short current pulses applied from 200 to 300 msec
ularly appeared, presumably as the result of a laryngeal spasm that
after the occurrence of the p-wave. The effect is very similar to
may then produce asphyxiation, convulsion, and death even after
that observed by Frey and Seifert in their microwave study. Be-
microwave radiation was discontinued. The analeptic effect was
cause metal electrodes were used in the Frey and Seifert study and
considered to rise from thermal stimulation of peripheral nerves.
because metal electrodes are known to enhance energy absorption
A comparable physiological change was observed in rats follow-
and to distort its distribution in the tissue surrounding the elec-
ing infrared radiation and warm-water thermode stimulation of the
trode (see Chapter 4, section on "Brain Stem"), it is therefore dif-
afferent peripheral fibers within the microwave exposed subcu-
ficult to accept their results as convincing evidence for a micro-
taneous tissue. The critical temperature was reported to be around
wave-induced change in heart rate. It is possible that the unde-
45C.
tected increase in absorbed microwave energy combined with mi-
The effect has also been demonstrated in cats, dogs, and rabbits
crowave-induced currents on the metal electrode contributed to
at approximately the same incident power densities that aroused
the reported sensitivity to pulse-modulated microwave radiation.
the rat, but without danger of convulsion or death. The pupils of
With Levitina's report, as with much Soviet and eastern Euro-
Nembutal-anesthetized cats dilated widely upon arousal. The
pean literature on the subject of biological effects of microwave
animal was able to move its head, open its eyes, and vocalize.
radiation, details of pertinent experimental procedures are lacking.
Some cats required additional anesthetics after the arousal episode
This effectively prevented any realistic and meaningful duplica-
for a surgical level of anesthesia to be maintained. If the lower
tion of the experiment to confirm its findings. For example, while
legs of these animals were exposed under the same conditions,
the author indicated that twelve localized areas of the rabbit's
body were irradiated, he failed to report how and with what ap- identical responses were observed. Injection of the skin of the
plicator the partial body irradiation was accomplished. These vari- head or the leg with a peripheral nerve blocker (Xylocaine)
ables, both individually and combined, affect the degree and pat- completely abolished the response.
tern of microwave absorption by the biological object and are of The effect may be useful in clinical medicine. The above ex-
crucial importance in determining the rabbit's response to micro- periments suggest that an individual who is comatosed from an
wave energy. overdose of drug or injury to the cerebrum might be awakened by
184 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications
Applied Aspects 185
treatment with pulse-modulated microwave radiation applied to
the cutaneous nervous structures of the limbs or branches of the 25
trigeminal or facial nerve until a temperature of 45C is obtained
subcutaneously (McAfee, 1971). There is no danger of burns to
the skin or the subcutaneous tissue. The increased temperature of
the cutaneous nerve branches that lie within the subcutaneous tis- 20
>
sue is reached while the temperature of the surrounding tissue re- I-
.....
.....J
mains relatively unchanged. Both the skin and muscle are well -c
I-
vascularized and are able to dissipate the microwave-generated 0:::
0
heat, while heat will accumulate in the poorly vascularized sub- :E 15
....z
cutaneous fatty tissue with resulting localized temperature rise, UJ
particularly if the microwave energy is pulsed. U
0:::
UJ
Q.
Pharmacologic Effects ~ 10
Prolonged exposure to pulse-modulated microwaves has been .........
<
.....J
shown to alter the sensitivity of laboratory animals to certain ::J
:E
drugs. The mortality of albino mice (Charles River CD- I) was ::J
U
strongly exposure-period dependent ( Figure 87) between eight 5
and thirty-six days, according to observations made at the end of
the exposure period and after intraperitoneal injection of pentetra-
zol (50 mg/kg) (Servantie et aI., 1974). Microwave exposure
was seen to delay the appearance of convulsion for animals ex- o
posed less than fifteen days. For longer exposure periods, micro- o 10 20 30 40
waves were found to hasten the onset of convulsion in these mice, EXPOSURE PERIOD (DAYS)
particularly after twenty-seven days. The microwave energy used Figure 87. Mortality of mice injected with 50 mg/kg of pentetrazol after
prolonged pulse-modulated microwave exposure. (Adapted from Servantie
in these experiments was 3000 MHz, with an average incident
et al.: Pharmacologic effects of a pulsed microwave field. In Czerski, P. et al.
power density of 5 mW/cm 2 applied at a rate of 500 pulses per (Eds.): Biologic Effects and Health Hazards of Microwave Radiation,
second. The pulse width was 1 usee, and the estimated peak pow- 1974. Courtesy of Polish Medical Publ, Warsaw.)
er density was about 5 W/cm 2 The whole-body exposure was
conducted in the far field of an anechoic chamber. computed. Table XIX presents the number of animals paralyzed
Servantie et al. also studied the effect of pulsed microwaves on by a subthreshold dose: 6 mg /kg for gallamine, 1.5 mgykg for
the doses of curarelike drugs required for complete paralysis in suxamethonium. It shows that the animals exposed for ten to fif-
rats anesthetized with Nembutal. Curarelike drugs were injected teen days appeared to be significantly less susceptible to para-
through a catheter inserted into the jugular vein at the rate of 1 lyzing drugs than normal rats. They attributed the decreased sen-
sitivity of rats to curarelike drugs to the microwave-induced de-
mg /min. The time required for the disappearance of all move-
crease of binding energy between the drug molecule and the en-
ment was measured, and the dose in mg/kg of body weight was
zyme molecule at the neuromuscular junction.
186 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications Applied Aspects 187
TABLE XIX seconds. The FR and DRL schedules alternated for three-minute
NUMBER OF MICE PARALYZED BY A SUBTHRESHOLD DOSE OF periods randomly, with a thirty-second time-out period between
CURARE-LIKE DRUGS UNDER PULSED MICROWAVE IRRADIATION the two schedules. The procedure was repeated for sixty daily one-
Gallamine hour sessions. The subjects were then exposed to pulse-modulated
Suxamethonium
(threshold dose = 6 mg/kg) (threshold dose 1.5 mg/kg) microwave radiation at 2860 MHz with a pulse width of 1 fLsec
Effect Control Experimental Control Experimental and a pulse repetition frequency of 500 Hz. They reported that
Paralyzed 45 32 21 6
a thirty minute exposure immediately before the behavior test ses-
Not paralyzed '" 19 44 6 18 sion at 10 mW/cm2 average power density caused a marked in-
crease in the proportion of shorter interresponse times on the
Baranski and Edelwejn (1974) exposed one-year-old male rab- DRL schedule and produced an overall decrease in FR response
bits to pulse-modulated 3000 MHz microwaves at an average in- rate.
cident power density of 7 mW/cm 2 for two months and investi- Hunt et al. (1975) studied three widely divergent forms of be-
gated the effect of chronic exposure on the function of the differ- havior: exploratory activity, swimming, and discrimination per-
ent central nervous system structures, using various central acting formance on a vigilance task. Novel rats restrained in a modified
drugs injected intravenously following the microwave irradiation Bollman holder were exposed to 2450 MHz microwaves for thirty
period. They observed that chlorpromazine (4 rng /kg ) produced minutes in a cavity with half-sine wave modulation, whose pulse
similar electroencephalographic (EEG) patterns in both control width was approximately 2.5 msec and repeated at a rate of 120
and irradiated rabbits. Administration of pentetrazol (8 mgykg) per second. Immediately after irradiation, the animals were placed
produced a series of high voltage spikes in irradiated animals in an activity apparatus and allowed to explore freely for one or
which were not apparent in the control group. Phenobarbitone ad- two hours. They reported that, at an absorbed power density just
ministration resulted in a slight facilitating action of the drug on above 6 mW/g, the irradiated rats exhibited less activity than
EEG desynchronization in irradiated rabbits. These studies indi- control rats during most of the test period. In parallel replica-
cate that the ascending portion of the mesencephalic reticular for- tions, the animals were held undisturbed in a metal cage similar
mation is involved in the pulsed microwave interaction with the to the home cage for one hour postirradiation before the activity
central nervous system. test to insure that the animals were not responding to the transient
Behavioral Effects rise in body temperature produced by microwaves. The investiga-
Microwave-induced changes in the ongoing behavior of animals tors were also careful to rule out any incidental stress by repeated-
trained. to respond on multiple reinforcement schedules were re- ly confining the animals to the holder and sham irradiating them
ported by Thomas et aI. (I 975). The rat was initially trained to 'prior to their experimental treatment.
press a level for food reinforcement on a ratio schedule (FR-20) They tested the effect of pulse-modulated microwaves on the
when a red pilot light above the right level was illuminated with highly motivated work performance of rats in a physically de-
the house light turned off. When a blue pilot light above the left manding task using the same microwave irradiation arrangement.
lever was illuminated and the house light turned on, a differential They trained rats to perform a repetitive swim task in a straight
reinforcement of low rate (DRL) provided a food reward after alley swim apparatus. They found that the performance of ani-
a single response on the left lever that followed a preceding lever mals tested immediately after microwave irradiation exhibited a
press by at least eighteen seconds and not more than twenty-four moderate reduction in swimming speed rate in the test session, af-
188 Microwave Auditory Effects .and Applications
ter they had been swimming for a considerable distance with ap-
parently the same proficiency as their sham-irradiated controls.
The reductions in swimming speed late in the test probably result-
ed from a loss of capacity due to microwave-induced fatigue.
Hunt et al. (1975) also trained water-deprived rats to perform
accurately on a vigilance task to study the prompt effects of micro-
waves on the animals' performance on a complex discrimination
task. The paradigm involved a light flash signalling availability of
a single saccharin-flavored water reinforcement and a brief sound
burst indicating that a "time-out" punishment would follow a lever
response. One or the other was presented at the start of each five-
second interval. Failure to respond in time for the positive light
signal, which was presented randomly on the average of forty-five
times in the thirty-minute session, constituted an error of omis-
sion. Response in the intervals when negative sound burst was pre-
sented resulted in a fifteen-second time-out period, and responses
in these intervals constituted errors of commission. It was shown
that the rats were omitting presentations of positive light signal at
the outset of testing after microwave exposure. There was no evi-
dence of change in commission error rate following exposure.
Rapid recovery of discrimination responding was evident at the
beginning and throughout the test session. Complete recovery was
observed by the middle of the test period. The investigators indi-
cated that the performance losses appeared to be directly related
to the microwave-induced hyperthermia.
Effect on Brain Permeability
Evidence of permeability changes in the brain tissues of rats fol-
lowing pulsed microwave exposure was presented by Frey et al.
( 1975 ). Rats (Sprague-Dawley) were irradiated with 1200 MHz
microwaves in five different head positions (Fig. 88) in the far
field of an anechoic chamber. The pulse width used was 500 usee,
and the pulse repetition rate was 1000 pps. The peak power den-
sity was 2.1 mW jcm 2 , and the average power density was 0.2
mW jcm2 Immediately following irradiation, sodium fluorescein Figure 88. Head orientations of rats used in the brain permeability experi-
dye was injected intravenously into the animals and allowed to cir- ment. (From Frey et al.: Neural function and behavior. Courtesy of Ann
culate in the blood stream for several minutes. The rats were then NY Acad Sci 247:433-439, 1975.)
Applied Aspects 191
190 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications
Baranski, S. and Edelwejn, Z.: Pharmacologic analysis of microwave effects
exsanguinated, the brains were perfused with saline, molded in on the central nervous system in experimental animals. In Czerski, P.
gelatin, frozen, sectioned, and examined for fluorescence under ul- et al. (Eds.): Biologic Effects and Health Hazards of Microwave Radia-
traviolet light. They found fluorescence at the dien-, mes-, and tion. Warsaw, Polish Medical Publ, 1974.
metencephalon of the brain, and it was most conspicuous in the Clapman, R. M~ and Cain, C. A.: Absence of heart-rate effects in isolated
vicinity of the lateral ventricles and near the third ventricle. Ani- frog heart irradiated with pulse modulated microwave energy. J Micro-
mals irradiated in head position V of Figure 88 were least affect- wave Power, 10:411-419, 1975.
Frey, A. H. and Siefert: Pulse modulated UHF energy illumination of the
ed. This could possibly be the result of a different energy absorp- heart associated with change in heart rate. Life Sciences, 7:505-512,
tion due to head position. 1968.
The blood-brain barrier governs the permeability, or selective Frey, A. H., Feld, S. R., and Frey, B.: Neural function and behavior: de-
exchange of solutes between blood and brain. The molecular cri- fining the relationship. Ann NY Acad Sci, 247:433-439, 1975.
teria governing its permeability have been reasonably well defined Ginsberg, A. J.: Pulsed shortwave in the treatment of bursitis with calcifica-
tion. Int Rec Med, 174:71-75, 1961.
during the past decade (Rapoport, 1976). The above experiment
Guy, A. W., Taylor, E. M., Ashleman, B., and Lin, J. C.: Microwave inter-
indicates that low-level microwave exposure of small animals af- action with the auditory systems of humans and cats. Proc Int Micro-
fects the brain barrier. It appears that pulse-modulated microwave wave Symp, Boulder, 1973, pp. 321-323.
energy is more effective than cw energy. It also suggests that it Guy, A. W., Chou, C. K., Lin, J. C., and Christensen, D.: Microwave in-
may be possible to gain temporary opening in the barrier by duced acoustic effects in mammalian auditory system and physical ma-
pulsed-microwave irradiation, which might have useful clinical im- terials. Ann NY Acad Sci, 247:194-218, 1975.
Hind, J. E.: Unit activity in the auditory cortex. In Rasmussen, G. L. and
plications. Windle, W. (Eds.): Neural Mechanisms of the Auditory and Vestibular
A Summary Systems. Springfield, Thomas, 1960.
An effort has been made to show that exposure to pulse-modu- Hunt, E. L., King, N. W., and Phillips, R. D.: Behavior effects of pulsed
lated microwave radiation, in addition to the auditory effect dis- microwave radiation. Ann NY Acad Sci, 247:440-453,1974.
cussed in great detail, leads to a large number of biological re- Justesen, D. R.: Microwaves and behavior. Am Psychologist, 30:391-401,
sponses in the irradiated mammal. It is apparent that available 1975.
Katsuki, Y., Sumi, T., Uchiyama, H., and Watanabe, T.: Electric responses
data are far from complete enough to allow detailed evaluation. of auditory neurons in cat to sound stimulation. J N europhysiol, 21:
The deficiencies lie not only in the availability of quantitative data 569-588, 1958.
on the effects of pulsed microwave radiation on mammalian sys- Lehmann, J. F.: Diathermy. In Krusen, E. H. (Ed.): Handbook of Physical
tems but also in the reporting of details of the experimental pro- Medicine and Rehabilitation. Philadelphia, Saunders, 1971, pp. 273-
tocols. It is therefore important that these observations be inde- 345.
Levitina, N. A.: Action of microwave on cardiac rhythm of a rabbit during
pendently examined and replicated where a single observation pre-
local irradiation. Bull Exp Bioi Med (English translation), 58:67-69,
vails and that the apparent discrepancies be studied and analyzed
1964.
in detail, taking into consideration all the biochemical, biophysi- Liu, L. M., Rosenbaum, F. J., and Pickard, W. F.: The insensitivity of frog
cal, and physiological factors inside the body and the external heart rate to pulse modulated microwave energy. J Microwave Power,
physical variables that may influence the response of the biolog- 11 :225-232, 1976.
ical system. McAfee, R. D.: Neurophysiologic effect of 3-cm microwave radiation. Am
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McAfee, R. D.: Physiological effects of thermode and microwave stimula-
ANSI C95.1-1974, An American National Standard-Safety level of electro-
tion of peripheral nerves. AnI J Physiol, 203:374-378, 1962.
magnetic radiation with respect to personnel. New York, IEEE, 1974.
192 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications
Appendix A
McAfee, R. D.: Analeptic effect of microwave irradiation on experimental
animals. IEEE Trans Microwave Theory Tech, 19:251-253, 1971.
Michaelson, S. M.: Sensation and perception of microwave energy. In
Michaelson, S. M. et al. (Eds.): Fundamental and Applied Aspects of
Units and Conversion Factors
Nonionizing Radiation. New York, Plenum, 1975, pp. 213-229.
, Picton, T. W., Hillyard, S. A., Kraus, H. I., and Galambos, R.: Human au-
ditory evoked potentials. Electroenceph Clin Neurophysiol, 36:179-
190, 1974.
T HEInternational System (SI)
Eleventh General Conference
1961 in Paris, France, and it was
of Units was adopted by the
on Weights and Measures in
officially adopted for scientific
Rapin, I. and Graziani, L. J.: Auditory evoked responses in normal, brain usage in the United States by the National Bureau of Standards
damage and deaf infants. Neurology (Minn.), 17:881-894, 1967.
Rapoport, S. I.: Blood-Brain Barrier in Physiology and Medicine. New York, TABLE xx
Raven, 1976. INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITSJSI) OF FREQUENTLY
Rose, J. E., Galambos, R., and Hughes, J. R.: Microelectrode studies of the USED QUANTITIES
cochlear nuclei of the cat. Bull Johns Hopkins Hosp, 104:211-251,
1959. Quantity Sl Unit Equivalent Unit
Rose, J. E., Greenwood, D. D., Goldberg, J. M., and Hind, J. E.: Some dis- Mass ............. kilogram (kg) 1000 g
charge characteristics of single neuron in the inferior colliculus of the Time ............. second (sec) 1(f msec = 10' p.SeC
cat. J Neurophysiol, 26:294-320, 1963. Frequency ......... hertz (Hz) 1.0 cycle/sec
Servantie, B., Bertharion, G., Joly, R., Servantie, A. M., Etienne, J., Drey- Wavelength ........ meter (m) l00cm
fus, P., and Escoubet, P.: Pharmacologic effects of a pulsed microwave Length ............ meter (m) l00cm
field. In Czerski, P. et a1. (Eds.): Biologic Effects and Health Hazards Velocity ........... meter (m/sec) 100 em/sec
second
of Microwave Radiation. Warsaw, Polish Medical Pub1., 1974, pp. 36- Area .............. meter (m") 10' em"
45. Volume ........... meter" (m") 10' em"
Sohmer, H., Feinmessen, M., and Szabo, G.: Sources of electrocochleo- Pressure ........... newto..n (Nz'm") 10 dyne/em"
graphic responses as studied in patients with brain damage. Electro- meter-
Energy ............ joule (j) 1.0 N m = 1.0 W sec
enceph Clin Neurophysiol, 37:663-669, 1974. Power ............. Watt (W) l000mW
Stavinoha, W. B., Weintraub, S. T., and Modak, A. T.: The use of micro- Electric field strength ~ (V /m) 0.01 V/cm
wave heating to inactivate cholinesterase in the rat brain prior to analy- meter
sis for acetylocholine. J Neurochemistry, 20:361-371, 1973. Surface power density Watt (W /m") 0.1 mW/cm2
meter
Sutherland, E. W. and Roll, T. W.: Relation of adenosine-3',5' phosphate Volume energy joule (j/rn") 1.0 W sec/m" = 10-6 j/cm"
and phosphorylase to the actions of catecholamines and other hormones. density .......... meter
Pharm Rev, 12:265-299, 1960. Absorbed power
density (rate of
Thomas, J. R., Finch, E. D., Falk, D. W., and Burch, L. S.: Effects of low- absorbed energy) . Watt (W/m3 )
level microwave radiation on behavioral baselines. Ann NY Acad Sci, 10-3 mW/cm3
meter
247:425-432, 1975.
E I I con ductivi
ectrica uctivity -mho'h/
- - mom 10 m mho/cm
Tunturi, A. R.: A difference in the representation of auditory signals for the meter
left and right ears in the iso-frequency contours of the right middle ecto- Temperature ....... Kelvin degree (0 K) Celsius degree (OC)
sylvian, the auditory cortex of the dog. A/11 J Physiol, 168:712-727, Heat ............. joule (j) 0.2389 cal
1952.
Specific heat . joule (j/kg OK) 2.389 x 10-' cal/g C
kilogram K
Thermal conductivity joule d OK (j/m-sec OK) 0.2389 cal/m-sec C
meter-secon
193
194 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications
Appendix B
in 1964. It is a modernized version of the metric system. Table
XX lists some of the commonly used units in this book. The com-
plete International System involves not only units but also other Publications of Pertinent
recommendations. One of these is the prefix used with multiples
the submultiples of the SI units (see Table XXI) . Conferences and Symposia
TABLE XXI Peyton, M. F. (Ed.): Biological Effects of Microwave Radiation. New York,
STANDARD PREFIXES USED WITH SI UNITS Plenum, 1961.
Cleary, S. F. (Ed.): Biological Effects and Health Implications of Micro-
Prefix Abbreviation Magnitude wave Radiation. Rockville, Md. U.S. Dept. Health, Education, and Wel-
fare, Dept BRH/DBE 70-2 (PB 193.858), 1969.
atto a 10-11 Czerski, P., Ostrowski, K., Shore, M. L., Silverman, Ch., Suess, M. J., and
fento f 10-11
10-12
Waldeskog, B. (Eds.): Biologic Effects and Health Hazards of Micro-
pico p
nano n 10-9 wave Radiation. Warsaw, Polish Medical Publishers, 1974.
micro p, 10-1 Tyler, P. (Ed.): Biologic Effects of Nonionizing Radiation. Annals New
milli m 10-3
York Academy of Sciences, Vol. 247, 1975.
centi c 10-2
10-1
Michaelson, S. M., Miller, M. W., Magin, R., and Carstensen, E. L.: Funda-
deci d
deka da lot mental and Applied Aspects of Nonionizing Radiation. New York,
hecto h 102 Plenum, 1975.
kilo k 1<f Johnson, C. C. and Shore, M. L. (Eds.): Biological Effects of Electromag-
mega M 10' netic Waves. Vol. I and II, HEW Publication (FDA) 77-8010, 1976.
giga G 10e
tera T IOU Justesen, D. R. and Guy, A. W. (Eds.): Biological Effects of Electromag-
netic Waves. Radio Science Special Supplement, Vol. 12/SS-1, 1977.
195
Author Index
Corso, J., 156, 164, 167
A
Crouch, J., 44
Aldrich, J., 18 Czerski, P., 195
Ashleman, B., 67, 68, 69, 72, 76, 80,
97,98, 132, 171, 191 D
B Daily, L., 10, 11
Dallos, P., 28
Banghart, F., 13 d'Arsonval, 10
Baranski, S., 186 Davis, H., 24, 28, 31, 32
Barany, E., 36 deForest, 10
Beatty, D., 28 Derbyshire, A., 32
Bekesy, G. Von, 21, 26, 27, 28, 36 Djupesland, G., 20
Bertharion, G., 192 Dodge, H., 15
Bloom, W., 44 Dreyfus, P., 192
Bornschein, H., 32 Duane, T., 18
Borth, D., 111 Dunn, F., 107
Brish, T., 97
Brunner, G., 17 E
Burch, L., 192
Edelwejn, Z., 186
Butler, R., 28
Edmonds, P., 132
C Eldredge, D., 26, 29, 31
Emde, F., 148
Cain, C., 45, 50, 51, 69, 78, 90, 98,
Emery, A., 17
111, 162, 164, 181, 182
Engebretson, A., 30
Caldwell, L., 67
Esau, 10
Carpenter, R., 12, 13
Escoubet, P., 192
Carslow, H., 117, 144
Etienne, J., 192
Carstensen, E., 195
Everett, N., 33, 44
Castleman, B., 18
Chato, J., 110 F
Chou, C., 67, 68, 84, 88, 90, 97, 98,
119, 132, 133, 150, 162, 171, 191 Falk, D., 192
Christensen, D., 67, 97, 132, 133, 171, Fallenstein, G., 107
Fawcett, D., 44
191
Feinmessen, M., 192
Churchill, R., 149
Feld, S., 57, 58, 62, 191
Clapman, R., 181, 182
Fernandez, C., 42
Clarke, R., 67
Finch, E., 102, 103, 104, 192
Clarke, W., 12
Foster, K., 102, 103, 104
Cleary, S., 195
Fraser, A., 97
Cohn, C., 11
Frey, A., 14, 45, 47, 48, 51, 52, 55,56,
Collins, R., 7
57, 58, 62, 66, 68, 73, 82, 98, 100,
Cooper, T., 110
197
198 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications Author Index 199
101, 162, 166, 181, 182, 188 Johnson, R., 51, 62, 64 Michaelson, S., 13, 179, 195 Rosenzweig, M., 32
Fry, W., 132 Johnson, V., 17 Ross, D., 20
Miller, M., 195
Johnstone, B., 42 Mirault, M., 11 Ruch, T., 31, 44
G
Joly, R., 192 Modak, A., 192
Galambos, R., 32, 34, 97, 132, 192 Justesen, D., 51, 57, 58, 116, 195 Moller, A., 21
s
Gandhi, 0., 134 Monahan, J., 18 Samarski, A., 113
Ganong, W., 25, 44 K Schliephake, 10
Moor, F., 11
Gemandt, B., 42 Katsuki, Y., 171 Moore, R., 33 Schroeder, M., 38, 39
Ginsberg, A., 173 Keidel, W., 20, 44 Musil, J., 17 Schwan, H., 13, 14, 107, 137
Goldberg, J., 34, 192 King, N., 57, 58, 191 Myers, D., 67 Servantie, A., 192
Goldman, D., 107 Kraft, G., 171 Servantie, B., 184
Gournay, L., 102, 117, 119 Kramar, P., 12, 14 N Shapiro, A., 137
Grant, J., 44 Kraus, H., 192 N agelschmidt, 10 Sharp, J., 103, 105, 176
Grazianni, L., 192 Krejei, F., 32 Neff, W., 44 Shaw, E., 20
Greenwood, D., 192 Kritikos, H., 131 Nicholson, 18 Sheridan, C., 54
Grove, M., 134, 176 Krusen, F., 10, 11, 18 Niemer, W., 76 Shore, M., 195
Guinan, J., 23 Siefert, E., 97, 181
Guy, A., 14, 17, 47, 51, 52, 55, 56, 67, L o Silverman, C., 195
68, 15, 16, 80, 81, 82, 88, 89, 90, Lang, S., 107 Simmons, F., 28
Ostrowski, K., 195
92, 95, 97, 98, 102, 103, 107, 111, Lawrence, M., 20, 22, 28 Smythe, W., 114, 116
119,138,157,163,111,115,195 Lebovitz, R., 106 p Snider, R., 76
Guyton, A., 44 Sohmer, H., 175
Leden, J., 17 Parkhill, E., 16
Sokolnikoff, I., 112, 118, 145, 149
H Lehmann, J., 14, 110, 173 Pattishall, E., 13
Sommer, H., 100, 101
Levitina, N., 119 Patton, H., 44
Harris, F., 97 Li, K., 13 Southworth, G., 10
Peake, W., 23
Hemingway, A., 10 Licht, S., 10 Stavinoha, W., 173
Pestalozza, G., 31
Herrick, J., 16, 11 Stenstem, K., 10
Lidman, B., 10 Peyton, M., 13
Herzog, 35 Stevens, S., 52
Lin, J., 16, 17, 64, 67, 91, 103, 109, Phillips, R., 191
Hillyard, S., 192 Stratton, J., 102, 114, 116, 137, 147
111, 132, 133, 138, 146, 150, 151, Pickard, W., 191
Hind, J., 177 Suess, M., 195
163, 167, 111, 191 Picton, T., 174
Hines, H., 1" 18 Liu, L., 181, 182 Sumi, T., 191
Piersol, G., 107
Ho, H., 138 Susskind, C., 13
Love, A., 112, 118, 145, 149 Presman, A., 15
Hollmann, H., 10 Sutherland, E., 173
Lovely, R., 67, 97, 132
Honrubia, B., 42 R Szabo, G., 192
Lutomirski, R., 172
Horubia, V., 28 Lynn, G., 175 Rae, J., 12 T
Hueter, T., 107
Ramo, S., 106
Hulce, V., 132 M Rapin, I., 175 Tasaki, I., 32
Hunt, E., 187, 188 Taylor, E., 67, 68, 69, 72, 75, 80, 97,
Magin, R., 195 Rapoport, S., 190
Richardson, A., 12 98, 132, 171, 191
I Marha, K., 15
Riesco-MacClure, J., 42 Thomas, J., 186
Martin, G., 18
Imig, C., 12 Rissmann, W., 45, 50, 51, 69, 78, 90, Thomson, J., 17
McAfee, R., 13, 183, 184
Ingalls, C., 51 98, 162, 164 Tonndorf, J., 35
McAuliffe, D., 42
Roffler, S., 38 Towe, A., 44
J Meahl, H., 51
Treanor, W., 18
Meikle, M., 31 Roll, T., 173
Jaeger, J., 117, 144 Trezek, G., 110
Melvin, J., 132 Rose, J., 177
Jahnke, E., 148 Rosenbaum, F., 191 Tuba, H .., 17
Messenger, R., 45, 48, 52, 55, 56, 166
Johnson, C., 76, 89, 107, 138, 195 'Tunturi, A., 177
Metalsky, I., 8 Rosenblith, W., 31, 32
200 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications
Tychonov, A., 113 Watkin, A., 18
Tyler, P., 195 Weast, R., 110 Subject Index
Weil, C., 138
u Weintraub, S., 192 Acoustic Society of America, 40
Uchiyama, H., 191 A Acrylic barrier box, 58
Wever, E., 20, 22, 28, 36, 83
Whinnery, J., 133 Ablation, unilateral, 81 Acrylic chin rest, 52
v White, R., 102, 119 Absence of microwave, 61 Action potential, 76
Van Duzer, T., 133 Wiener, F., 20 Absorbed energy, 102, 136, 141, 182 compound, 76
Van Noort, J., 34 Williams, D., 12, 13 distribution of, 106, 142, 144, 170 Activity apparatus, 187
Van Ummerson, C., 12 Williams, N., 10 rate of, 164 exploratory, 187
Vernon, J., 31 Wise, C., 12 Absorbed energy pattern, 148 Adaptive nature,-38
von Gierke, H., 100, 101 Woodburg, J., 44 Absorbed power density, 57, 138, 187 Adequate understanding, 15
per unit surface area, 138 Advantages of pulsed microwave, 174
W y per unit volume, 138 Adverse condition, 32
Wakim, K., 16, 17 Absorbing material, 48, 49 Adverse effect, 16
Yura, H., 172
Waldeskog, B., 195 microwave, 48, 49, 59 Afferent fiber, 183
Ward, P., 28 Z Absorption characteristics, 167 Afferent neuron, 24
Watanabe, T., 191 coefficient, 106 Air, 178
Zwislocki, J., 20, 167 energy, 117, 182 breakdown, 179
microwave, 73, 136 pressure, 21
rotational mode, 9 Air conduction hearing, 35, 36, 41, 46,
vibrational mode, 9 49, 77, 95, 173
uniform, 112 threshold of, 100
AC current field, 9 Alpha Chloralose, 76, 95
Accessary tissue, 66 Aluminum foil, 103
Acepromazine, 69, 80 Ambient acoustic noise, 179
Active electrode, 71 Ambient noise level, 45, 47, 49, 95
Acoustical stimulation, 88 America, Acoustic Society of, 40
Acoustic American Medical Association, 11
click, 31, 69, 76, 77, 81, 84, 86, 95, American National Standard Institute,
174 178
energy, 96, 111, 125 Amplifier, 71, 76, 85, 95
dissipation, 113 Amplitude, 36, 111
frequency, 178 of acoustic wave, 127, 151
input, 69, 95 of cochlear microphonics, 88
neurinoma, 175 of evoked potential, 72
pressure, 102 -(see also Pressure) of N 1 and N2 nerve response, 31
property of biological material, 107, Analeptic effect, 183
148, 159, 161, 170 Analysis of displacement, 119
signal, 100, 102, 135, 151 of pressure, 119
stimuli, 68, 69, 72, 81, 87, 99, 135 Anechoir chamber, microwave, 51, 58,
stress wave, 102 104, 184, 188
tone, 29 Anesthesia, 69, 73, 76, 95, 180, 183
transient, 104 Angle of elevation, 38
wave, 112, 113, 119, 124, 127, 128,
Angular frequency, 147
136, 159
201
Subject Index 203
202 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications
Animal, 88, 106, 135 Barrier, blood-brain, 190 Blood stream, 188
bulla, 30, 81, 84
anesthetized, 183 Barrier box, 58, 59, 60, 61 Body function, 13
cortex, 34, 35, 71, 72, 83, 174, 177, Body movement, 62
awake, 183 178 Basic mechanism, 5
Basilar membrane, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, Body movement restrainer, 62
dead, 88 detection, 66
detection, 66 Body, rest of the, 137
effect, 16, 68, 73, 102, 129, 136, 179, 34,35,36
Anoxia, 31, 32, 88 movement of, 26, 31, 35 Body temperature, 76, 187
190 Bollman holder, modified, 187
resistance to, 31 evaluation of patient, 174 vibration of, 25, 27
sensitive to, 32 Bolometer, 48
evoked response, 175 Bats, 31
Antenna, 71 Bessel's equation, 147 Bone, 107, 116
impulse, 34
aperture, 77 function, 147 deformation, 106
meatus, 19, 20, 34, 36, 81
horn, 48,49, 50,51, 52,104 Behavior, 179, 182, 187 of skull, 35
nerve, 19, 24, 31, 35, 68, 81
receiving, 3 appetitive, 57, 58, 62 parietal, 76, 80
degeneration of, 40
transmitting, 3 avoidance, 61 temporal, 80
response, 34, 99 Bone conduction, 35,41, 46, 47, 49, 66,
Aperture hom, 48 tumor of, 40 basis, 67
69, 76, 95, 100, 102, 105, Ill, 128,
Appetitive behavior, 57, 58, 62 nervous system, 73 change in, 186
Appetitive methodology, 58 investigations, 176 156, 167, 173, 174
ossicles, 21, 34
Applications, 173 ongoing, 186 compressional, 35
pathway, 68
clinical, 174 operant, 63 inertial, 35, 36
perception, 162
life science, 173 osseotympanic, 35, 36
phenomenon, 82 Behavioral test, 62
medical, 173, 175 threshold, 100, 102
physiology, 162 data, 62
therapeutic, 10 Bony structure, 178
receptor, 24 task, 83, 90
Boundary condition, 137, 145, 146,
Applied electromagnetic field, 115 response, 47, 90, 92 Bi-directional coupler, 48, 49, 77
Bilateral stimulus presentation, 178 147, 157, 158
Applied Microwave Laboratory, 48, 52, sensation, 45, 48, 49, 50, 57, 68, 69, Boundary, constrained, 145, 157, 159,
59, 104 78, 88, 128 Binding energy, 185
Approximate expression, 116 Biochemical factor, 190 161, 170
signals, 40, 129, 162, 174, 177 stress-free, 157, 162, 170
Arousal episode, 183 stimulation, 176 Biochemical reaction, 8
Boundary value technique, 170
Artifact, 45, 69, 81, 85 stimuli, 102 Bioelectric signal, 76
microwave, 81, 85 Brachia, 34
system, 19, 45, 111, 135, 173, 176 Biological
Artificial respiration, 76 degeneration in, 34
threshold, 41, 51, 83 injury, 178
Ascending axon, 34 investigation, 107 Bradycardia, 179
threshold of young adult, 40 Brain, 68, 77, 78, 100, 104, 107, 110,
Ascending series, 54 tube, 21 material, 117, 144
12~ 128, 136, 174, 190
Asphyxiation, 183 blockage of, 39 property of, 107
Atmospheric pressure, 21 response, 190 depth of, 76
Auricle, 19, 80 enzyme inactivation, 173
Atrophine sulfate, 69, 76 diffracted by, 38 system, 5, 181, 190
Biological damage, 46, 178 half-space, 123
Attenuation coefficient, 109, 112 Auxiliary condition, 114 matter, 111, 124, 128, 136, 138, 145,
Audibility, threshold of, 36 Average energy density, 178 Biological effects
150, 151, 159
Audible click, 103 Average incident power density, 90, 95, of gamma ray, 8
frequency range, 102 of microwaves, 3, 9, 11, 13, 16, 182 model, 137
99, 104, 179, 184, 186 permeability, 188
sensation, 90 Average power density, 45, 49, 138, of pulsed microwaves, 173
signal, 127 of ultraviolet radiation, 8 sample, 104
178, 183, 188 spherical, 137
sound, 103, 104, 135 Avoidance of visible light, 8
tissue, 76, 188
sound pressure, 164, 167 behavior, 61 of X-ray, 8
tissue stimulation, 75
Audiogram, 41, 46, 49, 50, 54 conditioning, 57, 66 Biophysical factor, 190
Brain stem, 34, 73, 75, 83, 175
Audiometry, 40 Axon, ascending, 34 Blackened goggle, 45
lesion, 175
Audition, microwave-induced (see Mi- Blindfold, 45
nuclei, 174, 175
crowave-induced auditory effect) B Blood,104
Bulk velocity, 113, 145
Auditory Blood-brain barrier, 140
Bacteria, 8 Bulkhead connection, 49
area, 78 Blood pressure, 183
Balance, sensory organ for, 23
204 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications
Bulla, 72, 81, 84 Subject Index 205
auditory, 81 Chemotoxic degeneration of auditory
nerve, 40 oscillation, 96, 99, 150 microwave to acoustic energy, 95,
Bundle
Chin rest, 52 polarity of, 86 165, 170
of Rasmussen, 34 Code, digital, 50, 51, 175 site of, 88
Chinchilla, 69, 92, 99, 135
olivocochlear, 34 Coefficient Convulsion, appearance of, 184
Chirping sound, 45, 49, 51
Bum, to skin, 184 attenuation, 109 onset of, 184
Chlorpromazine, 186
severe, 10, 11 of thermal expansion, 110, 117 Corroborating observations, 57
Cilia, 24
subcutaneous, 13 power transmission, 110 Cortex, auditory, 34, 69, 177
superficial, 13 Classification of electromagnetic radia-
tion, 7 Cold, 28, 32 cerebral, 34
to subcutaneous tissue, 180 Colliculus, inferior, 33, 34, 35, 78, 90 insular, 34
Clicking sound, 45, 49, 51
Burr hole, 76
Clinical Commission, error of, 188 Cortical evoked potential, 68
Buzzing sound, 14, 45, 51, 52 Commissure, 34 loss of, 68
applications, 174
c changes, 11 Compartment
shielded, 60
Cortical stimulation, 99
Coupler, directional, 49, 77
implication, 190
Cage, home, 61 unshielded, 60 Coupling coefficient, 127
medicine, 183
Caloric-vestibulo-cochlear stimulation, Closed circuit television system, 64 Complex sound, 38 Cranial nerve, eighth, 25, 33
106 Complex words, 176 Cranial structure, 95
Coaxial cable, 48, 71, 85
Canal, auditory (see Auditory meatus) Coaxial electrode, 73 Compliance of small volume of air, 30 Critical factor, 47
semicircular, 23 microprobe, 181 Compound action potential, 76 Crystalline lens, 12
Cannula, tracheal, 84 transmission line, 3 Computed displacement, 151, 166 Cue, 57; 66
Carbon frequency, 150, 161 differential, 61
Cochlea, 19, 23, 24, 28, 36, 39, 72, 81,
electrodes, 69, 81, 84 pressure, 128, 166, 167 directional, 38
82, 83, 8~ 99, 10~ 135, 136, 174
leads, 71 Computer of Average Transient, 76 discriminative tone, 62
contralateral, 72
loaded plastic conductors, 76 disablement of, 72, 83, 99 signal averaging, 71 location, 62
Carcinogenic effect, 8 Cochlear Concentration, energy, 69 odor, 61
Carrier frequency, 14 damage, 40, 78 Condition reliable, 58
Cat(s), 31, 66, 69, 73, 78, 80-83, 88, destruction, 68 boundary (see Boundary condition) tone, 62
90, 99, 183 duct, 34 necessary, 47, 162 Cumulative, crossings, 60
absence of, 77 Conditioned stimulus, 57 effect, 9
manipulation, 72
Cataract, 12 Conditioned suppression, 57 Curarelike drugs, 184, 185
microphonics, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34,
Cataractogenesis, mechanism of, 12 Conditioning chamber, 57 Curarization, 182
68, 73, 81, 82, 83, 84, 86, 87,
Cataractogenesis, microwave, 12 90, 99, 135 Conditioning, place-avoidance, 60 Current, microwave, 75
Cavity, 89, 90, 92, 95, 164, 187 nuclei, 25, 33, 34, 35, 177 Conduction current, 107 induced, 181, 182
air-filled, 21 partition, 102 Conduction deafness, 39 Current pickup, 181
cylindrical, 84 potential, 26, 85 Conductive mechanism, 173 Current pulse, 182
middle ear, 21 Conductivity Cutaneous nervous structure, 184
shell, 35, 36
tympanic, 21 electrical, 107, 136 Cut-off frequency, 106
stimulation, 36
Central nervous system, 19, 68,86 thermal, 110 Cyclic nucleotides, 173
Cochlear microphonic Cylindrical cavity, 84
neural structure, 19 Conductor, good, 106
amplified of, 88 Constant of separation, 147
Cerebellar tissue, 80 frequency of, 88 Constant stimulation, 32 D
Cerebral cortex, 34, 174 frequency response, 3, 31
injury, 183 Contact, point of, 69 D'Alembert method, 113, 119, 123
latency of, 88 Continuous radiation, 13 DC potential, 28
Chamber
microwave-induced, 83 Continuous wave (CW), 5,178,190 Dead animal, 88
anechoic, 184, 188 of bats, 31 Contradiction, 106 Deafness, 175
conditioning, 57
of cats, 31, 73, 99, 162 Controversy, 135 conduction, 39, 40
exposure, 64
of guinea pigs, 31, 73, 86, 99, 135, Conventional acoustic stimuli, 83, 99 degree of, 41
Change in energy absorption, 5 162 nerve, 39, 40, 41
Conversion
Characteristic mode of vibration, 147 of rats, 31 electromagnetic to acoustic energy, Death, 28, 78, 88, 99, 135, 183
102 of brain, 76
Subject Index 207
206 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications
induced, 131
Decibel (db), 40 Direct cortical stimulation, 99 E
maxima, 3,4
Deficiency, 190 coupling mechanism, 106 Ear minima, 4
Deformation effect, 66 bars, 16 oscillation, 131
bone, 106 interaction with nervous system, 68, drum, 19 (see also Tympanic mem- strength, 3
elastic, 116 99, 100 brane) Electric shock, 58
Density, 144 neural stimulation, 100 external, 21 Electrical activity, 68, 111
material, 107, 114 Direction inner, 19, 21, 23, 36, 128 Electrical potential, 69
volume, 113 of electric field, 3 middle, 19, 21, 39, 114 Electrical resistance, 28
Dental acrylic, 73 of magnetic field, 3 model, 20 Electrocardiogram (EeG), 181
Dental cement, 19 of propagation, 3, 4 phone, 38 Electrode, 16, 18, 90, 95, 115
Depth of penetration, 5, 103, 104, 120, Directional coupler, 48 replica, 20 active, 11
140 counter, 38 Early waves, 114 carbon, 69, 81, 84
Destruction of middle ear ossicles, 40 Disablement of cochlea, 72, 99 Earplugs, 45 coaxial metal, 73
Detection Discrimination performance, 187 Eastern European contact, 180
animal, 66 task, 188 countries, 15 glass, 16, 78, 81, 95
auditory, 66 Discriminative control, 57, 62 literature, 15 placement, 71
efficiency, 58 response, 57 safety standard, 15 scalp, 69, 90, 114
human, 66 stimuli, 60 Eccosorb, 48 tip, 16, 95
immediate, 66 tone cue, 62 Ectosvlviaa gyrus, 70, 71 Electroencephalogram (EEG ) , 174,
Diagnostic process, 174 Discrepancy, apparent, 190 Effect 186
Diathermy, 173 Displacement, 113, 116, 118, 119, 121, auditory (see Auditory effect) asynchronization of, 186
high frequency, 10 145, 146, 149, 150, 151, 152, 157, biological (see Biological effect) Electromagnetic radiation, 3, 1
long wave, 10 159, 165, 166, 170, 179 carcinogenic, 8 classification of, 7
microwave, 11 analysis of, 119 cataractogenic, 12 low-energy, 9
short wave, 10 computations, 151 cumulative, 9 property of, 5
Dielectric maximum, 120, 121, 152, 165 direct, 66 Electron
body, 102, 115 mechanical, 100 harmful, 15 ejection of, " 8
constant, 107 particle, 112 ordering, 54 promotion of, " 8
expansion, 112 peak, 121, 170 pathophysiologic, 12 Electronic products, 15
fluid, 116 Dissection, 80 pharmocologic, 184 Electrophysiological data, 15
loss, 107 Distance, 120 physiologic, 10 Electrostatics, 102
material, 102, 111 Distilled water, 104 sterilizing, 11 Electrostriction, 121, 122, 123, 124,
media, 4 Dog, 12, 13,92, 183 thermal, 118 135
property, 13 Dose, 184 Effective energy deposition, 120 (see Electrostrictive force, 102, 111
slab, 10 subthreshold, 185 also Penetration depth) Endocochlear potential, 28
Dielectrophoresis, 106 Drill, 72, 80, 81 Efferent auditory fiber, 34 Endolymph, 23, 28
Differential Drug, 184 Efferent inhibitory fiber, 32 Energy
administration, 28 Efficiency of microwave absorption, 9 above 8 kHz, 50
amplifier, 85
central acting, 186 Eigenvalue, 141, 158 absorbed, 102, 136, 141
characteristics, 57
molecule, 185 Eighth nerve, 80 absorption, 111, 182
equation, 113, 146
overdose, 88, 183 Ejection of electron, " 8 density per pulse, 55, 90, 92, 104,
Differential volume, 116, 188 Elastic loss, absence of, 153
paralyzing, 185 160
Digit, 170 resistant to, 31 Elastic medium, 112, 118, 119, 145,
Digital code, 50, 51, 175 deposition, 120
sensitivity, 28, 31, 32 152, 162 dissipated, 113
counters, 58 Duhamel's principle, 146, 149, 160, Electric field, 3 electromagnetic, 1
signal, 176 110 direction of, 3
Dimension, physical, 5 kinetic, 9
Dummy load, 78 free-space, 178
Diode, 3 level, 8
Duty cycle, 95 incident, 131
Dipole, half-wave, 59 Dynamic effect, 100
208 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications
Subject Index 209
microwave (see Microwave energy)
External ear, 19, 21, 39, 174 cochlear microphonic, 88, 162 Growing bone, damage to, 12
per pulse, 51
Eyes, 183
radiant, 3 computed, 150, 161 Guide, for safe exposure, 176
rotational, 9 F cut-off, 106 protection, 13
Envelope, low-frequency, 162 dependence, 106, 110, 141 wave, 84, 106
Environment conditions, normal, 178 Facilitating action, 186 fundamental, 155, 159, 161, 162, 170 Guinea pig, 31, 68, 73, 82, 85, 86, 90,
Enzyme, 173 Fall-time, slower, 120 high, 27, 29, 102 99, 135, 162
Epithelial structure, 24 Far field, 3, 5, 184 incident microwave, 170
Equation, differential, 146 Fat, 11, 107, 110 independent, 107 H
Bessel's, 147 Fatigue, 28, 188 low, 29, 162 Hair cells, 24, 25, 28, 31, 34, 35, 83
of heat conduction, 117, 144 Fiber, efferent inhibitory, 32 mechanical oscillation, 165 Half-octave internal, 40
of motion, 112, 114, 119, 146 Field, electric, 3 microwave, 156 Half-sine wave, 58, 187
Eustachian tube, 21 far, 3, 5 of auditory signal, 170 Half-space, 113
Evidence, electrophysiological, 88 magnetic, 3 of oscillation, 152 Half-wave dipole, 59
near, 4, 48 of vibration, 147, 158
Evoked potential, 68, 72, 73, 78, 81, Harmful effect, 13
86, 174, 175 region, 5 optimal carrier, 142 Harmonic time function, 150
amplitude .of, 72 Field strength range, 3,41, 96,109 Hazardous level, 179
cortical, 68 breakdown, 178 response, 86, 177 Head, 66, 84, 85, 88,178, 183
microwave, 73 electric, 4 for auditory meatus, 20 animal, 85, 151
thalamic, 68 free-space electric, 178 of cochlear microphonics, 30 back of, 14, 46, 51
Evoked response, 71, 77, 78 magnetic, 4 of loudspeaker, 46 behind the, 135
Evoked signal, 72, 81 measuring instrument, 4 sound, 21 diffracted by, 38
Excessive noise, 40 Filter spectrum., 32 holder, 69, 73, 80
Excitable elements, 32 bandpass, 104 ultrasonic, 178 human, 141, 151, 162, 166, 168
Excitation bandwidth, 104 Frog heart, 181 model, 140, 160
of electron, 8, 9 microwave, 71, 76, 81 curarized, 182 of cat, 71, 76, 77, 99, 135, 141, 162,
threshold of, 32 First order calculation, 111 decapitated, 182 165
volume force, 102, 113 FlaxediI, 76 Function of guinea pig, 99, 135, 150, 162
Expansion Fluid, 116 generating, 113 of monkey, 141
coefficient, 137 Fluid dielectric, 16 spherical Bessel, 146, 148 of other animal, 90, 168
dielectric, 112 cochlear, 35, 100 vector spherical wave, 137 of rat, 183
thermal, 102, 112, 117~-119, 136 of inner ear, 34, 35 Functional dependence, 54 position, 188, 190
Experimental data, 170 Fluorescein dye, 188 relationship, 56 radius, 140, 150, 161
Experimental procedure, 182 Fluorescence, 190 Furuncle on the nose, 10 raising response, 62
Exploratory activity, 187 Fluorescent bulb, 9
size, 140, 141, 142, 148, 162, 170
Exposure Fluothane, 73 G within the, 38, 50
chamber, 64, 73 Food, deprivation, 62 Gallamine, 185 Health care, 173
chronic, 186 pellet, 62, 64
Gamma ray, 7 Hearing
condition, 178 reinforcement, 186 General effect, 179 microwave induced, 170
duration, 12 reward, 186 General population, 173 objective evaluation of, 174
level, 178 Formation of acoustic wave, 49, 123 General public, 15 residual, 175
medical, 178 Formulation General Radio, 49, 51 threshold of, 102
constrained surface, 162, 170 Generating function, 113, 116 Hearing aids, 173, 175
microwave, 58, 59, 110, 116, 188
partial body, 178 free-surface, 165, 170 Geniculate body, medial, 34, 35, 76, Hearing impairment, 21, 50, 173
standard, 15, 178 Free space, 3 78, 88, 92, 95, 177 Hearing loss
whore body, 178,184 Frequency, 3, 7, 36, 102, 107, 137, Geometric parameter, 150 air conduction, 46
144, 161, 167, 181 Glass microelectrode, 76, 78, 81 assessment of, 173
External auditory meatus, 19, 20, 34, acoustic, 178
35, Goggle, blackened, 45 conduction, 29, 41
applied pressure, 27 Good conductor, 106 neural, 40
diameter of, 106
best, 177 Governing differential equation, 113 partial, 39
Subject Index 211
210 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications
perceived, 36, 52, 55, 56
sensori-neural, 50, 174 I L Loudspeaker, 76, 77,81,95,96
Heart,rrog, 181, 182 Laboratory animal, 88, 90, 135, 140 frequency response of, 46
Idealized model, 137
living, 181 Labyrinth, 23 Low frequency, 29
Immediate detection, 66
rate, 179, 181, 182 bony, 23 Low frequency energy transmission, 22
Impedance, intrinsic, 4
Heat, 117, 184 high input, 76 membranous, 23 Low peak power, 48
Heat conduction, 144 Implication, clinical, 190 osseous, 23 Low pulse repetition frequency, 48,
labile substance, 173 Incident power, 72, 77, 139, 166 Lame's constants, 107, 112, 145 178
loss, 117 Incus, 21 Laryngeal spasm, 183 Low stimulus intensity, 83
production rate, 144 Infant, multiply-handicapped, 175 Larency, 71, 76, 174 Lower animal, 57
stable substance, 173 Infection cochlear microphonic, 29,88 Lower limit of ionization in biological
stress, 178 of nose, 21 for N 1 and N 2 nerve responses, 31 system, 8
transfer, 118 of throat, 21 Later waves, 175 Low-level effect, 16
Heating Inferior colliculus, 33, 34, 35, 78, 90, Lateral lemniscus, 33, 34 Low-level microwave exposure, 190
localized, 13 177 ventricles, 190
pad, 69, 76 Infinite sequence, 147, 158 Lemniscus nuclei, 33, 34 M
pattern, 14 Infrared radiation, 8, 9 lesions of, 34 Macromolecules, 8
rapid, 118 Inhibitory effect, 34 Lenticular opacity, 12 Magnetic field
Hertz (Hz), 3 Inhomogeneous spheroidal body, 128 Lever action, 22 maxima, 3, 4
Hewlett-Packard, 60 Initial condition, 148, 159 Life science application, 173 minima, 4
High frequency current, 10 Injury, 173 Light beam, 63, 64 oscillation, 137
diathermy, 10 Inner ear, 19, 21, 23, 36, 128 Light flash, 88 strength, 4
oscillation, 162 apparatus, 83 Light switch, 49 Magnetic tape, 86
sound intensity, 38 fluids of, 23, 35 Light Magnitude estimation, method of, 52
High pulse repetition frequency, 48 Insensitivity of heart rate, 181 ultraviolet, 190 Magnitude, .minimally effective, 88
High resistance, 71, 76, 81 Instrument, field strength measuring, 4 visible, 8 Mallus, 21
Histological examination, 77 Interaction, direct microwave-neural, Limb, 184 Mammal, 69
68,99,100 Linear coefficient of thermal expansion,
Holder, 62, 63, 64, 69, 80 Mandible, 36
Home cage, 61 mechanism of, 88 145 Manipulation, cochlear, 72
site of, 68, 80, 99, 135 Linear extrapolation, 48 Man-made microwave energy, 3
Horn antenna, 48, 50, 54, 59, 77, 95
Interface, air-water, 22 Linear medium, 112, 145 Masking, effect, 32, 95
Horn, standard gain, 59, 104, 181
Internal auditory meatus, 81 Linear polarization, 137 noise, 32, 97
Hot spot, 140
International system, 193, 194 Liquid, 102 Mastoid, 175
House light, 186
Interresponse time, 187 Listening Material
Human, 56, 57, 103, 105, 129, 135, 166 earphone, 38 biological, 106, 111, 117, 144
being, 45 Intracellular potential, 28
free-field, 38 media, 3
ear replica, 20 Ionization, 8, 9
Living organism, basic element of, 8 Mathematical, model, 106, 107
exposure level, 178 lower limit of, 8
Load, dummy, 78 theory, 102
head, 128, 129, 140, 166 Ionizing radiation, 8, 9
Localization, sound, 37, 38 Maximum, absorption, 140
perception, 15 Isotropic medium, 112, 145 Localized heating, 13 displacement, 120, 121, 152, 165
response, 179 Logarithm, 40
I frequency, 50
subject, 45, 57, 135, 174, 175 Long-term irradiation, 15 pressure, 120, 121, 124
voice, 37 Jugular vein, 184 Longwave diathermy, 10 Mayo Clinic, 11
Hydrogen bond, weak, 8 Loss of signal, 72 Measurement, 157, 167
Hypernea, 183 K Loud sound, 22 Mechanical displacement, 100
Hyperthermia, microwave-induced, 188 Knife, microdissecting, 72 Loudness, 34, 52, 55 Mechanical distortion, 83
Hypothesis (see Theory; Mechanism) Knocking sound, 14, 45 difference, 38
Subject Index 213
212 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications
Musculature, 106
threshold of, 88, 90, 95
Mechanical oscillation, 165 absorbing material, 48 Musculoskeletal disease, 173
cochlear microphonics, 83, 84
Mechanical stress, 28, 117 absorption pattern, 161, 168 hearing, 170 N
Mechanism, 45, 68, 99, 135 anechoic chamber, 51, 58, 104 hyperthermia, 188 Narda Microwave Corp., 104
basic,S artifact, 81 pressure, 165 Nasopharynx, 21
cochlear microphonic generation, 28 auditory effect, 179 (see Auditory radiation pressure, 122 Near field, 4, 48
direct coupling, 106 effect) sound, 45,46, 47, 51,52,54,55,156 Near-zone field, 48
electrostrictive, 102, 124 bioeffect (see Biological effect of) thermal expansion, 119 Necessary condition, 47
most effective, 135 carbon-impregnated polyurethane, 103 vibration, 100 Neck, 137, 181
of interaction, 88 communication system, 5 Middle ear, 19, 39, 174 Nembutal, 184
physical, 111, 135 control of behavior, 65 frequency response of, 22, 23 Nerve
radiation pressure, 100, 124 current, 75 function of, 22 auditory, 10, 24, 31, 35, 68, 81
resistance production, 28 CW (continuous wave), 5, 178, 190 of cat, 23 facial, 184
thermoelastic, 102, 105, 124 diathermy, 11, 12 of man" 23 impulse, 31, 34
transduction, 100, 135 energy, 3, 5, 46, 50, 52, 102, 104, ossicles, 21, 22, 35, 36 peripheral, 13, 183
waveguide tuning, 106 117, 149, 151, 158, 161, 173, destruction of, 40 response, 32, 34
Media, dielectric, 4 175 stiffness of, 21 trigeminal, 184
Medial geniculate body, 34, 35, 76, 78, man-made, 3 Mineral oil, 81 deafness, 39, 40, 41
88,92,95,177 evoked electrical activity, evidence Minimal change, method of, 54 Nervous system
Medicine, 17, 176, 183 for, 75 Minimal pulse width, 95, 156, 170 central, 68, 86
Medulla oblongata, 25 evoked nerve response, 88, 99 Minimally effective magnitude, 88 peripheral, 68
Membrane exposure, 58, 59,110,116,188 value, 127 Neural stimulation, 99
basilar, 23, 25 low-level, 190 Modality, stimulating, 95 tissue, 177
displacement, 21 filter, 71, 76, 81 Mode of vibration, 158 Neurinoma, acoustic, 175
of the earphone, 38 frequency, 3,5, 139, 142,156,178 Model, 136, 150, 168 Neurological disorder, 174
Reissner's, 23, 25 generator, 103 brain, 121 Neuromuscular junction, 185
tectorial, 24, 25 interference, 181 ear, 20 Neuron
tympanic, 38 oven, 5, 57 idealized, 137 afferent, 24
Meningioma, petrous bone, 175 parameter, 150 mathematical, 107 cortical, 177
Metal electrode, 73, 182 property of tissue, 107 of tympanic membrane, 21, 22 Neurophysiology, 183
Metallic pipe (see Waveguide) pulse, 14, 76, 77, 81, 96, 97, 102, one-dimensional, 111 Newton's law, 113
Method 111, 118, 119, 123, 127, 144, planar, 121, 141 Nl and N2 nerve response, 81
D'Alembert's, 113, 119, 123 174 spherical, 88, 136, 137, 152, 156, Noise
of limit, 54 pulse artifact, 84, 85, 87 158, 165 ambient, 49, 97
of magnitude estimation, 52 radiation, 3, 5, 6, 8, 13, 14, 45, 152, Modulated microwave, 58 generator, 95
of minimal change, 54 183 Modulation, 14, 57, 179 Nonionizing radiation, 8
separation of variable, 147 high power, 13 CW,5 Nonlinear function, 31
stereotaxic, 76 penetration of, 48, 178 (see also pulse,S Nonlinear nature, 92
thermographic, 89, 90 Penetration) sine-wave, 58, 187 Nonlinearity, 29
Mice, 184 pulse-modulated, 45, 46, 56, 87, Molecular criteria, 190 Nonmetallic media, 117
Microdissecting knife, 72 88, 158, 184, 190 Mortality, 184 Normal bearing, 41, 46
Micromanipulator, 81 Most effect}ve mechanism, 135 Normal subject, 46
stimulation, 54, 78
Microphone, 103 Multimode cavity, 57 Notch in audiogram, 47, 49
stimuli, 71
Microphonics (see Cochlear micro- Multiply-handicapped infants, 175 Numerical computations, 170
transparent, 69, 76, 85
phonics) Muscle, 11, 104, 107, 110, 125, 184 Nylon screw, 69
Microprobe, coaxial, 181 uses of, 6
reflex contraction, 22
Microscope Microwave-induced
reflex potential, 174
o
dissecting, 80, 81 acoustic stimulation, 179 Objective evaluation, 41, 174
stapedius, 21, 22 Observation, corroborating, 57
Microwave, 8, 102, 156 auditory effect (sensation), 57, 69,
tensor tympanic, 21
absorber, 59, 103 80, 99, 102, 117, 173, 175
Subject Index 215
214 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications
Photochemical reaction, 8, 9 absorbed, 57, 187
Occipital pole, 71, 95 approximate absorption, 142
average, 6, 45, 48, 49, 52, 55, 65,
Octave interval, 40 heating, 14 Photon, 7
energy per, 7 177
Old age, 40 spherical symmetric, 142
low-energy, 9 incident, 77, 107
Olivary complex, superior, 33, 34, 35 Peak absorbed energy density, 89, 90,
Physical, aspects of microwave radia- low, 16
Olivocochlear bundle, 34 139, 160, 166
peak, 6, 14, 45, 51, 52, 54, 55, 56,
Omission, error of, 188 Peak displacement, 121, 122, 170 tion, 7
characteristics, 56 92
One-dimensional model, 111 Peak incident power density, 47, 90,
threshold, 51, 52, 90, 100, 163, 164
Ongoing behavior, 186 92, 11" 150, 156, 166 dimension, 5
evidence, 104 Power deposition, 113
Opaque paper, 59 Peak microwave absorption, 73
fact, 106 Practical control, 15
Operant behavior, 58, 63 Peak power, 6, 85, 87, 104
mechanism, 111, 129, 135 Preference, side, 59
Operational situation, 179 density, 14, 45, 48, 52, 54, 150, 160,
medicine, 173 residence, 61
Optic atrophy, 12 188
variables, 1/6, 190 Premedication, 80
Optimum(al), carrier frequency, 142 low, 48
Pressure, 113, 114, 119, 121, 149, 150,
detection sensitivity, 106 threshold, 52, 90, 166 Physiological effect, 10
Physiological factor, 190 159, 160, 162
pulse shape, 58 Peak pressure, 104, 122, 170
Physiological response, 88 acoustic, 102
pulse width, 48, 95, 165, 170 Peak sound pressure, 104
Physiology, 179 air, 21
Order of magnitude, 73, 100, 122, 124 Penetration ability, 178
Piezoelectric theory, 106 amplitude, 156, 164
Order of presentation, 52 depth of,S, 103, 104, 120, 140
Piezoelectric transducer, 69, 71, 76, 77, analysis of, 119
Ordering effect, 54 of animal's head, 85
81,96 atmospheric, 21
Organ of Corti, 23, 25, 28, 34 Pentetrazol, 184, 186
computation, 151, 156
of balance, 23 Perceived Pilot light
blue, 186 difference, 20
of hearing, 23 loudness, 52, 55, 56
red, 186 distribution, 115
Orientation, 46, 106, 178 sound, 46
Pinna, 19 frequency, 27
Orthogonal function, 159 Perception, 45, 62, 156
on auditory nerve, 175
Oscillation, 87, 142 auditory, 45 Pitch of sound, 31
Place-avoidance conditioning, 60 peak, 104, 122, 170
cochlear microphonic, 87, 96 by bone conduction, 164
radiation (see Radiation pressure)
electric field, 137 Perforation of round window, 72 Planar model, 121, 141
Planar tissue structure, S sound, 20
high frequency, 162 Perilymph, 23, 25, 28, 72
wave, 35, 102, 104, 120, 122, 123
magnetic field, 137 Period, pulse, 6 Planck's constant, 1
Processing sound information, 19
standing-wave-like, 142 Peripheral mediation, 100 Plane surface, 114
Plane wave, 3, 111, 114, 136, 137, 168 Promotion of electron, 7, 8
Oscilloscope, 48, 71, 13, 16, 83, 90 interaction, 111
Point of contact, 69 Propagation
Ossicular chain, 36 transduction mechanism, 105 direction of, 3
Osteoarthritis, relieving the pain of, 12 Peripheral nerve, 13, 183 Polarity
of cochlear microphonics, 32, 86 speed of, 3
Oval window, 21, 23, 25, 27, 36 blocker 183 velocity of, 159, 170
Oven, microwave, 5, 57 nervou; system, 68 of electrical energy driving speaker,
86 Protection guide, 13
Oxygen supply, 28 P erip. h ery, 69 , 83 Protective function, 22
of neural components, 32
p Permeability, 188, 190 Protocol, experimental, 90
Polyethylene tube, 64
brain, 188 Psychophysical effort, 88
Paired-test, 45 Polystyrene foam, 85
of vacuum, 114 experimentation, 176
Paralysis, 184 Population, general, 178
Permissible exposure level, 178 factor, 179
Parietal bone, 70 Potential
Permittivity of vacuum, 114 test, 51
Partial body exposure, 178 DC, 28
Phantom equivalent water, S8 difference, 28, 106 Pulse
Partial body irradiation, 182 characteristics, 55, 71
Particle displacement, 112 Pharmacologic effect, 184 endocochrear, 28, 35
combination, 50
Pathophysiologic effect, 12 Phase, time, 4 intracellular, 28
negative summating, 31 duty cycle, 6
Patients, 174 stimulus, 32
energy per, 51
Pattern Phenobarbitone, 186 positive summating, 31
generator, 48, 50, 77, 95, 175
absorption, 142, 144 Photobiological reaction, 8 Power density, 4, 12, 160, 181
216 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications
Subject Index 217
half-sine wave, 58 hypothesis, 100
modulated microwave energy, 50, radio-frequency (RF), 8 Resistance Scientific investigations, 173
51, 56, 57, 60, 62, 64, 66, 87, ultraviolet, 8 change, 28 Semi-circular canal, 23
158, 184, 186, 190 Radio-frequency (RF) sound, 45, 46 electrical, 28 Semi-eonductor device, 3
modulation, 5, 6, 156, 158 Radius of sphere, 40 production mechanism, 28 Semi-infinite medium, 111, 119
period, 6 Resonant behavior, 140, 141 Semi-infinite model, 122
Random numbers, 52
rectangular, 59, 61, 71, 112, 116, Randomized repetition, 52 Resonant oscillation, 140 Semi-rigid surface, 128
140, 146, 150, 160, 168, 175 Rapid heating, 118 Resonant peak, 141 Sensation of warmth, 10
repetition frequency (rate), 6, 45, Rat, 31, 57, 58, 60, 62, 183, 185, 187, Resonator, tubal, 20 Sensitivity of hearing mechanism, 34
48, 50, 51, 52, 57, 86, 175, 187, 188 Response regulation of, 34
188 auditory nerve, 34, 39 Sensorineural hearing impairment, 50,
cochlear microphonics of, 31
high, 48 Rat holder, 62 discriminative, 57 174
low, 6, 48, 178 head raising, 62 Sensory-evoked potential, 174
Rate of microwave absorption, 152, 164
shape, 58 operant, 58, 63 Sensory organ for balance, 23
Rate of temperature rise, 153
width, 6, 48, 49, 51, 52, 55, 56, 65, Ratio schedule, 186 single, 186/ Separation of variable
90, 92, 95, 104, 112, 118, 137, Rays subjective, 57 constant of, 147
144, 152, 156, 160, 162, 164, gamma, 7 thermal, 52 method of, 147
187, 188 X-,7 Rest, acrylic, 52 Shear stress, 114, 148, 150
maximum, 160 Restrainer, body movement, 62 absence of, 150, 160
Raytheon Company, 11
minimum, 95, 156, 170 Reticular formation, 186 Shielded compartment, 60
Reaction, heating, 10
optimum, 48, 95, 165, 170 Rexolite, 69 Shielded room, 49, 85
Pupils, 183 photobiological, 8
Rhythm change, 181 Short pulse, 178
Puppy, beagle, 69 photochemical, 8, 9
Ring, mounting, 71 Short wave diathermy, 10
Pure tone, 40 thermochemical, 9
Ringer's solution, 76, 78, 81, 95 Shoulder, disorder of, 12
P-wave, 182 Reception, in cochlea, 100 Rise-time, rapid, 120 SI units, 193, 194
Receptor cell, 66 Root-mean-square (RMS), 40 Side preference, 59
Q Recognition, 19 Signal averager, transient, 73 (see also
Rotational energy, 9
Quality control of test conditions, 57 associative area for, 35 Round window, 21, 23, 25, 28, 36, 72, Computer of Average Transients)
Quantitative data, 190 Recovery, 10, 188 81, 84, 86, 88, 99, 135, 150 Signal averaging computer, 71, 78, 86
Quantitative understanding, 16 Rectal temperature, 183 perforation of, 72 Signal, evoked, 72
Quinine abolish nerve response, 32 control unit, 76 loss of, 72
monitor, 69 s Similarity, 73
R Rectangular pulse, 59, 61, 62, 112, 116, Sine-wave
Safe exposure guide, 176
Rabbits, 12, 180, 182, 183, 186 144, 146, 149, 150, 160, 161, 168, Safe human exposure level, 13 half, 58, 187
Radar, 6, 11, 12, 179 175 Safety factor, 13 rectified, 57
Radial direction, 145 Rectified sine wave, 57 Safety guide, 178 Sinusoidal pressure wave, 27
Radial stress, 149, 150 Reference, audiometric, 41 Safety standard, microwave exposure, Sinusoidal sound wave, 36
Radiant energy, sun's, 3 sound intensity, 40 15,173,179 Site of conversion, 88
Radiation control for health and safety sound pressure, 40 Canadian, 15 Site of interaction, 68, 80, 99, 135
act, 15 Reflective smooth surface, 103 Polish, 15 Skin, 11,70, 166,181, 184
Radiation electromagnetic, 3, 7, 9 Reflex muscle contraction, 22 Soviet, 15 Skin receptor, 181
infrared, 8, 9 Reinforcement, food, 186 United States, 15 Skull, 78
ionizing, 8, 9 Reinforcement schedule, 186 Sagittal plane, 71 bone of, 35
microwave, 3, 5, 8, 13, 45, 152, 183 Reissner's membrane, 23, 25 Saline, 104 movement of, 36
nonionizing, 8 Reliable cue, 58 Sample space, 57 surface of, 76
pressure, 100, 101, 102, 103, 111, 112, Research tool, 176 Scala, media, 23, 25 vibration of, 100
114, 119, 121, 122, 123, 124 Residence, preference, 61 tympanic, 23, 25, 36 Sliding short, 85
computed, 100 time, 60 vestibuli, 23, 25, 36 Sodium fluorescein dye, 188
Scalp electrode, 69, 90, 174 Sodium pentobarbital, 69, 80, 84
Subject Index 219
218 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications
Systems, biological,S, 181, 190
Soft tissue, 70, 72, 81, 110, 114, 116 size of, 139, 144, 156, 159, 170 Strain, 102, 117
Solution, integral, 116 surface of, 165 Streptomycin, 40
T
Somatosensory thalamic region, 78 Spherical Bessel function, 146, 148 Stress, 118, 127
compressive, 123 Tactile sensation, 36
Sonic frequency, 107 Spherical coordinates, 145
tensile, 123 Tapping the jaw, 35
Sound, bone conducted, 35 Spherical head, 137, 142, 145, 147,
thermoelastic, 111, 121, 124, 135 Tectoral membrane, 24, 25
burst of, 188 148, 150, 151, 152, 156, 157, 158,
Stress-free boundary, 145 Television, closed circuit, 64
complex, 38 159, 161, 162
Stress-free model, 150, 157, 159, 163 Temperature, 107, 184
energy, 31 Spherical model, 89, 142, 152, 156, approximate distribution of, 117
frequency, 21 159, 165 Stress-strain relation, 118
Stress wave body, 76
intensitY,21 Spherical symmetric absorption pattern,
development time, 144 change in, 145
level meter, 49, 98, 102 142
generation of, 117 critical, 183
microwave-induced, 45, 46, 156 (see Spherical symmetric function, 142
production, 117 decay, 144
also Auditory effect) Spherical symmetry, 145
propagation, 117 distribution, 110, 117
passage of, 25 Spherical wave function, 137
Strictive force, 116 equilibration, 117
perception, 73, 99 Spheroidal body, 128
Strychnine, 177 equilibration time, 11" 144
pitch of, 37 Spiral ganglion, 24, 25, 33
Subcutaneous fat, 11, 184 gradient, 102, 117
pressure, 20, 25, 100, 152, 153, 156, Sprain, 12
Subcutaneous tissue, 183, 184 initial, 144
151, 160 Standard reference sound pressure, 40
Subject rectal, 76, 183
applied, 29, 30 Standard sound, 52
human, 45, 57 rise, 11, 117, 136, 153, 184
level (SPL), 30, 40 Standing wave, 38, 39
orientation, 106 surface, 62
reference, 40 Stapedial displacement, 23
trained, 52 variation, 113
wave, 19, 34 Stapedial footplate, 21, 22
Subjective responses, 57 Temporal bone, 21, 23
RF, 45 Stapedial vibration, 27, 34
Sugar water, 57, S8 Temporary opening, 190
source, 38 Stapedious muscle, 21, 22
Summary of peak pressure and dis- Tensor tympani, 21
stimulus,28 Stapes, 21, 27
placement, 170 Tentorium cerebelli, 80
transmission of, 22, 35 foot plate of, 21, 25
velocity, 107, 150 movement of, 36 Summating potential, 31 Test
Sun, 3, 9 condition, 57
wave, 19, 37, 38, 168 Stereotaxic, instrument, 73, 76
radiant energy of, 3 paired, 45
arrival of, 37 Stereotaxic method, 76
Sunburn, 8 psychophysical, 51
Soviet Sterilizing effect, 11
Superficial bum, 13 subject, 49
country, 15 Stiffness of middle ear, 21
Superior olivary complex, 33, 34, 35 Testicular degeneration, 12
literature, 15, 182 Stimulation
Suppression of tongue lick, 58 Thalamic evoked potential, 68
safety standard, 15 acoustic, 72
Surface loss of, 68
Union, 179 caloric vestibulo-cochlear, 106
constrained, 113, 145, 151, 151 Thalamic response, 89
Spatial dependence, 142 constant, 32
free, 145, 157 Thalamus, 34, 90
Specific heat, 110, 117, 144 cortical, 99
heating, 102 Theory, 157, 167, 170
Spectral characteristic, 38 direct, 99 bone conduction, 35, 36
Spectral theory, 39 neural, 99 of irradiated cranium, 100, 157
temperature, 62 electrostrictive force, 102
Speech, analog, 176 previous, 32
Surgical exposure, 71 mathematical, 102
Speech communication, 174, 176 pulsed microwave, 72, 78
Suxamethonium, 185 piezoelectric, 106
Speech modulated microwave, 176 simultaneous, 32 radiation pressure, 101
Speech waveform, 176 Stimuli Swimming speed, 187, 188
spectral, 39
Speed of light, 3 acoustic, 76 Swimming task, 187
thermoelastic, 102
Speed of propagation, 3 discriminative, 60 Switch traveling wave, 26
Speed of sound (see Velocity of sound) microwave, 71 light, 49 Therapeutic application, 10
Sphere, 138,142,148,152 property,62 multikey, 52
medicine, 176
center of, 153, 165 sound, 28 push-button, 176
purposes, 14
radius of, 140 unconditioned, 58 Synapse, 34
220 Microwave Auditory Effects and Applications Subject Index 221
Thermal Ticking sound, 14 anatomic area, 21, 22 Viscous damping, 145
biological injury, 178 Time, 162 displacement, 21 Visible light, 8
conductivity, 110, 144 interresponse, 187 mode of vibration of, 21, 22 Volume density, 112
diffusivity, 144 phase, 49 movement of, 21 Volume difference, 36
effect, 178 stress-wave development, 117 secondary, 23 Volume force, 102, 113
expansion, 102, 110, 112, 117, 119, temperature equilibrium, 117 tension on, 21
136 thickening of, 40 W
varying component, 147, 158
injury, 13 Tissue, 107, 112, 161 Warning property, 179
parameter, 150 U Warning signal, 58, 179
material, 102, 103
physiology, 13 physical property of, 117 Ultrasonic frequency, 178 Water, 102, 104, 105, 110, 111, 125
property, 110 soft, 110 Ultrasonic pulse, 178 Water content, high, 110
stimulation, 183 Tissue structure, planar, 5 Ultraviolet light, 190 low, 111
stress, 13, 111 soft, 110 Ultraviolet radiation, 8 Water
Thermister, 59, 71 Tonal, location, 178 carcinogenic effect of, 8 distilled, 104
Thermochemical reaction, 9 stimulation, 177 deleterious effect of, 8 phantom, 58
Thermode, 183 Tonatopically organized, 177 Unconditioned stimulus, 58 saccharin-flavored, 188
Thermoelastic Tone cue, 62 Unilateral ablation, 81 sugar, 57, 58
equation of motion, 145, 168 Tongue lick, 58 United States thermal expansion coefficient of, 105
expansion, 121, 123, 127, 135 suppression of, 58 Air Force, 12 Wave
hypothesis, 103 Transcendental equation, 147 Congress, 15 absorption, 13
mechanism, 102, 105 Transducer investigators, 45 electromagnetic, 3
pressure, 104 piezoelectric, 69, 76, 77,81,95, 96 military services, 11 microwave, 8
stress, 111, 121, 124, 135 Transduction mechanism, 100, 101, Unnecessary exposure, 15 plane, 3
theory, 102 105, 106, 111, 122, 129, 136 Unshielded compartment, 60 pressure, 19, 34
transduction, 106 Transform technique, 113, 119 Uses of microwave, 6 propagation, 13
Thermographic method, 89, 90 radio-frequency, 8
Thermoregulating capacity, 13
Transmission line, 3
Transmission of sound, 22, 35
v Waveform, 71,121, 170
Threshold, 95, 177 Transverse temporal gyri, 34 Vacuum tube, 3 Waveguide, 84
audibility, 36, 51, 97 Trapezoid body, 33, 35 Vacuum tube amplifier, 10 air-filled, 106
auditory, 51 Traveling component, 121, 122 Vector spherical wave function, 137 theory, 106
bone condition, 102, 104 Traveling wave, 26, 27 Velocity, bulk, 113 tuning mechanism, 106
determination, 54, 88 production of, 36 of acoustic wave propagation, 159, Wavelength, 3, 7
energy density, 92 theory, 26 170 Weight gain, 62
excitation in man, 21 Traveling waveform, 120 of sound, 107, 150 Window
for auditory effect, 179 Treatment duration, 11 Ventricle, 190 ov~,21,23,25,27,56
for cataractogenesis, 13 Tri-service program, 12 Vertex, 175
round, 21, 23, 25, 28, 36, 72, 81, 84,
for perception, 102, 105 Tubal resonator, 20 Vertical plane, 38
86, 88, 99, 135, 150
for sensation, 51, 57 Tube Vestibule, 23
Wooden ear bars, 76
for tactile sensation, 36 auditory, .21 Vestibulo-cochlear stimulation, 106
hearing, 102 Vibrating device, 174 Words, 176
polyethylene, 64 World War II, 11
intensity, 177 vacuum, 3 Vibration, frequency of, 158
of microwave-induced auditory sen- Tumor, 175 low frequency, 36
mode of, 158
X
sation, 51, 57, 88, 89, 92, 95 of auditory nerve, 40
parameter, 92 of the skull, 35, 100 X-band microwave, 78
Tuning fork, 35, 174
peak power density, 51, 52 Vibrational energy, 9 X-band 'pulse, 92
Tympanic bone, 30
power density, 90, 100, 163, 164 Vigilance task, 187, 188 X-ray, 7
cavity, 21
pressure, 102 Virus, 40 X-V plotter, 71, 76
Tympanic membrane, 19, 20, 21, 30,
Throat infection, 21 34,38