Database Environment

1. Flat-file vs. Relational Database

FLAT-FILE APPROACH
A specific data file was created for each application or user.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
redundant data and programs
varying formats for storing the
redundant data
 RELATIONAL DATABASE
Create a single data repository to support numerous applications or users.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Can be costly to implement
No data redundancy
Can only run in certain operating
Single update
environments
Current values
may make it unsuitable for some
Task-data independence
system configurations.
requires training users
 2. Elements of the database environment
Four primary elements: Users, the Database Management System (DBMS), the database
administrator, and the physical database.
3. What is concurrency control?
Concurrency control is a database management systems (DBMS) concept that is
used to address conflicts with the simultaneous accessing or altering of data that can
occur with a multi-user system. Concurrency control, when applied to a DBMS, is meant
to coordinate simultaneous transactions while preserving data integrity.

4. What is a deadlock phenomenon?

Deadlock is a problem with partitioned databases. It occurs when multiple sites lock each other out
of data that they are currently using.

B. Provide definitions for the following terminologies related to databases:

1. Tuple - Tuple is the collection of information about the attributes of table for single
instance. In simple this also can be called as a 'row' in a Table.

2. Attribute- In general, an attribute is a characteristic. In a database management system

(DBMS), an attribute refers to a database component, such as a table. It also may refer to a
database field. Attributes describe the instances in the row of a database.
3. Primary Key- In the world of databases, the primary key of a relational table uniquely
identifies each record in the table. A table typically has a column or combination of columns
that contain values that uniquely identify each row in the table.
4. Foreign Key- is a column or combination of columns that is used to establish and
enforce a link between the data in two tables to control the data that can be stored in the
foreign key table.

5. Entity- a person, place, thing or concept about which data can be collected. A database
contains one or more related tables. Each table holds all of the information about an object,
person or thing (the entity).

6. Record- Data is stored in records. A record is composed of fields and contains all the
data about one particular person, company, or item in a database.

7. Grandfather-father-child backup- one of the most widely used backup rotation

schedules. According to this backup rotation schedule the backup media sets are rotated
through two types of backup. Incremental backup is performed daily, and full backup is
done weekly and monthly.

8. Partitioned databases- is a part of a database that consists of its own data, indexes,
configuration files, and transaction logs. A partitioned database environment is a database
installation that supports the distribution of data across database partitions.

9. Replicated databases- is a technique through which an instance of a database is

exactly copied to, transferred to or integrated with another location. Database replication
enables the copying of a database file from a master database management system (DBMS)
and its exact deployment on a slave DBMS.

10. Lockout- In a centralized database, a lockout is used to ensure data currency. A

lockout prevents simultaneous access to individual data elements by different information
processing units (IPU).

- In a partitioned database, lockouts are also used to ensure data currency. It is possible,
however, for multiple sites to place locks on records that results in a deadlock condition
which prevents transactions from processing. All transactions are in a wait state until the
locks are removed.

C. What is the difference between association and cardinality? Give two examples each.

Association (relationship) is the way that two classes are functionally connected to each other.

Multiplicity of the association (cardinality) explains how few (at minimum) and how many
(at maximum) individuals of one class may be connected to a single individual of the other class.
D. What are the three DBMS models listed by J. Hall in his book (Ch4)?

The Hierarchical Model

The earliest database management systems were based on the hierarchical data model. This was
a popular method of data representation because it reflected, more or less faithfully, many
aspects of an organization that are hierarchical in relationship. The hierarchical model is
constructed of sets that describe the relationship between two linked files. Each set contains a
parent and a child.

The Network Model

The most popular example of the network model is IDMS (integrated database management
system), which Cullinane/Cullinet Software introduced into the commercial market in the
1980s. Although this model has undergone many changes over the years, it is still in use
today. Like the hierarchical model, the network model is a navigational database with
explicit linkages between records and files. The distinction is that the network model permits
a child record to have multiple parents.
The Relational Model

E. F. Codd originally proposed the principles of the relational model in the late 1960s. The
formal model has its foundations in relational algebra and set theory, which provide the
theoretical basis for most of the data manipulation operations used. The most apparent
difference between the relational model and the navigational models is the way in which
data associations are represented to the user. The relational model portrays data in the form
of two-dimensional tables.

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