7/31/2016 Whatweknowaboutlearning,HerbertA.

Simon

Notes

WhatWeKnowAboutLearning
HerbertA.Simon
DepartmentofPsychology
CarnegieMellonUniversity
Source:http://civeng1.civ.pitt.edu/~fie97/simonspeech.html
DateofDownload:7August2002

Abstract

Traditionally,engineeringresearchandteachinghavebeenapproachedinverydifferentways.To
prepareforresearchweundergoyearsofrigoroustraining,bothinscientificknowledgeandinmethods
ofgainingnewknowledgethroughexperimentationandanalysis.Toprepareforteaching,weacquirethe
sameknowledge,but,exceptforastintasateachingassistant,wereceivealmostnotraininginhowto
impartittostudents.

Fortunately,thereisnowawelldevelopedscienceofhumanlearningwhichhasstrongimplicationsfor
thewaysinwhichourstudentsshouldlearnandweshouldteach.Thispapercommentsonsomeofthe
thingsweknowabouthumanlearningthatcansubstantiallyimproveouruniversityinstruction.

Whatdoweknowaboutlearningandtherelevanceofthatknowledgeforengineeringeducation?Iam
pleasedtobepartofadiscussionofthistopic.Iamalsopleasedthatmuchoftheconcerntodaywith
instructionintheengineeringcollegefocusesonlearningaboutthedesignprocess.Therewasaperiod
nottoofarbackinourengineeringschoolswhenwethoughtwewereachievingsomekindofprestigein
academiabyassuringeveryonethatwhatweweredoingwasreallyengineeringscience.Asaresult,it
becameharderandhardertodiscoverinengineeringcollegesanyonewhowasconcernedwithteaching
theprocessofengineeringdesign.

Ithinkthistrendisnowreversingitself.Perhapsdueinparttotheadventofcomputersandour
attemptstoautomatevariousaspectsofthedesignprocessoncomputers,wehavebegunto
understandthatdesign,likeeveryotherhumanmentalactivity,hassystematicfoundations.Thereisa
"scienceofdesign,"andsinceitisasciencewecanteachit.Ofcourse,ifwedidntcallitascience
westillcouldteachitbutthefactthatwenowcananalyzethesynthesisprocessthekindsof
mentalprocessesthatgoonindesigngivesusconfidencethatwecanlearnhowtoteachit
effectively.

I.LearningtoTeachandLearn

Universitiesareverylonglivedinstitutions,andinseveralrespects,rathercuriousones.TheUniversity
ofPariswasfoundedaroundtheyear1200,whenstudentspreparedtheirowntextbooksbycopying
theirprofessorslectures.Inspiteoftheinventionofprintingnottoolongthereafter,studentsstill
continuedtobehaveintheirclassesascopyistsassiduouslytakingnotes,recordingthedeathless
wordsofprofessorsasiftheydidntknowprintinghadbeeninventedandwasavailable.Ihaveheard
thattherearesomeuniversitieswherethishappenseventoday.

Iwouldattributethetardinessinrespondingtonewtechnologyinparttotheamateurismoflearningand
teachingintheuniversities,thenandnow.(IwouldhaveadifferentstorytotellaboutKthrough12.
TheremaybesomeproblemsinthewayeducationisconductedinKthrough12,butamateurismisnot
oneofthem.)Butamateurismisendemicintheuniversity.Imean"amateurism"inatechnicalsense:
towit,neitherwe,thefacultymembers,norourstudentshavereceivedanysignificantformaltraining
fordoingwhatwedoduringmuchoftheday,everyday.

MostofusweretrainedasteachersbyservingasTAsinacoupleofclasseswhenweweregraduate
studentsandourstudents,withrareexceptions,haveneverreceivedanysystematicandconsistent
instructioninhowtolearn.Yetthatistheskilltheyhavebeenexercisingeveryworkingdayoftheir
http://158.132.155.107/posh97/private/learning/learningSimon.htm 1/8
7/31/2016 Whatweknowaboutlearning,HerbertA.Simon

livesformoreyearsthantheywouldliketoremember.Sostudentsdontstudytheskillsoflearning,
anduniversityteachersdontstudytheskillsofteaching.

IdontmeanthatlearningandteachingdoesntgooninouruniversitiesIthinkthatagreatdealdoes.
Butthereiseveryreasontobelievethatonecould,byintroducingahigherlevelofprofessionalism,
makebothwhatthestudentsaredoingandwhatwearedoingwithourstudentssubstantiallymore
effective.

Contrastthepresentpractices,justforamoment,withsports,whichalsogoonatuniversities.Athletes
aresystematicallytrainedtobeathletes,andifyouexaminetheathletictrainingcarefully,youfindthat
muchofitisdirectedtowardlearninghowtoacquireskills:howyouneedtobehaveasanaspiring
athletesothattomorrowyouwillbeabetterathlete.Thelearningprocess,howeverinformallyitmaybe
handled,isverymuchapartofthetypicalathletictrainingandcoachingregime.Coachesthemselves
aretrainedintheskillsofcoaching.Now,maybeweplayourgamesbetterthantheyplaytheirgames,
butIdontthinkweshouldcountonthat.Ithinkweshouldaskseriouslywhetherwe,too,shouldnotbe
payingexplicitattentiontothetechniquesoflearningandteaching.

Howdowebringthataboutinauniversity?IdliketobragalittleaboutCarnegieMellon,orasitwas
calledthenCarnegieTech,becausewhenIarrived,around1949,therewassomethinginplacecalled
theCarnegiePlan.TheCarnegiePlanhadseveralaspects:first,itwasspawnedintheEngineering
College,butthatwasntsurprisingbecauseCarnegieTechthenwasmostlyanengineeringcollege.The
ideaoftheCarnegiePlanwasthattheemphasisinengineeringeducationshouldnotbeplacedon
knowledge,butshouldfocusattentiononthelearningprocessesandtheproblemsolvingprocessesof
thestudents.Thegoaloftrainingstudentswastoenablethemtoexecuteskillstheyhadtoacquire
thoseskillsandthemostessentialskillswerethebroadskillsthatwecallproblemsolving.Youcould
besureinanengineeringschoolthatyouwantedtoteachandexercisethoseskillsinthecontextof
engineeringproblems,buttheskillsthemselveswerebroaderandmorebasicthanthat.

Letmetellabriefstoryabouthowthatcameabout.Ourpresident,atthetimewasBobDoherty.
DohertycamefromGeneralElectricviaYale,andhadbeenoneofthebrightyoungmenwhowere
takenunderthewingofthefamousengineerStiglitz.EverySaturday,Stiglitzwouldholdasessionwith
thesetalentedyoungmenwhomGeneralElectrichadrecruitedandwhoweretryingtolearnmore
advancedengineeringtheoryandproblemsolvingtechniques.Typically,BobDohertywouldsometimes
getreallystuckwhileworkingonaproblem.Onthoseoccasions,hewouldwalkdownthehall,knock
onStiglitzsdoor,talktohimandbygolly,afterafewminutesormaybeaquarterofanhour,the
problemwouldbesolved.

OnemorningDoherty,onhiswaytoStiglitzsoffice,saidtohimself,"Nowwhatdowereallytalkabout?
Whatsthenatureofourconversation?"Andhisnextthoughtwas,"WellStiglitzneversaysanything
hejustasksmequestions.AndIdontknowtheanswertotheproblemorIwouldntbedownthereand
yetafterfifteenminutesIknowtheanswer.SoinsteadofcontinuingtoStiglitzsoffice,hewenttothe
nearestmensroomandsatdownforawhileandaskedhimself,"WhatquestionswouldStiglitzaskme
aboutthis?"Andloandbehold,aftertenminuteshehadtheanswertotheproblemandwentdownto
Stiglitzsofficeandproudlyannouncedthatheknewhowtosolveit.

SoyoucanseethatDohertywasverydeeplyinterestedintheprocessesoflearning,anditwashewho
waslargelyresponsibleforbringingintoCarnegieMellontheCarnegiePlan,withitsemphasison
problemsolvingandlearningtolearn.Healsodidmuchtobringaboutthebalancebetweenprofessional
andliberaleducation,whichwealltakeforgrantedinengineeringschoolstoday,butdidntthen.

II.OurNewUnderstandingofTeachingandLearning

Itsallverywelltosaythatintheuniversityweshouldpaymoresystematicattentiontothelearning
andteachingprocessesbutthereisnousedoingthatunlesswehavesomethingthatcanbetaught
aboutlearningandsomethingthatcanbetaughtaboutteaching.Theremustanunderlyingscience
here,or(ifwedontwanttousesuchaprestigiousterm)somesystematicunderlyingknowledgeof
whatprocesseshavetogooninthehumanmindwhenapersonislearningandwhenapersonis
teaching.

Psychologyhasbeeninterestedinlearningprocessesforalongtime,goingbacktotheearliestpartsof
itshistoryattheturnofthe20thcentury.Atthebeginning,takingitscuesfromadvancedsciences,it
said,"Wehavetostudythesimplebeforewecanstudythecomplex."Therewasalongperiodoftime
inAmericanpsychologywhenwhatyoustudiedwereratsbecauseratswereallegedlysimplerthan
humanbeings.Theideawasthatifyoureallyunderstoodhowratslearnedbyrunningthemthrough

http://158.132.155.107/posh97/private/learning/learningSimon.htm 2/8
7/31/2016 Whatweknowaboutlearning,HerbertA.Simon

mazes,thenmaybeyouwouldhavesomethingtosayabouthowpeoplelearned.Ofcourse
psychologistsdidexperimentswithpeopleaswellasrats,andmuchwasdiscoveredaboutbothratand
humanlearning.Thisperiodof"Behaviorism"isassociatedwiththenameofWatson,andlater,with
thatofB.F.Skinner.

Morerecently,twothingshavehappenedtopsychology.First,therehasbeenavastlyincreased
willingnesstodoresearchoncomplexhumantasksnotsimplymemorizingnonsensesyllablesor
simpleconceptsbuttasksataprofessionallevel.Oneofthetasksthathasbeenmoststudied(and
itcertainlyisaprofessionaltask)ischessplaying.Todaywecansayagreatdealaboutwhatachess
playerknowsandwhatprocessesachessplayerusestoselectgoodmoves.Chesshasbecomesort
oftheDrosophilaforresearchincognitivepsychologythestandardresearchorganismthe
standardresearchsettinginwhichwehaveaccumulatedanenormousamountofknowledge.

Thereareotherevensimpler"organisms"wehavestudiedthepuzzlecalledtheTowerofHanoi,
whereyoumovedisksfromonepegtoanothertoachieveadesiredpattern.Thereagainwehavefound
someunderlyingprinciplesofproblemsolvingactivitysomethingcalledmeansendsanalysis(which
youreallfamiliarwithevenifyouarenotfamiliarwiththename)thatisfrequentlyobservedinhuman
problemsolving.So,theTowerofHanoi,beingasimplerorganismthanDrosophila,becametheE.coli
ofresearchincognitivepsychology.

III.LearningandTeachingDesign

Engineeringandengineeringdesignhavebeenmuchaffectedbythesedevelopments.Sincethe1960s
therehasbeenincreasingattentiontothedesignprocess,andIassumefromyourpresenceatthis
meeting,thatmanyofyouarefamiliarnotonlywiththerecentresearchbutwithrecenttextbookson
engineeringdesign(anexcellentexampleisDym[1]).Aparallelprocesshasbeengoingonin
architecture,wherealotofgoodworkhadbeendoneontheveryilldefinedtasksofdesigningahouse
oranoffice.Designhasalreadybeenabeneficiaryofthisnewtrendinpsychologicalresearch.Another
thingthathashappenedisthatincreasingnumbersofpsychologistshavebecomeinterestedinthe
applicationtoeducationofwhatwehavelearnedaboutlearning.

Forexample,atCarnegieMellonmycolleague,JohnAnderson,has,foraboutadecade,beenbuilding
computertutoringsystemsforhighschoolstudents,primarilyingeometryandalgebra,andinlogicand
computerprogramming.Computertutorsarenotanewthing,butwhatisnew,andgrowingveryrapidly,
isthedesignofthosetutoringprogramsonthebasisofwhatweknowaboutthelearningprocesson
thebasisofunderlyingpsychologicalprinciples[2].

Forexample,thismeansstartingthedesignofthetutorbyanalyzingthetaskandtheskillthatyouare
tryingtoteach.Ifthetaskisgeometry,determiningwhatthestudenthastohavestoredinhisorher
headinordertoprovegeometrictheoremsandsolvegeometryproblems.Thefirstthingyoumustdois
todefinegoals.Thenyoutrytospecifythecontentofthosegoalsintermsofhumanthinking
processesandthenyouaskwhatkindsofexperiences,ifthestudentswereexposedtothem,would
leadthemtoacquiretheseskills.Whatisnewinthiskindofcomputertutorisadesignbasednot
merelyonwhatcomputerscandobutonwhatpeoplecandowhencomputersprovidethemwithcertain
experiences.Thesearetwoquitedifferentwaysoflookingatthetechnology.AsIgoalong,youwillsee
whyIemphasisthispoint.

Whenwestudytheprocessofdesign,wediscoverthatdesignisproblemsolving.Ifyouhaveabasic
theoryofproblemsolving,thenyouarewellonyourwaytoatheoryofdesign.Thisdiscoverycameas
nodeepsurprisetothoseofuswhohadbeendoingcognitiveresearchonhumanthinkinginother
domains.Designisaspecialkindofproblemsolving[3].

Designisusuallythekindofproblemsolvingwecallillstructured.UnliketheTowerofHanoioreven
chess,youdontstartoffwithawelldefinedgoal.Nordoyoustartoffwithaclearsetofalternatives,
orperhapsanyalternativesatall.Goalsandalternativeshavetoemergethroughthedesignprocess
itself:oneofitsfirsttasksistoclarifyandelaborategoalsandtobegintogeneratealternatives.

Ifyoulookatanyreallycomplexengineeringorarchitecturaldesignyoufindthatthegoalsarenever
completelydefineduntilthedesignisalmostfinished.Atanytimeintheprocessofdesigningyoucan
say,"Therehastobeenoughspacetheretoallowthatdoortoswingopen.SoIllhavetosetthatasa
newconstraintandmakesurethatconditionissatisfied."Theveryprocessofdesignremindsyouof
newconditionsthathavetobesatisfied.

Acharacteristicofdesignthatisspecialtoit,besidesthisgradualemergenceofgoals,isthatthe

http://158.132.155.107/posh97/private/learning/learningSimon.htm 3/8
7/31/2016 Whatweknowaboutlearning,HerbertA.Simon

largesttaskistogeneratealternatives.Therearelotsoftheoriesofdecisionmaking,afieldthathas
beenheavilycultivatedbyeconomistsandstatisticians.Butmosttheoriesofdecisionmakingstartout
withagivensetofalternativesandthenaskhowtochooseamongthem.Indesign,bycontrast,most
ofthetimeandeffortisspentingeneratingthealternatives,whicharentgivenattheoutset.

Ofcoursegeneratingalternativesandchoosingamongthemarentisolatedfromeachother.The
processofdesignisacontinualcycleofgeneratingalternativesandtestingtoevaluatethem.Theidea
thatwestartoutwithallthealternativesandthenchooseamongthemiswhollyunrealistic.Ifyouare
designinganimportantbridge,youmightconsidertwoorthreebasickindsofbridgesandchooseone,
thengotothenextlevelofdetail,andsoon.Throughoutthedesignprocessyouarealwaysgenerating
twoorthreealternativesandchoosingamongthem,andthensettingthevaluesofspecificparameters
tofittheapplicationathand.

Wearebeginningtolearnwhatkindofaproblemsolvingprocessdesignis,andwhatitsunderlying
principlesare.Ifwewanttoteachdesigneffectively,thenweasteachersoughttoknowagooddeal
aboutitstheoryandabouttheempiricalevidencethatsupportsthetheory.Andthesemattersoughtto
enterintotheconstructionofourcoursesandoughttoenterintotheconstructionoftheinstructional
technologythatweuseinthosecourses.Letmehintatafewotherthingswehavelearnedabout
designandaboutexpertiseingeneralfortheengineerissupposedtobeanexpertinwhateverkind
ofengineeringheorsheispracticing.

IV.TheNatureofExpertise

Therehasbeenagreatdealofresearchonwhatconstitutesexpertise[4,5].Inadditiontochess,
medicaldiagnosisisastandardenvironmentinwhichmuchresearchonexpertisehasbeendone.How
doesthedoctor,lookingatthepatientwhocomesintotheoffice,decidewhatiswrong,produceaLatin
nameforit,andoften,producesomeadviceabouttreatment?Howisthatdone?Inthecasesofboth
medicaldiagnosisandchessplayingwehavediscoveredhowitisdone,andIdontknowwhyitshould
bebasicallydifferentinthecaseofengineering.Asamatteroffact,wehavesomeknowledgeabout
thattoo.

First,theexpertpossessesalargeindexedmemoryintheareaofexpertise.Ineveryfieldthathas
beeninvestigated,theexperthasaminimumofabout50,000to100,000"chunks"ofknowledge.
"Chunk"isatechnicalterminpsychology,meaninganyunitofknowledgethathasbecomefamiliarized
andhasaplaceinthememorysindex.Asithasaplaceintheindex,achunkisanythingyoucan
recognizeinyourfieldofexpertise.EnglishspeakersareexpertsontheEnglishlanguagewehave
storedover100,000familiarchunks,whicharecalledwords.Whenweseetheminatext,werecognize
themandretrievetheirmeaningsfrommemory.

Nowwhatdoes"index"mean?Anindexisasetofpatternsthatenableyoutorecognizethingsabout
whichyouhaveknowledge,whenevertheyappear.Itsnousetohaveknowledgeunlessyoucanget
accesstoitwhenitsrelevantandgettingaccesstoknowledgewhenitsrelevantusestheprocesswe
callrecognition.Ifyousay"Hi,mom"andsomeonesays,"Howdidyoudothat?"youreply,"WellIcan
recognizemyownmom!"Werenotverygoodattellingwhatfeatureswesawinordertorecognizeher
butwecanbesureoftheactofrecognition.

Ithasbeenshownbystudiesofnumerousfieldsofexpertisethatalargepartoftheskill,ofsay,a
doctorwhenyouwalkintotheofficeissimplytheskillofrecognizingpatterns.Sometimesweusea
fancierword:wesaythatwedoitbyintuition.Intuitionisessentiallysynonymouswithrecognition.
Havinganintuitionmeansyougetknowledgeaboutsomethingwithoutquiteknowinghowyoudidit:
withoutknowingtheunderlyingprocess.Usually,intuitionscomerathersuddenly,andsomebodysays
"Howdidyouknowthat?"andyousay"OhIhadanintuition."Youwouldsoundalotlessmysteriousif
youjustsaid,"OhIrecognizedit.Irecognizedthatchunk."Andhavingrecognizedthechunkyoudo
justwhatyoudowiththeindexofanencyclopedia:yougetaccesstoallthosethingsyouknowabout
it,storedinyourbrain.Thatsonelargepartofwhatexpertiseisallabout.

Anotherpartofexpertiseistheskillofsearchingthroughaproblemspace:ofsearchingfromthe
situationyouareinnowtowardagoalsituation,andhavingskillsofaskingwhattodonext.Thisis
wheremeansendsanalysisisused."IamhereIwanttobethere.Whatisthedifferencebetweenhere
andthere?WhatoperatorsdoIhavethatsometimesreducedifferencesofthatkind?Nowletsapply
suchanoperatorandseewhetherwecanmakeprogress."

Allsortsofartificialintelligencesystemshavebeendevisedthatdointelligentthings:theyareusually
calledexpertsystems.Ingeneral,theirexpertiseismuchnarrowerthanhumanexpertisebutinmany,

http://158.132.155.107/posh97/private/learning/learningSimon.htm 4/8
7/31/2016 Whatweknowaboutlearning,HerbertA.Simon

manycasesincreasingnumberseverydayweproducecomputerprogramsthatperformatexpert
humanlevels.Whenyoulookinsidethoseprograms,whatyouprimarilyseeare(1)abilitytorecognize
familiarpatterns,(2)accesstoinformationabouttheimplicationsofthosepatternswhenevertheyare
recognized,and(3)abilitytodoamodestamountofveryselectivesearchtowardthegoal.

Ofcourse,withcomputerswedonthavetobeasselectiveinoursearchesashumanbeingsmustbe,
becausecomputersaremuchfasterinsearchthanhumanbeings.Ifyouexaminedafancyartificial
intelligenceprogramlikeDeepBlue,theprogramthatbeattheworldschesschampion,Kasparov,you
wouldfindthatitisjustacombinationof(1)alargeamountofchessknowledge,indexedinsuchaway
thatthecomputercanrecognizeimportantfeaturesontheboardanddrawonitsknowledgeformoves
todealwithsuchfeatures,and(2)averylargecapacitytosearchahead.

Butdontbemisledbythatprocess.Theimmenselyrapidlookaheadprocessisnotitselfthethingthat
makesDeepBlueaworldchampioninspiteofIBMsclaimstothecontrary.Noamountofsearch
woulddothatwithoutsophisticatedchessknowledgetodirectthesearchalongpromisingpaths
(knowledgeaboutalternativedesigns)andchessknowledgetoevaluatethepositionsreached(choice
evaluationknowledge).ThatknowledgewasprovidedtoDeepBluebychessexperts,includinga
grandmasterconsultant.Alatergenerationofcomputerchessprogramswillacquiretheknowledge
directlyfromchessbooksandteachers,bylearningprocessesandnotbybeingprogrammed.Thathas
alreadybeenaccomplishedforothergames(e.g.,checkers,asearlyas1958),butnotyetforchess.

V.SomePrinciplesofLearningandTeaching

Weknewagooddealaboutlearninglongbeforethiskindofresearchinartificialintelligenceand
cognitivesciencewascarriedout.Someofwhatweknewwasimbeddedalreadyinthewisdomofwhat
IearliercalledtheCarnegiePlan.Firstprinciple:learninghastooccurinthestudents.Youcando
anythingyoulikeintheclassroomorelsewhereyoucanstandonyourheadanditdoesntmake
awhitofdifferenceunlessitcausesachangeinbehaviorofyourstudents.

Learningtakesplaceinthemindsofstudentsandnowhereelse,andtheeffectivenessofteacherslies
inwhattheycaninducestudentstodo.Thebeginningofthedesignofanyeducationalprocedureis
dreamingupexperiencesforstudents:thingsthatwewantstudentstodobecausethesearethe
activitiesthatwillhelpthemtolearnthiskindofinformationandskill.Andthenwecanbackoffandask
whatwehavetodotogetstudentstocarryouttheseactivities.

VI.TheRoleofEducationalTechnology:ComputerDisplays

Noticethatifyouproceedinthisway,technologyisthetoolbutitisnotthedriver.Whatwemustavoid
aboveallisdesigningtechnologicallysophisticatedhammersandthenwanderingaroundtofindnails
thatwecanhitwiththem.Thatisagreattemptationforallofuswhoareinvolvedwithcomputer
technologyforcomputerscandoreallyfascinatingthingswhentheyarenotbeingstubbornandwe
wouldliketoseehowwecanusethosepotentialitiesineducation.ButIsubmitthatwearenotgoingto
succeedinthatunlesswereallyturntheproblemtheotherwayaroundandfirstspecifythekindsof
thingsstudentsoughttobedoing:whatarethecosteffectiveandtimeeffectivewaysbywhich
studentscanproceedtolearn.Weneedtocarryouttheanalysisthatisrequiredtounderstandwhat
theyhavetodowhatactivitieswillproducethelearningandthenaskourselveshowthe
technologycanhelpusdothat.

Letmegiveacrudeexampleofthisfromreallife.Weallknowthatwedontdoallofourreasoningin
words,wedoalotofitinpictures.Oneoftheusesofcomputersistopresentpicturesanddisplays.
Whenoneisgoingtogiveatalkonvisualreasoning,thefirstthingsoneistemptedtothinkaboutare
visualdisplaystouseasexamples.Butthereisanalternativewaytogoaboutgivingsuchatalk.

Itsfuntogiveatalkonvisualreasoningwithoutusingthescreen,becauseeachofushasascreen,
itscalledthe"mindseye"andeachofuscanvisualizethingsinit.Soifwearepresentingmaterial
aboutvisualization,wecangiveourstudentsexercisesinvisualizing."Hereisarectangle,andhereis
adiagonallinefromitsupperlefthandcornertoitslowerrighthandcorner."Idonthavetodrawitat
all,becausemostofyou,whileIwasdescribingit,alreadyhave"drawn"arectangleinyourmindseye
and"drawn"thediagonalcrossingit[6].

Ifweunderstandthehumanmind,webegintounderstandwhatwecandowitheducationaltechnology.
Letmegiveanegativeinstance[6,pp.3739].Acoupleofyearsago,wewereinterestedinknowing
howstudentsusevisualmaterialinthinking:howastudentmightcometounderstandspecialrelativity,
inparticular,thederivationoftheLorentzequations.Webuiltahightechcomputerdisplaywhich

http://158.132.155.107/posh97/private/learning/learningSimon.htm 5/8
7/31/2016 Whatweknowaboutlearning,HerbertA.Simon

showedarodthatcouldbemadetomoveandalightbeamthatradiatedouttothefarendoftherod
andthenreflectedbacktothenearend,followingEinsteinsoriginaldescriptionofthephenomenonin
his1905paper.Wehadclocksthatweresynchronizedbothwithastationaryframeofreferenceanda
movingframeofreferenceandwecouldshowtherodineitherframeofreferenceandtheclockscould
dotheirthingandthestudentscouldwatchallofthisanditthrewthemintoutterconfusion.

Nowperhapswedesignedthewrongdisplayinfact,itwasthewrongdisplay.Perhapstherewas
anotherdisplaythatwouldhavedonethejob.Butthinkingofitintermsof,"Canwegetallofthese
phenomenononthedisplay?Canwemakeavirtualrealityofit?"wasnottherightapproach.More
technologywasnotwhatwascalledfor,butmoreunderstandingofhowpeopleprocessvisualdisplays.

Sothenwewentbackandstudiedthestudentsabit:wesimplygavethemthetextofEinsteins1905
papertoread.Ifyouhaveeverlookedatthatpaper,youknowtheresnothingmorethanalgebraonthe
firstsevenpages,andyetyougetthebasicequationoutofthemthatleadstotheLorentz
transformation.Sowegavestudentsthosepagesandaskedthemtoreadthem,andwewatchedwhat
theydid.Theybegantousetheirmindseyesandtheydrew,onthepaperinfrontofthem,diagramsof
whattheysawintheirmindseyes.

Buttheirdiagramsdidntlookatalllikeourcomputerdisplay.Theydrewarodonthepaper,andthen
perhapstheyputalittlearrowontheendoftherodtoindicatethatitwasmoving.Afterthinkingfora
fewmoments,theydrewasecondrod,displacedtotheright.Thentheysaid,"Thisiswheretherodis
whenthelightgetstothefarendofitandisreflected."Thentheyusuallydrewanotherarrowshowinga
rayoflightgoingfromitsoriginalpositionwhentherodstartedtomove,tothepointthefarendhad
reachedwhenthelighthitthemirrorandwasreflected.

Ifyoudrawthatdiagram,Ithinkyouwillseehow,bylabelingthevariouspartsyouhavedrawn,youwill
immediatelybeabletowritetheequationthatEinsteinwroteforthetimeoftheevent.Labelthearrow
forthelight(ct)because,atvelocityc,thatisthedistanceitwentintimet.Labelthelengthoftherod
"l"labelthelittlearrowfromtheinitialpositionoftherodtowhereitmovedlaterasthedistancetherod
hadmoved,which,withavelocityofv,isvt.Nowyouseeinthediagramthatthelengthofthelinectis
equaltotherodlength,l,plusthelengthofthelinevtsoyouwrite"ct=l+vt"andsolvefort.

Thus,thetrickwithcomputerdisplaysinteachingistofindoutwhatthingshumanbeingsarecapable
ofenvisioning,howtheyenvisionthem,andonthebasisofthat,todesignyourcomputerprogram.The
bestdisplayforthisproblemisprobablytheonethestudentsdrew,whichwasabeforeandafter
drawingofthecriticalevent(themovementofthelight),allowingreasoningaboutthechange.
Movementwascapturedbyastationarydisplayofwhateconomistscall"comparativestatics."

VII.LearningfromExamples

Wehavefoundthatoneofthepowerfulwaysforlearningistobegivenworkedoutexamples,stepby
stepexamplesofproblemsolutions[7,8].Letthestudent,byworkingontheseexamples,findouthow
togetfromonesteptothenext.Now,thatsalittlelikelearningfromdoingthrowthestudenta
problemandlethimorhersolveit.Butbyprovidingexamplesyouareallowingthestudenttosolvea
seriesofsubproblems,stepbystep.Youcanmakeeachstepaslongorasshortasyoulike,
dependingonhowhardtheyareforthestudents.

Whatdoesthestudentdoinexaminingaworkedoutexample?Heorsheasks,"Whatchangetook
placefromsteponetosteptwo?"Letssaythisisanalgebraequationtobesolved."Oh,7was
subtractedfrombothsides."Whatdifferencedoesthatmake?"Well,originallywehadanumberonthe
lefthandsideandwedidntwantthat,sowegotridofit."Sothestudentbeginstoassociatethe
actionsthatcanbetakenwiththedifferencestheseactionsmake,whichdeterminestheconditions
underwhichonewantstouseaparticularaction.

Youhaveallsatintheclassroomoftheprofessorwhostartsattheleftendoftheboardatthe
beginningofclass,writingequations,andattheendoftheclasswritesQEDattherightendofthe
board.Youhavebeenwatchingcarefully,andyouknowthateverystepwascorrect.Butwhatyoudont
knowiswhyjustthosestepswereselected.Todayweknowthattounderstandthereasonsfortaking
thosesteps.Youhavetohaveinformationaboutthesubjectorganizedinyourmindasasetof
productionsifthenstatements:IFIhaveanumberonthelefthandsideoftheequationandIonly
wantXonthatside,THENsubtractthatnumberfrombothsides.

IncomputersciencewecalltheseIFTHENstatementsproductions.Ahumanbeingwhoisskilledin
thedomainofaproblemoperateslikeaproductionsystem,findingwhatactionisappropriateinagiven

http://158.132.155.107/posh97/private/learning/learningSimon.htm 6/8
7/31/2016 Whatweknowaboutlearning,HerbertA.Simon

situation(theIF),thenapplyingthataction(theTHEN).Thatleadsustoaskwhatkindsofexerciseswe
cangivestudentsthatwillleadthemtoacquirethoseproductions.Whenweunderstandthat,wecan
designacomputertutor,orforthatmatterapaperandpencilbooklet,thatwilldeliverappropriate
problemstothestudentsandprovidethemwiththesekindsoflearningexperiences.

Asamatteroffactthisparticularideahasbeenappliedforthelasttenyearstotheteachingofalgebra
inMainlandChina.InseveralhundredChinesemiddleschools,coursesinalgebraarenowtaughtwith
almostnolectures,usuallyinclassesofabout50students.Theteacherworksintheclass,tutoring
individualstudents,andtheskillsaretaughtalmostentirelybyhavingthestudentsworkoutexamples.
Assessmentshaveshownthismethodtobeveryeffective.

Mycommentsaboutdiagramsandaboutlearningfromexamplesillustratetheinteractionsbetween
understandinghumanmentalprocesses,andunderstandinghowtousethetechnologicalgoodiesthat
arenowavailabletous.Ourknowledgeofthethoughtprocesseshastobebroughttogetherwithour
knowledgeofthetechnologyifwearetodesigneducationallyeffectiveactivitiesandexperiencesfor
ourstudents.

VIII.ApplicationsintheUniversity

Formorethan20years,wehavehadatCarnegieMellonaTeachingCentertoexposeourfacultyto
principlebasedteachingmethodsofthekindsIhavebeendescribing.Foraboutfiveyears,wehave
hadaCenterforInnovationinLearningwhichisapplyingthesekindsofprincipleswithintheuniversity
bybringingtogetherfacultypossessingtheimportantcognitiveandpsychologicalskillswiththefaculty
inthedepartmentswhoareresponsibleforplanningandteachingthecourses.Inbothoftheserelated
activities,ouraimistobegintoprofessionalizetheeducationalprocessinouruniversity.Weare
convincedthatwecannolongerafforduniversityeducationthatisprovidedbyamateurteachersto
amateurstudents.Inthetwoorganizationswehavecreated,moderneducationaltechnologyisplaying
animportantandincreasingrole,butalwaysinthecontextofsoundpsychologicalanalysisofthe
learningthathastotakeplace.Wethinkthisisamodelthatisgenerallyuseful.

IX.Conclusion

Moderninformationtechnology,includingthetechnologiesofcomputersandcommunicationnetworks,
hasgreatimportanceforengineeringeducation.First,ithasenabledustocreateasignificanttheoryof
designthatprovidesastructureforteachingengineeringdesignaswellasengineeringscience.

Second,informationtechnology,appliedtocomputersimulationofhumanthoughtprocesses,has
greatlyadvancedourunderstandingofthenatureofexpertiseandofthelearningprocessesthrough
whichprofessionalcompetenceandexpertiseareacquired.

Third,informationtechnology,andespeciallyitspsychologicalcomponent,enablesustoconstructnew
instructionalproceduresbycarefulanalysisofthestructuresofthetaskstobemastered,thesystems
ofproductions(ifthenrules)thatunderliesuccessfulperformance,andthekindsofactivitiesthatwill
enablestudentstoacquiretheseproductions.

Finally,wecanfindinourcomputingtechnologynewcapabilitiesforexample,capabilitiesforvisual
displaysforpresentingtoourstudentsthelearningexperiencesthatourcognitivetheoryindicates
willbeeffectiveforinstruction.

Wenowhavethebasiccapabilities,ifwewillusethem,fortransforminguniversityeducationfroman
activityforgiftedamateurs,teachersandstudents,toanactivitybasedonsolidscientificknowledge,
thatcanbepracticedinathoroughlyprofessional,andhenceincreasinglyeffectiveway.

References

1.Dym,C.L.,EngineeringDesign:ASynthesisofViews,NewYork,NY:CambridgeUniversity
Press,1994.

2.Anderson,J.R.,etal.,"CognitiveTutors:LessonsLearned,"TheJournalofLearning
Sciences,4,167207,1995.

3.Simon,H.A.,TheSciencesoftheArtificial(3rd.ed.),Cambridge,MA:TheMITPress,1996,
especiallychapters5and6.

http://158.132.155.107/posh97/private/learning/learningSimon.htm 7/8
7/31/2016 Whatweknowaboutlearning,HerbertA.Simon

4.Ericsson,K.A.,andJ.Smith(eds.),TowardaGeneralTheoryofExpertise,NewYork,NY:
CambridgeUniversityPress,1991.

5.Ericsson,K.A.(ed.),TheRoadtoExcellence:TheAcquisitionofExpertPerformance,
Mahwah,NJ:Erlbaum,1996.

6.TabachneckSchijf,H.J.M.,andH.A.Simon,"AlternativeRepresentationsofInstructional
Material,"inD.Peterson(ed.),FormsofRepresentation(pp.2846),Exeter,UK:IntellectBooks,
1996.

7.Zhu,X.,andH.a.Simon,"LearningMathematicsfromExamplesandbyDoning,"Cognition
andInstruction,4,137166,1988.

8.Zhu,X.,etal,"CueRecognitionandCueElaborationinLearningfromExamples,"
ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences,USA,93,13461351,1996.

http://158.132.155.107/posh97/private/learning/learningSimon.htm 8/8