Case Study 20
Mango
This case study is the primary source of information on potential pollination services for the industry. It is based on data provided by
industry, the ABS and other relevant sources. Therefore, information in this case study on potential hive requirements may differ to
the tables in the Pollination Aware report (RIRDC Pub. No. 10/081) which are based on ABS (2008) Agricultural Commodities Small Area
Data, Australia 2005-06.
Introduction
The mango (Mangifera indica) originated in north-eastern India
and Burma, where it was one of the first fruits to be cultivated
by man. In tropical regions, worldwide production of this fruit
comes second only to bananas (AAG 2006).
The mango is an erect, multi-branched evergreen tree character-
ised by its dome-shaped canopy. It may reach 30m tall, although
most trees are less than half that height, living up to 100 years
or more. The tree grows in frost-free areas of the world from
sea level to about 1,200m. Heavy rains during flowering will
drastically reduce fruit production and mangoes have a tendency
Mango production in Australia
On the world scale, the Australian mango industry is relatively
insignificant. However, production has increased over the past
decade and it is forecast that domestic production will double
within ten years, making it one of the major domestic horticul-
tural crops (AAG 2006). Mangoes grow best in climates which
have low rainfall and low relative humidity at flowering, fruit
setting and harvesting and that are warm to hot during fruiting.
However, mangoes will tolerate a wide range of climates from
warm temperate to tropical. With these climate requirements,
mangoes are grown predominately in northern Australia (Figure
1). Queensland is the major producing state, accounting for 70%
of domestic production, by volume (Table 1). The Northern
Territory is also a major mango producer accounting for 20%
Pollination Aware
to biennial bearing, with many cultivars that produce only one
good crop in three to four years (McGregor 1976).
Mangoes can be used in a variety of ways, which is exemplified
by the increase in global demand in recent years. The majority of
mangoes are consumed fresh or used for dishes such as pickles,
chutneys and salads; however, they can also be processed into
dehydrated fruit, canned fruit, juices, jams, jellies and pulps;
which can be incorporated into yoghurts and iced confectionery
(AAG 2006).
of production. The remaining production areas are in Western
Australia and northern New South Wales (AAG 2006).
The growing season in Australia stretches from mid spring to
autumn with flowering from June to August and peak production
occurring during December and January. The first fruit to reach
the markets in late September and October is from the northern
growing areas such as Darwin, Kununurra and Katherine, whilst
the last fruit on the market is sourced from around Carnarvon in
Western Australia (AAG 2006).
In Australia a grafted mango tree will take approximately three
years to bear fruit and will achieve peak production at six to
 Atkins and Palmer. A new variety of mango called Calypso is also starting to be produced and is
Case Study 20 reaching the market, albeit in small volumes at this stage.

Pollination Aware T able 1 P roduc tion of mangoes per s tate (AB S 2008)

NSW NT QLD WA
Production per state (000 tonnes) 108 11,386 35,236 2,198
Percentage production per state (%) 0.2 23.2 72.2 4.4

eight years of age. Seedling trees take a year longer to come been variable. This is due to the predominance of Kensington
into production. Currently around 90% of the trees grown Pride and its tendency to bear fruit biennially (AAG 2006). It is
commercially in Australia are Kensington Pride with the other forecast that production will continue to increase from current
established varieties including Irwin, Nam Dok Mai, R2E2, levels in the future.
Glenn, Kent, Tommy Atkins and Palmer. A new variety of
mango called Calypso is also starting to be produced and is
reaching the market, albeit in small volumes at this stage.
The world trade in mangoes is limited with the vast majority Figure 1 Mango production
of mangoes consumed domestically. The total fruit exported regions within Australia
in 2004 internationally represented only 4.3% of world (ABS 2008)
production (AAG 2006). Australia relies predominately on
domestic production to meet domestic demand. During
F igure 1 Mango produc tion regions within Aus tralia (AB S 2008)
2004 only 2,430 tonnes were
exported and 3,850 tonnes were Table 1 Production of mangoes per state (ABS 2008)
imported, making Australia a net The world trade in mangoes is limited with the vast majority of mangoes consumed domestically.
importer of mangoes in that year. NSW in 2004 internationally
The total fruit exported NT QLDonly 4.3% of world
represented WA production (AAG
2006). Australia relies predominately on domestic production to meet domestic demand. During
Over the past decade domestic
production has increased, but Production per2004 only 2,430 tonnes were exported and 3,850 tonnes were imported, making Australia a net
state
importer of mangoes in that year. Over the past decade domestic production has increased, but an
annual production levels have (000 tonnes) production levels have
108 been variable.
11,386 35,236
This is due to the predominance of2,198
Kensington Pride and it
tendency to bear fruit biennially (AAG 2006). It is forecast that production will continue to incre
Percentage from current levels in 0.2the future. 23.2 72.2 4.4
production per state
(%) Pollination in mangoes

There has been some lack of agreement on the pollination of mangoes. McGregor (1976) conduc
review of the pollination requirements of mangoes and cites a number of authors who have studie
pollination of the mango, summarised as follows:

Young (1942) made pollination studies on the Haden mango in Florida and found no significant
difference between percentages of fruit set in self- and cross-pollinated flowers. Sturrock (1944)

Pollination in mangoes considered the flowers self-fertile and this self-fertility was supported by the earlier work of Pope
(1917), who stated that the mango is self-fertile but cross-pollination increases fruit set. In contra
Singh et al. (1962) reported that crossed flowers set fruit whereas self-pollinated ones did not,
There has been some lack of agreement on the pollination of
indicating of self-sterility.
a degree TheThe
of self-sterility. actual degree
actual ofofself-fertility
degree self-fertility and sterilityin individual
and sterility
mangoes. McGregor (1976) conducted a review of the pollina-
cultivars has in individual cultivars has not been determined, but there is
not been determined, but there is apparently some variation. Self-sterility has not,
however,
tion requirements of mangoes and cites a number of authors been identified as a major problem for percentage fruit set.
apparently some variation. Self-sterility has not, however, beenWhatever the degree of self
who have studied the pollination of the mango, summarised as identified as a major problem for percentage fruit set. Whatever
164
follows: the degree of self-sterility within a cultivar, there is a definite
need for pollen to be transferred to the stigma by an outside
Young (1942) made pollination studies on the Haden mango in agent. Popenoe (1917) stated that some embryos are capable of
Florida and found no significant difference between percentages development without fertilisation, however Naik and Rao (1943)
of fruit set in self- and cross-pollinated flowers. Sturrock (1944) obtained no fruit set of more than 100,000 flowers studied. Fra-
also considered the flowers self-fertile and this self-fertility was ser (1927) stated that fruit bud formation and pollination were
supported by the earlier work of Popenoe (1917), who stated the two big problems in growing mangoes and Wolfe (1962)
that the mango is self-fertile but cross-pollination increases fruit concluded that getting fruit to set was more difficult than getting
set. In contrast, Singh et al. (1962) reported that crossed flowers trees to produce flowers. The evidence indicates that the need
set fruit whereas self-pollinated ones did not, indicating a degree for cross-pollination between mango cultivars is not critical, at

Page 2

least for most cultivars, but there is need for pollinating insects
to transfer the pollen from anthers to stigma within the cultivar
to obtain satisfactory crops of fruit.
Several more recent studies give indications to the effectiveness
of honey bees in pollinating mango crops. Du Toit (1994) found
that fruit set was poor in both open-pollinated and bagged
inflorescences when honey bees were introduced into a South
African mango orchard. Singh (1989) had contrasting findings,
showing that several foraging insects including the European
Pollination management for mangoes
in Australia
There are a number of factors within the orchard which would
have a direct bearing on the pollination efficiency of honey bees:
Orchard layout
Tree and blossom density: The crop layout is usually prepared
in rows; however, the density of trees will vary for different
cultivars of mango. For the major crop, the Kensington
Pride tree spacing in the past has been up to 12 x 12metres
because of its vigorous growth. In recent times however,
annual pruning has allowed smaller spacing of 6 x 9m and
up to 185trees/ha. With the Irwin variety, spacing is
usually 4 x 8m with a tree density of 220trees/ha and the
Kent variety can be spaced at a distance of 4 x 7m (QLD.
DPI 2009).
Access: From a beekeepers point of view, all-weather truck
access is highly desirable. Limited access may lead to an
increased workload for the beekeeper, uneven placement
of hives and thus inefficient pollination. Ensuring the
beekeeper has good access will aid in placement of hives and
be mutually beneficial to the grower (increased pollination
efficiency) and the beekeeper (decreased labour effort).
Mango
honey bee significantly increased fruit set. Farjado et al. (2008)
found that after the introduction of bee colonies, fruit set in
uncaged inflorescences (41%) was significantly higher than that
in caged inflorescences (0.7%).
Greater research into the technicalities of mango pollination and
alternative pollinator methods is required in Australia. This will
allow management decisions to be implemented on an informed
basis so that orchardists will know how best to pollinate their
crop.
Density of bees
The inflorescence of mango is a branched panicle with the
flowers arranged at the ends of ultimate cymules. It arises from
the tip of individual branches and bears numerous polygamous
flowers, i.e. male and bi-sexual (Mukherjee 1953). Although the
literature does not conclusively indicate that honey bees sig-
nificantly add to pollination, there is enough recent evidence to
assume that a strong concentration of foraging honey bees within
the mango grove would result in increased floral visitation and
more stabilised set of fruit (McGregor 1976). The Department
of Agriculture and Food in Western Australia (DAF 2005) has
recommended a hive density per hectare ranging from 815
depending on which mango cultivar is being considered.
Arrangement of hives
The placement of hives within an orchard is very important to
maximise pollination of a crop. While there is limited literature
specific to optimal placement of hives within a mango orchard,
if an orchard is surrounded by forest, hives could be placed near
the central orchard area. This basic strategy would minimise
bees targeting other sources of nectar and pollen such as that
from eucalyptus trees. Alternatively, if there is little to distract
the bees from the crop then hives should be placed equally down
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Case Study 20
Pollination Aware
rows for even pollination and avoidance of edge effects.
Timing
Some varieties develop all their flowers within ten days after
the first bud opens, whereas others may take several weeks or
even months. The latter types have a better chance of setting
fruit because of the longer period available for pollination and
for overcoming unfavourable weather conditions. This may also
mean that orchardists would have higher pollination costs if they
need to have hives on their crop for a longer period of time.
The timing of bee colony placement would thus depend on the
mango variety under consideration.
Preparation of bees/attractiveness,
nutritional value of pollen and nectar
For a hive to be able to adequately pollinate fruit blossom,
it must be above certain strength in bee numbers. Meager
amounts of nectar (5% sugar concentration) and pollen are
produced by mango flowers which may mean that bee hives may
need stimulation in the form of pollen supplements and substi-
tutes before they are placed in orchards (DAF 2005). Because
of the small amounts of nectar and pollen produced, bees do not
find this crop very attractive. All weeds and other non-target
species should thus be removed so that bees are not distracted
from the mango trees.
Availability of bees for pollination
The mango flowering season occurs quite close to when
beekeepers would be looking to build up the conditions of their
hives for the spring and summer flows. Given that mango nectar
and pollen do not provide nutrition suitable to maintain and
build a strong hive, it is likely that the beekeeper would have
little incentive other than monetary in order to supply honey
bees for pollination services in mangoes.
Page 4
Feral bees/insects
When the flowers begin opening, they secrete nectar in consid-
erable quantity attracting a large number of insects (Mukherjee
1953) which may be sufficient to pollinate a crop. However,
orchardists relying on feral bees and insects should also be aware
that they risk a poor fruit set on their crop if visitation is not
sufficiently intense to achieve optimal production especially if
there are alternative floral resources in the vicinity.
Risks
Pesticides: One of the biggest drawbacks of placing bees near any
agricultural crop is the possibility of colonies or field bees being
affected by pesticides. Pesticides should be kept to a minimum
while hives remain on the property. Most poisoning occurs
when pesticides are applied to flowering crops, pastures and
weeds.
It is strongly recommended that growers take the following steps
to prevent or reduce bee losses:
follow the warnings on pesticide container labels
select the least harmful insecticide for bees and spray late in
the afternoon or at night
do not spray in conditions where spray might drift onto
adjacent fields supporting foraging bees
dispose of waste chemical or used containers correctly
always warn nearby beekeepers of your intention to spray in
time for steps to be taken to protect the bees; give at least
two days notice
always advise nearby farmers.
Weather
Temperature and rainfall have a marked effect on honey bee
activity. Bee activity is very limited below temperatures of 13oC,
with activity increasing up to around 19oC, above which activity
tends to remain at a relatively high level. Decreases in both
numbers of bees visiting blossoms and the distance from the hive
at which bees forage occur with a decrease in temperature.

Alternatives/opportunities for
improvement
Alternative insects: A study by Anderson et al. (1982) in northern
Australia found that large native insect species were shown to
be the dominant pollinators of the mango. The pollinators, in
decreasing order of efficiency, were wasps, native bees, large
ants and large flies. It may be feasible to use native bees of the
Trigona genus for pollination purposes since they visit mango
flowers in large numbers and move from tree to tree, as judged
by behavioural observations and the presence of large numbers
Mango
of mango and foreign pollen grains on the hairy body. Although
it is still in preliminary stages, research has shown that these bees
can be successfully hived, indicating a significant potential for use
in mango pollination (Anderson et al. 1982).
Further research: Greater research into the technicalities of mango
pollination and alternative pollinator methods is required in
Australia. This will allow management decisions to be imple-
mented on an informed basis so that orchardists will know how
best to pollinate their crop.
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Case Study 20

Pollination Aware

Potential pollination service requirement

for mangoes in Australia
Optimal use of managed pollination services in all mango
orchards in Australia would require a service capacity as indi-
cated in Table 2 below.

Table 2 Potential pollination service requirement for mangoes in Australia (ABA 2008)
State Peak month Area (ha) total Average hive den- Estimated number
sity (h/ha)* of hives required
NSW September 86 12 1,032
QLD September 6,636 12 79,632
NT September 162 12 1,944
WA September 729 12 8,748
Total 7,613 12 91,356
Notes: Area sourced from ABS (2008), flowering times and average hive density from DAF (2005).

References
AAG 2006. Market Overview The Australian Mango Industry.
Australian Agribusiness Group.
ANDERSON, D.L., SEDGLEY, M., SHORT, J.R.T. & ALL-
WOOD, A.J. 1982. Insect Pollination of Mango in
Northern Australia. Australian Journal of Agricultural
Research, 33: 541548.
AUSTRALIAN BUREAU OF STATISTICS (ABS) 2008. Agri-
cultural Commodities: Small Area Data, Australia, 200506
(Reissue), ABS No 7125.0.
DAF. 2005. Honey bee pollination benefits for crops and
orchards in Western Australia. [Online]. Department
of Agriculture and Food in Western Australia. Available:
<http://www.agric.wa.gov.au/action/ATOZ?s=8759
02710,term=pollination>. [Accessed 2009].
DUTOIT, A.P. 1994. Pollination of avocados, mangoes and
litchis. Inligtingsbulletin Instituut vir Tropiese en Subtrop-
iese Gewasse, 78.
FAJARDO, A.C., MEDINA, J.R., OPINA, O.S. & CERVANCIA,
C.R. 2008. Insect Pollinators and Floral Visitors of
Mango. Philippine Agricultural Scientist, 91: 372382.
MCGREGOR, S.E. 1976. Insect pollination of cultivated crop plants.
USDA, Tucson, Arizona.
MUKHERJEE, S.K. 1953. The Mango: Its Botany, Cultivation,
Uses and Future Improvement, Especially as Observed
in India. Economic Botany, 7: 130162.
QLD.DPI. 2009. Information for Mango growers. [Online].
Queesnland Department of Primary Industries.
Available: <http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/cps/rde/dpi/
hs.xsl/26_7716_ENA_HTML.htm>. [Accessed 2009].
SINGH, G. 1989. Pollination, pollinators and fruit setting
in Mango. Proceedings of the 5th International Mango
Symposium Acta Horticulture, 1: 116123.

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 Mango
Notes

This case study was prepared as part of Pollination Aware The

RealValue of Pollination in Australia, by RC Keogh, APW
Robinson and IJ Mullins, which consolidates the available
information on pollination in Australia at a number of differ-
ent levels: commodity/industry; regional/state; and national.
Pollination Aware and the accompanying case studies provide
a base for more detailed decision making on the management
of pollination across a broad range of commodities.
The full report and 35 individual case studies are available at
www.rirdc.gov.au.

Page 7
This project is part of the Pollination Program a jointly
funded partnership with the Rural Industries Research
and Development Corporation (RIRDC), Horticulture
Australia Limited (HAL) and the Australian Government
Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry. The
Pollination Program is managed by RIRDC and aims to
secure the pollination of Australias horticultural and
agricultural crops into the future on a sustainable and
profitable basis. Research and development in this
program is conducted to raise awareness that will help
protect pollination in Australia.
RIRDC funds for the program are provided by the
Honeybee Research and Development Program, with
industry levies matched by funds provided by the
Australian Government. Funding from HAL for the
program is from the apple and pear, almond, avocado,
cherry, vegetable and summerfruit levies and voluntary
contributions from the dried prune and melon
industries, with matched funds from the Australian
Government.
RIRDC Publication No 10/127
ISBN 978-1-74254-097-9