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nuclear pores during the inter phase
Biology
Chromosomes become more distinct during
reproduction.
Chloroplasts are found only in plants and
photosynthetic algae. The chloroplast's job is
to carry out a process called photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis- light energy is collected
and used to build sugars from carbon
dioxide.
- Sugars produced in photosynthesis may
be used by the plant cell, or may be
consumed by animals that eat the plant,
such as humans.
- Energy contained in these sugars is
harvested through a process called
cellular respiration, which happens in the
mitochondria of both plant and animal
cells.
Mitochondria- powerhouses or energy
factories of the cell.
- Makes a steady supply of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), the cells main
energy-carrying molecule.
- The process of making ATP using
chemical energy from fuels such as
sugars is called cellular respiration,
and many of its steps happen inside
the mitochondria.
Nuclear membrane- is the membrane that
encloses the nucleus.
- Bilayer membrane is made of lipids,
and encases the genetic material in
eukaryotic cells.
Functions of Nuclear Membrane
- Nuclear envelope has small holes
which are known as nuclear pores.
These pores allow the content to
move in and out of the nucleus. Also,
used as connector for inner
membrane and outer membrane.
- The surface area of the nuclear
envelope expands and doubles the
portion of cell division.
- This membrane covers the nucleus
with a double membrane by multiple
pores. These pores helps in
regulating the passage of macro-
molecules such as RNA and proteins
and allow free passage of water,
ATP, ions and small molecules. The
membrane takes some control over
the flow of information in the cell as it
is carried by the macro molecules.
Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter at
neuromuscular junctions, at synapses in the
ganglia of the visceral motor system, and at
a variety of sites within the central nervous
system. Whereas a great deal is known
about the function of cholinergic
transmission at the neuromuscular junction
and at ganglionic synapses, the actions of
ACh in the central nervous system are not as
well understood.
Cell Division- the division of a cell into two
daughter cells with the same genetic material
Interphase
G1- also called the first gap phase, the cell
grows physically larger, copies organelles,
and makes the molecular building blocks it
will need in later steps.
S phase- the cell synthesizes a complete
copy of the DNA in its nucleus. It also
duplicates a microtubule-organizing
structure called the centrosome. The
centrosomes help separate DNA during M
phase.
G2- the cell grows more, makes proteins and
organelles, and begins to reorganize its
contents in preparation for mitosis. G2 ends
when mitosis begins.
Mitotic (M) phase- the cell divides its copied
DNA and cytoplasm to make two new cells.
M phase involves two distinct division-related
processes: mitosis and cytokinesis.

Prophase - The first stage of mitosis, during
which visibly dark, condensed chromosomes
are found in the nuclear envelope.
Prometaphase - The second stage of
mitosis during which the nuclear envelope
disassembles and microtubules gain access
to chromosome kinetochores.
Metaphase - The third stage of mitosis
during which kinetochore microtubules* align
sister chromatids along the metaphase plate
at the center of the cell.
Anaphase - The fourth stage of mitosis
during which sister chromosomes are
separated and pulled to opposite ends of the
cell by kinetochore microtubules.
Telophase - The fifth and final stage of
mitosis before cytokinesis; in telophase, the
nuclear envelope re-forms around separated
sister chromatids and kinetochore
microtubules disappear. Cell elongation and
decondensation of chromosomes also occur.
Contractile ring - A ring of protein filaments
that encircles the region of the metaphase
plate in a dividing cell. Responsible for
pinching the cell until it separates into two
independent cells.
Mitotic spindle - A complex of microtubules
that form between opposite poles of a cell
during mitosis. Serve to separate and move
sister chromatids to opposite ends of the cell
for division.
*cells that undergo mitosis are diploid, their
number of chromosomes can be represented
as 2N
*Cells about to enter M phase, which have
passed through S phase and replicated their
DNA, have 4N chromosomes
Messenger RNA (mRNA) is produced within
the nucleus of a cell and migrates to the
cytoplasm, where it attaches to ribosomes
and guides the building of the amino acid
sequences that will compose proteins.
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Ribosomes -are sites for the meeting and
binding of mRNA and transfer RNA (tRNA).
They are the structures where amino acids
transported by tRNA are united by peptide
bonds to form polypeptide chains (proteins).
They are made of two subunits, the small
subunit and the large subunit. These
subunits are made of ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
and proteins. Ribosomes have three binding
sites, one for mRNA and two for tRNA.1
Aerobic respiration is the process of
producing cellular energy involving oxygen.
Cells break down food in the mitochondria in
a long, multistep process that produces
roughly 36 ATP. The first step in is glycolysis,
the second is the citric acid cycle and the
third is the electron transport system.
Glycolysis is a series of reactions that and
extract energy from glucose by splitting it into
two three-carbon molecules called
pyruvates. Glycolysis is an ancient metabolic
pathway, meaning that it evolved long ago,
and it is found in the great majority of
organisms alive today.
Anaerobic cellular respiration is similar to
aerobic cellular respiration in that electrons
extracted from a fuel molecule are passed
through an electron transport chain, driving
ATP synthesis
Fermentation is another anaerobic (non-
oxygen-requiring) pathway for breaking
down glucose, one that's performed by many
types of organisms and cells. In
fermentation, the only energy extraction
pathway is glycolysis, with one or two extra
reactions tacked on at the end.
Enzymes are proteins that control the speed
of chemical reactions in your body. Without
enzymes, these reactions would take place
too slowly to keep you alive. Some enzymes,
like the ones in your gut, break down large
molecules into smaller ones.

Plant Hormones
Abscisic acid (also called ABA) is one of the
most important plant growth regulators. In
general, abscisic acid inhibits growth /
germination. Abscisic acid induces bud and
seed dormancy, preventing germination
during winter. As summer approaches
abscisic acid dissipates, but this occurs
slowly and it takes some time for it's effects
to wear off. This prevents seeds from
germinating on warmer winter days and
ensures they only germinate once the
temperature is consistently warmer. Abscisic
acid also preventing seeds from germinating
within the fruit, slowing growth in more
"mature" parts of the plant and closing
stomata (tiny pores on the undersides of the
leaves) in response to a lack of water.
Auxins are produced in the shoot apical
meristem (shoot tip) and stimulate cell
growth & expansion (elongation). In general,
auxins are a positive growth regulator. They
stimulate development of xylem (tissues that
transport water throughout the plant) and
inhibit the growth of buds lower down the
stems ensuring the plant grows from the
leading tip (apical dominance). The very low
concentrations of auxin that normally reach
the roots generally promote root growth and
branching. However, higher doses inhibit
root cell growth and expansion (elongation).
Cytokinins work together with auxin to
promote growth and development, by
promoting cell division and shoot formation.
They are produced in the roots and travel.
They counter the apical dominance induced
by auxins, promoting the development of
buds. In conjunction with ethylene they
promote abscission (drop) of leaves and fruit.
Ethylene ("the ripening hormone") is a gas
that promotes fruit ripening and abscission
(drop) of leaves and fruit. Ethylene
production increases when the seeds are
mature, ensuring the fruit is released when
only when the seeds are capable of
germination. Fruit often releases ethylene
gas as it ripens (this is why storing unripened
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fruit with a ripening apple will accelerate the
ripening process). It also affects cell growth
and cell shape; when a growing shoot hits an
obstacle while underground, ethylene
production greatly increases, preventing cell
elongation and causing the stem to swell.
The resulting thicker stem can exert more
pressure against the object impeding its path
to the surface. If the shoot does not reach the
surface and the ethylene stimulus becomes
prolonged, it affects the stem's natural
geotropic response, which is to grow upright,
allowing it to grow around an object.
Gibberellins play an important role in
germination, initiating the mobilisation of
nutrients stored within the seed. Absorption
of water by the seed causes production of
GA. They also promote the elongation of
stems, flowering and cell division (growth).
Gibberellins also reverse the inhibition of
shoot growth and seed dormancy induced by
ABA.
Na+ and K+ concentrations
It was found that the concentrations of
sodium and potassium ions on the two sides
of the membrane are interdependent,
suggesting that the same carrier transports
both ions. It is now known that the carrier is
an ATP-ase and that it pumps three sodium
ions out of the cell for every two potassium
ions pumped in.
The Blood Clotting Mechanism
Blood Clotting is one of three mechanisms
that reduce the loss of blood from broken
blood vessels.
The three mechanisms are:
1. Vascular Spasm The smooth muscle in
blood vessel walls contracts immediately the
blood vessel is broken. This response
reduces blood loss for some time. while the
other hemostatic mechanisms become
active.
2. Platelet Plug Formation When blood
platelets encounter a damaged blood vessel
they form a "platelet plug" to help to close the
gap in the broken blood vessel. The key
stages of this process are: o platelet

adhesion. o platelet release reaction, and o
platelet aggregation
3. Blood Clotting (Coagulation) As
described below:
Following damage to a blood vessel.
vascular spasm occurs to reduce blood loss
while other mechanisms also take effect:
Blood platelets congregate at the site of
damage and amass to form a platelet plug.
This is the beginning of the process of the
blood 'breaking down' from its usual liquid
form in such a way that its constituents play
their own parts in processes to minimise
blood loss.
Blood normally remains in its liquid state
while it is within the blood vessels but when
it leaves them the blood may thicken and
form a gel (coagulation). Blood clotting
(technically 'blood coagulation') is the
process by which liquid blood is transformed
into a solid state. It is a complex process
involving many clotting factors incl. calcium
ions. enzymes. platelets and damaged
tissues. activating each other.
The three stages of this process are:
1. Formation of Prothrombinase
Prothrombinase can be formed in two ways.
depending of which of two 'systems' or
'pathways' apply.
Intrinsic is initiated by liquid blood making
contact with a foreign System surface, i.e.
something that is not part of the body.
Extrinsic is initiated by liquid blood making
contact with damaged tissue. System Both
the intrinsic and the extrinsic systems involve
interactions between coagulation factors.
The coagulation factors have individual
names but are often referred to by a standard
set of Roman Numerals. e.g. Factor VIII
(antihaemophilic factor). Factor IX
(Christmas factor).
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2. Prothrombin converted into the
enzyme Thrombin Prothrombinase
(formed in stage 1.) converts prothrombin
which is a plasma protein that is formed in
the liver into the enzyme thrombin.
3. Fibrinogen (soluble) converted to
Fibrin (insoluble) In turn, thrombin converts
fibrinogen (which is also a plasma protein
synthesized in the liver) into fibrin. Fibrin is
insoluble and forms the threads that bind the
clot.
Consequences of Blood Clotting
Problems:
If blood clots too quickly / easily then
thrombosis may occur. This is blood clotting
in an unbroken blood vessel, which is
dangerous and can lead to strokes or heart-
attacks.
Conversely, if blood takes too long to clot
hemorrhage may occur. In this case much
blood may be lost from the blood vessels.
which is also dangerous. The hereditary
disorder haemophilia is a condition in which
certain coagulation factors are missing from
the blood. as a result of which the blood
cannot form clots (without medical
intervention).
Beta-oxidation is the process by which fatty
acids, specifically saturated fatty acids, are
broken down for use in energy production.
Pulmonary circulation is the movement of
blood from the heart, to the lungs, and back
to the heart again. Deoxygenated blood
leaves the heart, goes to the lungs, and then
re-enters the heart; Deoxygenated blood
leaves through the right ventricle through the
pulmonary artery. From the right atrium, the
blood is pumped through the tricuspid valve
(or right atrioventricular valve), into the right
ventricle. Blood is then pumped from the right
ventricle through the pulmonary valve and
into the main pulmonary artery.

Parts of the Brain
Cerebral Cortex-it is the outermost layer of
the cerebral hemisphere which is composed
of gray matter.
- Cortices are asymmetrical. Both
hemispheres are able to analyze
sensory data, perform memory
functions, learn new information,
form thoughts and make decisions.
Left Hemisphere- is responsible for
sequential analysis (systematic, logical
interpretation of information). Also,
interpretation and production of symbolic
information (language, mathematics,
abstraction and reasoning).
- Memory stored in a language format.
Right hemisphere- Holistic Functioning:
processing multi-sensory input
simultaneously to provide "holistic" picture of
one's environment. Visual spatial skills.
Holistic functions such as dancing and
gymnastics are coordinated by the right
hemisphere. Memory is stored in auditory,
visual and spatial modalities.
Corpus Collosum- communication between
the two hemispheres
Frontal Lobe-Cognition and memory.
Prefrontal area: The ability to concentrate
and attend, elaboration of thought. The
"Gatekeeper"; (judgment, inhibition).
Personality and emotional traits. Motor
Cortex (Brodman's): voluntary motor activity.
Premotor Cortex: storage of motor patterns
and voluntary activities. Language: motor
speech
Parietal Lobe- processing of sensory input.
Body orientation (proprioception)
Occipital Lobe- primary visual reception
and association
Temporal Lobe- auditory reception and
interpretation, expressed behavior, receptive
speech, information retrieval
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Limbic System- olfactory path ways,
biologic rhythms, hypothalamus
Basal Ganglia- subcortical gray matter
nuclei. Processing link between thalamus
and motor cortex. Initiation and direction of
voluntary movement. Balance (inhibitory),
Postural reflexes. Automatic movement
Amygdala- neural centers in the limbic
system linked to emotion
Hippocampus- a structure in the limbic
system linked to memory
Thalamus- relays messages between lower
brain centers and cerebral cortex
Hypothalamus- controls maintenance
functions such as eating; helps govern
endocrine system; linked to emotion and
reward
pituitary gland- master endocrine gland
Reticular formation- helps control arousal
Medulla- controls heartbeat and breathing
spinal cord- pathway for neural fibers
traveling to and from the brain; controls
simple relfexes
cerebellum- coordinates voluntary
movement and balance
pons- relays information between the
cerebrum and the cerebellum, controls
arousal and regulates respiration.
Geotropism- the growth reaction of plants to
gravity is