OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

By

CH.V.V.RAMANA
 EXPERIMENT 1: OP AMP CHARACTERISITCS

AIM: To determine the following op amp parameters

(1) The input offset voltage (V0s)
(2) The offset current (Ios) and the bias currents
(3) Slew rate
(4) The common mode rejection ratio (CMRR)

INTRODUCTION

An operational amplifier (or op-amp in short) is a linear integrated circuit (IC) that has a
very high voltage gain; high input impedance and low output impedance. The internal
circuit of a very popular op-amp (μA 741) is shown in Fig. 1(a). Its schematic symbol is
shown in Fig. 1(b) and its pin diagram in Fig. 1(c).

Fig. 1(b): Schematic symbol for a 741

Fig. 1(c): The 741 chip is shown packaged in an 8-pin dual-in-line package.

As seen from Fig. 1(b), op-amp is provided with two input terminals; Inverting input
terminal represented as “ - ” and Non-inverting terminal represented as “ + ”.
The word “inverting” implies that if a signal is applied to the ‘-‘ terminal of the op-amp,
it appears with the opposite polarity at the output, i.e., a sinusoidal signal will experience
a phase shift of 180°.

The word “non-inverting” implies that if a signal is applied to the ‘+‘ terminal of the
op-amp, is amplified without inversion.

The basic circuit consists of a differential amplifier input stage and an emitter follower
output stage. The voltage gains of integrated circuit operational amplifiers are extremely
high, typically 200 000. Because of this large voltage gain, externally connected resistors
must be employed to provide negative feedback for most applications. The op-amp
actually amplifies the difference between the voltages applied to its two input terminals.

The two other terminals are provided for the connection of positive and negative power
supply voltages. Both polarities are necessary so that the output voltage can vary either
side of Zero volts.

The op-amp is a high gain D.C. Coupled amplifier whose closed loop gain can be
controlled by a feedback network. It is utilized in a variety of ways to provide solutions
to measurement and control problems.

The important op-amp parameters, which are necessary to understand the fundamental
concepts of op-amp operation.

Gain: The ideal op-amp would have an infinite open-loop differential gain. The gain is
often expressed in decibels (dB). If V1 is the input and V2 is the output-voltage of the
op-amp, then gain in decibels.
dB = 20 log10 (V2) / (V1)

Input Resistance: The input resistance of an op-amp is infinitely high. But in practice,
the input resistance may be any value between 250 kΩ and 40 MΩ for the op-amps
with bipolar transistor input and 1012 fΩ for the op-amps with field-effect transistor
(FET) input.
Output Resistance: Basically an op-amp is a voltage amplifier therefore it should have
its input resistance as low as possible. Practical op amps have the output resistance of
the order of 100 Ω.

Input offset voltage: The output voltage of an op-amp should be zero when the value of
an applied voltage at both the input terminals is zero. The input offset voltage of an
op-amp is equal to the output voltage for zero input voltage divided by the
open-loop voltage gain of the amplifier.

Input offset current: The difference between the bias currents is known as the input
offset current. The range of 3-20 nA for bipolar transistor input op-amps and a few
pico-amperes (pA) for FET input op-amps.

Input bias current: The input circuit of an op-amp is always a differential amplifier. The
input bias current is one-half the sum of the bias currents taken by each input of the
op-amp. The input bias current is 10 to 50 nA for a bipolar transistor input op-amp
and as low as 10 to 100 pA for the FET input op-amp.

Slew rate: The slew rate of an op-amp is the maximum rate at which its output voltage is
capable of changing. It is expressed in volts per second (V/μs). The slew rate for
op-amps is in the range of 0.3 – 12 V/μs.

Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR): The output voltage of an op-amp is

Proportional to the voltage applied to the inverting and non-inverting terminals. Ideally
when the two voltages are equal, the output voltage should be zero. A signal applied to
both the input terminals is called a common-mode signal. It is nearly always an unwanted
noise voltage. The ability of an op-amp to suppress common-mode signals is expressed in
terms of its common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR). Mathematically, the common-mode
rejection ratio is given by the relation,

CMRR = Differential voltage gain

Common mode voltage gain
Adm /Acm
where
Adm =Differential voltage gain, and
Acm =Common-mode voltage gain.

The common-mode rejection ratio can also be expressed in decibels. Thus,

CMRR = 20 log10 (Adm/Acm) dB

Op-amp might have a common- mode rejection ratio of 90 dB.

EQUIPMENT

IC op-amp 741 or OP-07 and base; power supply (15-0-15V); multimeter; function
generator; CRO; and resistors.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

The offset voltage measured using the circuit of Fig. 2.1. Measure the output voltage for
different combination of Ri.

Figure 2.1: Offset voltage measurement.

Compare the average value of Vos with the value quoted by the manufacturer.
The bias currents and the offset current of the op amp can be measured using the circuit
show in the Fig 2.2 under different switch conditions.

Figure 2.2: Measurement of bias currents.

The output voltage S2 open and S1closed is equal to Ib-R while that with S1 open S2
closed is equal to –Ib+R. With both the switches in the open condition, the output voltage
V0=IosR. Measure the output voltage under different switch conditions and evaluate Ib-,
Ib+ and Ios.

Wire the circuit as show in the Fig 2.3 for measurement of the slew rate. Fix the
frequency of input signal vi at a convenient value, say f=5kHz. Increase the amplitude of
the input signal until distortion of the output signal. If Vp is the peak value of the output
voltage, the slew rate is equal to 2πfVp. Repeat the experiment at different frequencies.
Show that fVp is constant.

Figure 2.3: Slew rate measurement.

It is rather difficult to detect the onset of a small amount of distortion in the output signal.
As an alternative distortion of the input error signal at the summing point may be
observed. Use of a distortion meter facilitates accurate determination of the slew rate.

Fig. 2.4 illustrates the technique of measuring the CMRR of an op-amp. If the resistances
are matched well, the signal at the input is essentially the common-mode signal, i.e.,
Vs = Vc and Ac = Vo / Vc. However, due to imbalance of the amplifier there will be an
output voltage Vo = Ad Vi. Then
CMRR = Ad / Ac -------- (1)
[(R1+R2) / R1] Vs / Vo
(R2 >> R1)

Figure 2.4: Measurement of CMRR.

Keep R1 = 100 Ω and R2 = 100 kΩ and measure Vo for a particular value of Vs. Evaluate
CMRR using the equation (1). Vary the amplitude of Vs and determine CMRR. Study
how CMRR varies with the amplitude of the common-mode signal.
 TYPICAL PARAMETERS IC OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

S.No Parameter Symbol Value

1 Input offset voltage Vos 2 mV
2 Input offset current Ios 10 nA
3 Input bias current IB 100 nA
4 Input offset temperature drift - 5 μV / °C
5 Input offset current temperature drift - 10 nA / °C
6 Open loop d.c. Voltage gain AVOL 100, 000
7 Open loop 3db bandwidth BWVOL 5 kHz
8 Unity gain bandwidth ft 0.5 MHz
9 Slew rate Sr 1 V /μs
10 Differential input impedance Ri 100 KΩ
11 Common mode input impedance Rc 100 MΩ
12 Output impedance Ro 50 Ω
13 Common mode rejection ratio CMRR 80 db
 EXPERIMENT 2: OP AMP CONFIGURATIONS

AIM: To study the following op amp configurations

(1) Inverting amplifier
(2) Non-inverting amplifier
(3) Differential amplifier
(4) Voltage follower
(5) Current follower

INTRODUCTION
The IC op-amp is a versatile system building block and is being used in automatic control
systems, sound systems, communication systems and instrumentation. The op-amp never
used without the application of negative or positive feedback. There are two ways in
which an op-amp can be connected to act as an amplifier; one method gives an inverting
gain and the other gives a non-inverting gain. The method of connecting the op-amp
which produces inverting gain is called inverting amplifier. Similarly, the method of
connecting the op-amp which produces non-inverting gain is called non-inverting
amplifier.
EQUIPMENT

IC op-amp 741 or OP-07 and base; Dual power supply (15-0-15V); multimeter; function
generator; CRO; variable D.C. source (steps of 0.2 V); and phototransistor.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

INVERTING AMPLIFIER

Figure 1 shows the circuit diagram for inverting amplifier makes use of a single resistor
(R1) and a single feedback resistor (R2). The resistor (R1) is connected between the input
terminal of the amplifier circuit and inverting input terminal (-) of the op-amp. The
resistor (R2) is connected between the inverting input terminal (-) and the output terminal
of the op-amp. The non-inverting terminal (+) is connected to the ground. The inverting
amplifier produces a 180° phase shift in voltage from input to output. Thus the input and
output signals of the inverting amplifier are not in-phase with each other.
Figure 1: Circuit diagram for inverting amplifier.
The op-amp gain without any feedback (called open-loop gain) is very high. This
means that the voltage at the inverting (i.e., ‘-‘) terminal must be very small. As a matter
of fact, the input voltage at the inverting terminal will be very nearly at the same potential
as the non-inverting terminal. Now since the non-inverting input is grounded, the
inverting input of an op-amp is also at the ground potential and is referred to as virtual
ground.
The equation for inverting amplifier is
Vout = -(R2/R1) Vin
Or
Vout = -Av Vin
where Av = R2 / R1
Vout = - (R2 / R1) Vin
The negative sign indicates that the inverting amplifier output is 180° out of phase with
respect to the input.
The open-loop and closed-loop gain: The open-loop voltage gain (AOL) of an op-amp is
the gain that is measured when there is no feedback path (i.e., no physical connection)
between the output and input circuit. When a feedback path is present, such as the R2
connection in the inverting amplifier, the resulting circuit gain is referred to as the closed-
loop gain (ACL).
Input resistance (Rin): The op-amp has an extremely high input resistance (ideally
infinite) yet the inverting amplifier does not have that high value. The value of R1 will
always be much less than the input resistance of the op-amp, therefore, the overall input
resistance of an inverting amplifier will be much lower then the op-amp input resistance.
Output resistance: The output resistance of an op-amp is usually very low (of the order
of 100 Ω), the presence of R2 reduces the overall output resistance of the inverting
amplifier below 100 Ω.
Common-mode rejection ratio: CMRR of the inverting amplifier will be much lower
than that of the op-amp. Mathematically, CMRR of the inverting amplifier is,
CMRR = ACL / ACM
where
ACL = The closed loop voltage gain of the inverting amplifier
ACM = The common-mode gain of the op-amp
NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER
Figure 2 shows the circuit diagram for non-inverting amplifier makes use that the input

signal is applied to the non-inverting op-amp input and the resistor R1 is returned to

ground.

Figure 2: Circuit diagram for non-inverting amplifier.

Voltage gain: The op-amp gain without feedback (called open-loop gain) is very high.
This means that voltage at the inverting terminal should nearly be the same as that at the
non-inverting terminal. Since the non-inverting input is at a potential of Vin, therefore
inverting input is also at the same potential.
The amplifier voltage gain,
Av = Output voltage / Input voltage
Vo / Vin
or
1 + R2 / R1
Vo = (1+R2 / R1) Vin
The voltage gain of a non-inverting amplifier will always be greater than the equivalent
gain of the inverting amplifier by a value of 1.
Input resistance: The non-inverting amplifier has extremely high input resistance
because the input signal is applied directly to the op-amp (i.e., not through a resistor R1 as
it happens in the case of inverting amplifier). The presence of feedback network causes
the amplifier input resistance to be greater than the input resistance of the op-amp.
Output resistance: The output resistance of the non-inverting amplifier is lower than the
output resistance of the op-amp.
Common-mode rejection ratio: CMRR of the non-inverting amplifier will be much
lower than that of the op-amp. Mathematically, CMRR of the inverting amplifier is,
CMRR = ACL / ACM
where
ACL = The closed loop voltage gain of the inverting amplifier
ACM = The common-mode gain of the op-amp.
Non-inverting amplifier as a buffer: The extremely high input resistance and extremely
low output resistance of the non-inverting amplifier makes it very useful as a buffer. The
emitter follower and source follower are circuits that can be used to match a source with
high input resistance to a load with low resistance. The non-inverting amplifier can be
used for the same purpose.
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
Figure 3 shows the circuit diagram for differential amplifier makes use that the voltages
are applied at both the op-amp inputs (inverting and non-inverting inputs) through the
resistors. And the difference between these two voltages is amplified. But the open-loop
voltage gain of most op-amps is just too great to be used without feedback. So, like other
op-amp circuits, a practical difference amplifier must have negative feedback.

Figure 3: Circuit diagram for differential amplifier.

The voltage gain of the circuit is
Av = Vout / (V1 – V2) = R2 / R1
Vout = R2 / R1 (V2 – V1)
VOLTAGE FOLLOWER
Figure 4 shows the circuit diagram for voltage follower makes use that the input voltage
is applied at the non-inverting input of an op-amp, and the inverting input is connected to
the op-amp output. Because of the direct connection between the inverting input and
output terminals, a 100 % voltage-series feedback is applied. The equation of a voltage
follower is,
Vout = Vin

Figure 4:Circuit diagram for voltage follower.

The voltage follower has a very high input resistance and a very low output resistance.
The main application of a voltage follower is as a means of connecting a source with high
input resistance to a load with low output resistance, i.e., to act as a buffer amplifier.
The common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) of a voltage follower circuit is given by the
relation,
CMRR = ACL / ACM
where
ACL = The closed loop voltage gain of the inverting amplifier
ACM = The common-mode gain of the op-amp.
Since the closed loop gain (ACL) is equal to ‘1’, therefore, the common-mode rejection
ratio,
CMRR = 1 / ACM
CURRENT FOLLOWER
Figure 5 shows the circuit diagram for current follower makes use that provides an output
voltage that is directly proportional to input current. The op-amp connected in the
inverting configuration and R1 = 0.

Figure 5: The circuit diagram for current follower.

The op-amp input current id is essentially zero; the input current directly flows through
Rf. Since V- terminal is a virtual ground, the output voltage is
Vo = - in Rf
The input impedance of current follower is approximately zero since V- terminal is
virtual ground. The input impedance is Rf / AVOL. The output impedance is quite small
since R1 = 0.
Example:
Use the current follower to measure the current of an optoelectronic device like
phototransistor as a function of the intensity of light using the circuit as shown in
Figure 6.

Figure 6: Circuit diagram for the measurement of phototransistor current.

 EXPERIMENT 3: OP AMP CIRCUITS USED IN INSTRUMENTATION

AIM: To study the following op amp circuits used in instrumentation

(1) Inverter
(2) Adder
(3) Subtractor
(4) Multiplier
(5) Division
(6) Integrator
(7) Differentiator
(8) Voltage to current converter

INTRODUCTION
An op-amp can be used as a constant gain amplifier, voltage-summing amplifier, voltage
buffer amplifier, basic amplifier in instrumentation circuits, comparator, in oscillator
circuits and active filters.
EQUIPMENT

IC op-amp 741 or OP-07 and base; Dual power supply (15-0-15V); multimeter; function
generator; CRO; variable D.C. source (steps of 0.2 V); and phototransistor.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
INVERTER
The circuit of an operational amplifier used as an inverter is shown in Figure 1. The
feedback resistance Rf is made to the resistance, R1 is connected to the inverting end of
the amplifier.
The output voltage is
V0 = - (Rf /R1) Vin

V0 = - Vin (since Rf = R1)

Figure 1: The circuit diagram for inverter.

The output voltage is 180° out of phase with the input voltage.
ADDER OR SUMMING AMPLIFIER
The summing amplifier is an op-amp circuit that accepts several inputs and provides an
output that is proportional to the sum of inputs. The circuit of an operational amplifier
used as an adder or summing amplifier is shown in Figure 2. The circuit that performs the
addition of signals with amplification using the superposition theorem, the output
voltage is
V0 = - [(Rf / R1) V1 + (Rf / R2) V2 + (Rf / R3) V3]

Figure 2: The circuit diagram for adder or summing amplifier.

The input signals can be added together with different factors. All the resistors are chosen
to be equal; the circuit acts as a pure adder and adds the input voltages together at the
output i.e., R1 = R2 = R3 = Rf the circuit acts as a pure adder and output voltage is
V0 = -(V1+V2+V3)
i.e., sum of the individual input voltages.
A summing amplifier can be used to produce the mathematical average of input voltages.
This is obtained by setting the ratio of the feedback resistor to the input resistor equal to
the reciprocal of the number of inputs. This is because of the reason that the average of
several numbers is obtained by adding the numbers and then dividing the quantity of
numbers. Such a summing amplifier is known as an averaging amplifier.
SUBTRACTOR
The Subtractor is an op-amp circuit that accepts two inputs and provides an output that is
proportional to the subtraction of inputs. The circuit of an operational amplifier used as a
Subtractor is shown in Figure 3. The output of the Subtractor circuit is

V0 = -[-V1 (Rf / R1 * Rf / R3) + V2 (Rf / R2)]

Figure 3: The circuit diagram for Subtractor.

If Rf = R1 = R2 = R3, the circuit acts as a pure Subtractor, with the output
V0 = V1 – V2
MULTIPLIER
The multiplier is an op-amp circuit that accepts one input and provides an output that is
proportional to the multiplication of input with feedback resistor. The multiplication is
depends only on feedback resistor. The circuit of an operational amplifier used as a
multiplier is shown in Figure 4. The output voltage of an op-amp in the inverting mode is

V0 = -(Rf /R1) V1

Figure 4: The circuit diagram for multiplier

If Rf >R1, the circuit acts as a multiplier
DIVIDER
The divider is an op-amp circuit that accepts one input and provides an output that is
proportional to the division of input with feedback resistor. The division is depends only
on feedback resistor. The circuit of an operational amplifier used as a divider is shown in
Figure 5. The output voltage of an op-amp in the inverting mode is

V0 = -(Rf /R1) V1

Figure 5: The circuit diagram for divider

If Rf <R1, the circuit acts as a divider
INTEGRATOR
The integrator is a circuit whose output is proportional to the area of its input waveform.
The circuit of an operational amplifier used as an integrator is shown in Figure 6. The RC
circuit itself also acts as a simple integrator. But the problem with such a simple circuit is
that the output voltage is not a linear triangular output as it should be. The function of the
op-amp is to linearize the output.

Figure 6: The circuit diagram for integrator.

The inverting input to the op-amp is held at a virtual ground by the differential amplifier
in the op-amp input circuit. Therefore the input current, I1 = Vin / R1. Because of the high
input impedance of the op-amp, virtually all of I1 will flow to the capacitor. The output
voltage is proportional to the integral of the input voltage. Using kirchoff’s current law at
node V-,
in = Ic
or
(V- - V1) / R = C d/dt (V0 – V-)
For infinite differential gains,
V- = 0
Therefore - V1 / R = C d/dt V0
By integration,
V0 = - 1/RC ∫ V1 dt

Vin is constant for a given period of time R1 and is a fixed value, I1 can also be assumed
to be a constant value. Since virtually all of I1 flows to the capacitor, C1 is being charged
by a constant current source. Thus as long as Vin is constant, the capacitor will
charge/discharge at a linear rate. This produces a linear ramp output as shown in
Figure 6(a).

From the figure 6(a) that when the input goes positive (i.e., from –V to +V), the output is
a negative ramp. When the input goes negative (i.e., from +V to –V), the output is a
positive ramp. This indicates that the circuit output is 180° out of phase with the input.
DIFFERENTIATOR
The differentiator is a circuit whose output is proportional to the rate of change of its
input signal. The circuit of an operational amplifier used as a differentiator is shown in
Figure 7. The position of a capacitor and resistor is reversed in a differentiator in
comparison to the integrator.

Figure 7: The circuit diagram for differentiator.

Using kirchoff’s current law at node V-,
ic = iR
 C d/dt (V- - V1) = (V0 – V-) / R
V- = 0

Therefore
- C d/dt (V1) = V0 / R
or

V0 = -RC d/dt (V1)

The input signal for the differentiator is triangular waveform. The resulting output is a
square waveform. The operational amplifiers are normally not used as differentiator as
they tend to decrease the signal to noise (S/N) ratio. Therefore the ratio of signal to noise
voltage at the output terminal of the op-amp is 2/0.3 = 6.67. Hence, the noise level at the
output increases immensely. There is a limit on the high frequency operation of the
differentiation. The circuit will start to lose its operating characteristics at one-tenth
the value of frequency.

VOLTAGE TO CURRENT CONVERTER

The circuit diagram for voltage to current converter is shown in Figure 8. Since
differential voltage is quite small, the input voltage V1 is applied directly across R1 and
hence
iR1 = V1 / R1

Figure 8: The circuit diagram for voltage to current converter.

However this current must be supplied by the output of op-amp. Therefore,
iL = iR1

iL = V1 / R1
Thus the circuit acts as voltage to current converter. It is clear that the current through RL
is independent of resistance RL. Hence, this circuit can be used as constant current source
controlled by voltage. The input impedance is quite large.