Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Q. 3. Classification of automobiles.
Ans. Automobiles are classified according to:
1.Use
2. fuel
3. Capacity
4. Body style
5 Wheels
6 Make and model
7 Transmission
8. Drive.
Q. 12. Name common defects in frames ? What are various types of rear axles.
Ans. 1. Rivets may be loose or broken.
2. Misalignment of members after accident. Types of Rear Axle : Semi floater, full floater.
Q. 13. Explain the method for checking the alignment of chasis frame?
Ans. Misalignment in vehicle takes place some time due to accident or due to uneven
staking of load on vehicle, this is checked by mean of plumb line.
Q. 14. What are the advantages of four wheel drive over two wheel drive.
Ans. 1. Main advantage of four wheel drive is that when front wheel fall into ditch,
they can be driven out from ditch by rear wheel power because vehicle is
four wheel drived.
2. In plain roads four wheel drive can be changed to 2-wheel drive when not required by
transfer beam. By this way fuel efficiency is increased.
3. Four wheel drive is beneficial in hilly areas as well in muddy areas because there is
requirement of more power than planes, which is in four wheel
drive.
Q 14 Explain the functions of a primary and secondary diesel fuel falters Describe
any filters of each type?
Ans Primary diesel fuel filter It as the wire gauge installed on the suction side of feed pump In this fuel
enters through the conical diffuser, the heavy particles accelerate downwards Which can be further
removed by drain plug where as fuel goes passes to the outlet of filter
Secondary Filters : It is installed after the fuel feed pump. It removes all impurities
including water from fuel. Where as filter fuel passes to ifiter outlet.
W indicate for winter use while without winter (w) indicates for lubricating oil having summer use lubrication eg SAE
IOW/30.
Q. 13. Why are animal and vegetable oils not suitable for automotive use?
Ans. There are following reasons which make the animal and vegetables not
suitable :
(i) Because animal oil are easily oxidized and after use they are gummy.
(ii) As vegetable oils are also oxidised easily and after use they are not suitable in automobiles.
Q. 15. What are wet sump and dry sump lubrication system?
Ans. Wet sump is used generally in modern engines it is also called pressure system. In this pump take the oil from wet
sump through stainer and delivers it to main oil gallery at pressure of 200 to 400 kPa.
Dry sump is generally used in racings vehicles where there is lot off pressure of oil. 1n this two pumps are installed in
lubrication line. One reservious is their for proper feeding of oil in oil line. In this oil pressure is maintained at 400-500 kPa.
Q. 16. Name a few materials used for oil filter elements ? What is the material of radiator core.
Ans. Wire gauge, felt, paper and plastic impregnated paper are generally used for filter elements.
Radiator core are made up of brass material.
Q. 19. What is the objective of using oil cooler? Explain briefly the construction and working of a water type of
oil cooler.
Ans. The main objective of oil cooler is to dissipate the heat from lubricating oil Fig. 3.1. Oil cooler is a simple heat
exchanger oil coolers nd are generally used in heavy vehicles. Where temperature of oil flow raises it cause the decrease in
viscosity of the lubricating oil, and the oil film in the bearing might break. To avoid such type of situation heavy engines are
provided with oil coolers.
Water type cooler is more common because it can be used as reversible cooler. According to the requirement it is used as in
initial stage when oil should not be cooled, rather there is necessary that lubrication oil goes to all lines during starting of
engine so that there is less wear and tear of engine, so that complete circulation of oil is take place.
Because water is hotter than oil where cooler will initially heat the oil and when higher temperature is reached the reverse
process is started which will cool the oil so that oil film does not break and to maintain the viscosity of oil.
Q. 20. What are the common troubles occurring in the lubrication system of an automotive engine ? What is the
use of Radiator pressure cap?
Ans. Following troubles in the lubricating system are common
1. Low oil pressure.
(a) If there is low pressure shown by gauge, check it with dipstick and fill the oil in the chamber.
(b) If oil filter is clogged, it should be replaced with new one.
(c) If oil is diluted due to constant use, change after regular interval of time so that working is not effected.
(d) if oil pump may worm out, change its defective parts with new one.
(e) If pressure gauge is not working, replace it with new gauge.
(f) If spring of relief value is not working and causing the ball to lift at lower pressure than prescribed. The remedy of this is
to replace the spring.
2. High pressure:
(a) If high pressure is shown by gauge because of high viscosity then re-fill new oil of prescribed viscosity.
(b) If oil lining are clogged, high pressure valve should be properly cleaned.
(c) Oil pressure may be faulty it should be replaced.
(d) The other cause of high pressure is that relief value of oil pump is stuck at closing point. It should be properly cleaned
and spring setting should be adjusted.
3. Excessive oil consumption
(a) If oil consumption is more, then check the oil sealing and change it if required.
(b) Another cause of more oil consumption is worn out piston rings they should be replaced with new ones.
(c) Another cause is worn out value stem. The worn out part is replaced with new one if required.
Radiator pressure cap is used to seal and pressurize the cooling system. Sealing reduces coolant loss from evaporation and
pressurizing raises the boiling temperature of the coolant, thereby increasing cooling efficiency.
Internal combustion engines are cooled by a closed circuit carrying liquid coolant through channels in the engine block,
where the coolant absorbs heat, to a heat exchanger or radiator where the coolant releases heat into the air. Thus, while
they are ultimately cooled by air, because of the liquid-coolant circuit they are known as water-cooled. In contrast, heat
generated by an air-cooled engine is released directly into the air. Typically this is facilitated with metal fins covering the
outside of the cylinders which increase the surface area that air can act on.
In all combustion engines, a great percentage of the heat generated (around 44%) escapes through the exhaust, neither
through either a liquid cooling system nor through the metal fins of an air-cooled engine (12%). About 8% of the heat
energy finds its way into the oil, which although primarily meant for lubrication, also plays a role in heat dissipation via a
cooler.
Construction: All the driven plates are splined to the shaft and there is one driving plate between the two
driven plates. In clutch driven plates are fitted with living or cork segments. These plates can be made of
steel, Bronze etc. A pressure plate is attached inside the chamber shell behind all the disc when leaver is
pressed. When leaver pressure is released the compressed plate move off causing slip and
disengagement.
Q. 15. What is the difference between constant mesh and synchronomesh transmission?
Ans. Constant Mesh gear box: In constant mesh gear box all the gears are in contact with each other.
Gears are more on the splined shaft to get different speeds. The required train of gear is made to rotate
the shaft by mean of dog-clutch, which is operated by the shift leaver.
Synchromesh transmission : Synchronomesh gear box consist of set of sleeves which slide endwise. In
synchromesh gears there are male and female type of cones which are made of gun metal. The outer
sleeve fits over the inner sleeve which contain internal teeth to engage with teeth of secondary wheels.
This unit slide on the main shaft due to splined on shaft to engage the cone with inner sleeve and engage
the gears with the help of dog clutch.
Q. 16. What are the resistance forces which effect the movement of an automobile?
Ans. 1. Air or wind Resistance : This resistance is offered by the wind or air according to the shape of the
vehicle, size of body and speed through the air. In practice when speed of vehicle is slow there is less
resistance. When speed of vehicle increases resistance increases very much.
2. Gradient resistance:
As shown in fig. 4.2 when vehicle is moving on slant height there is more resistance acting on vehicle. As
weight (w) of vehicle is vertically downward force (R) acting on vehicle tries to push back it downward.
This type of additional (R) force is called gradient resistance. Then to overcome equal force is applied to
neutralize the effect of (R) gradient force.
3. Rolling resistance : It includes the loss to overcome transmission resistance, type pressure, nature of
road surfaces, weight of the vehicle.
Q. 17. Write about the drive shaft. What is the importance of universal joint?
Ans It is the shaft by which drive is given to drivmg axle This shaft is also called the propeller shaft which
transmit the power from engine to differential Vehicle which having long wheel base propeller shaft is
divided into two parts and supported at the middle so that whirlmg of shaft is removed At both end of
shaft it is connected with universal joint
Propeller shaft contain a slip Joint by arrangement of yoke which having internal
teeth, it helps the shaft to extend or squeeze.
Universal joint helps to transmit power at uniform rate either rough and tough
condition of roads.
In this system their is no requirement of clutch pressure and changing the gear. Automatic transmission
clutch works automatically. This system is generally also called hydramatic transmission. It contain
epicyclic gear arrangement, fluid coupling and torque converter. In this planetary gears sets are placed in
series to provide transmission. In this centrifugal governor is fitted in transmission which selects the
proper gear speed and throttle position.
This system contains hydraulic pistons accomplished with spring control brake bonds
on the planetary gear sets and clutches within the planetary gear base arrangement.
Neutral Drive Low Reverse.
In this neutral shows that engine is disconnected with transmission system, Drive
shows when vehicle move straight on road, low shows when vehicle moves on hilly roads or middy area
and reverse position shows when vehicle required reversed motion.
Automatic transmission system have following advantages.
1. It simplified driving control.
2. Noiseless gear shifting.
3. Smoother running due to hydraulic coupling.
4. Longer life than mechanical gears.
5. Less fatigue to drives or less stress while driving.
6. Without clutch, pedal and complicated lever changing mechanism.
Working : When pressure is applied on the pressure pad by food pedal as a result of
this springs are pressed and pressure plates moves back thorougly causing release of pressure from clutch
plate. During this disengagement position, flywheel and pressure
plate rotates but clutch plates are in stationary state. When pressure is released by clutch spring comes
back to their original position.
Chapter 5 : Steering Systems
This mechanism is very simple to other steering mechanism and used mostly in
vehicles. This system was invented by Lankensperger, a Munich Carriage builder in
1817.
Ackerman principle say, that line intersecting each king pin and tie rod end would interset near the differential. In this
mechanism stub axles are pivoted with the axle beam by means of king pin, front axle is fixed with frame with the help of
suspension system. In this mechanism a steering Knuckle arm is joined with stub axles so to turn the wheels is required
direction when steering action is done by driver.
(iii) Cornering power : When vehicles turns a centrifugal force acts on the vehicle which produces the thrust on the vehicle.
To counteract to that side thrust vehicle wheels take some angle with direction of motion of vehicle. The force produce to this
is called cornering power or force.
(iv) Slip angle : When vehicle turns about particular side vehicle wheels move some angle to sustain the side thrust. The
angle moment of wheels to resistance the force is called slip angle.
(v) Camber: It is the inward or outward tilt of a wheel from the vertical. A wheel which tilts out at the top has positive
camber and if in then it has negative camber.
(i) Steering : This is the mechanism used for changing the direction of vehicle. It consist of steering wheel, steering column
and steering gear.
(1) Steering wheel : Which is a circular wheel mounted on the steering shaft which is connected with knuckle joints. it is
mostly used to control the vehicle. In modern cars steering wheel is corporated with some controls like horn, indicators
switch etc.
(ii) Steering shaft: This is the hollow shaft enclosed by casing which transmit the motion from steering wheel to steering
gear.
(iii) Steering gear : Steering shaft is connected at lower end with steering gears. Steering gear are of different types.
(1) Worm and wheel
(ii) worm and sector
(iii) Rack and pinion
(iv) worm and roller etc.
The function of steering gear is to turn the vehicle in required direction.
(ii) Linkages : These are the link which are operated by steering gears. In conventional system, steering arms of the wheel
are connected with rod called tie rods which are run parallel to axle beam. These steering knuckle arm is projecting out and
connected with pit arm by means of push rod. There are following types of linkages are:
(i) conventional type
(ii) Centre arm steering type.
(iii) Parallelogram linkage : In this linkage there is a centre link which is connected with two parallels links which are
connected with the wheels. This arm is operated through drag link. The two arms are further connected with tie rods to the
individual steering arms.
3. Steering Knuckle : It is also known as steering spride which is integrated with stub axle of its moved around the kingpin.
The force which is conveyed through steering kuncble by means of steering linkage (which is used to turn either vehicle left
or right).
Q. 17. What are the different types of steering problem and what are their remedies?
Ans. Steering problems are as follows:
1. Wander: This is defect in which vehicle turns slightly to one side and when driver tries to make it straight the vehicle
turns slightly to other side.
Remedy:
(i) Tyre pressure is not equal which may be corrected and checked.
(ii) This problem occurs when vehicle is loaded at the rear side.
(iii) This problem also occurs due to lack of lubrication in linkages and king
(iv) Bearing of steering Knuckle may be tight, which may be corrected.
2. Wheel wobble : This type of problem occurred is front wheels or wheels oscillation, this occurs due to unbalanced of
wheel assembly.
(i) This type of problem occurred when tyres are worn, which should be replaced with new one.
(ii) Ball joints are worn out which should be replaced.
(iii) Some times camber may be incorrect, which should be replaced.
3. Excessive Backlash in steering : This problem occurs when there is slakness in steering system due to worn out ball
joints. Check it and replace if required.
(i) The other cause may be due to loose steering gearbox of the vehicle, which should be tighter.
(ii) Check the stub axle bearing if they are worn it may be replaced.
(iii) This problem occur if steering gear is not properly fit in gear base of steering.
4. Putting one side : Some times vehicle moved or pull in one side and there are following reasons for that
(i) The possible cause of this due to worn out tyre or equally filled air pressure is not there in tyres.
(ii) Some times brake may be dragging, which can be adjusted.
(iii) Misalignment of front wheels, which may be corrected.
(iv) If there is suspension system problem, replace it if required or rectify.
(v) The problem may occur due to not proper castor angle.
5. Hard steering : In this problem driver has to put more effort than required and there are following reasons of this:
(i) This problem occurred when there is more castor, it should be tested and corrected.
(ii) The problem occurs when type pressure is less than standards.
(iii) Proper lubicate the parts or properly fit the parts with each other so that less friction in linkage.
6. Poor return ability : This problem occur when wheels are not returned to centre position.
(i) If steering shaft is tight, replace its bearing.
(ii) Misalignment of steering gear to column.
Adjust the steering gear base if required.
Chapter 6 : Braking System
Q. 17. How can you classify the brakes ? Explain in details hydraulic brake system with neat diagram?
Ans. Brakes can be classified according to following considering the points:
(a) Purpose. (b) Location
(c) Construction
(d) Method of actuation
(e) Enter braking effort.
(a) Purpose : Brakes can be applied to following ways to vehicle while in motion or in steady condition, mean during running
condition if we applied brakes are called service brakes. But if we applied during parking or hold the vehicle in slop way are
called packing brakes.
(b) Location : Brakes can be applied either at transmission or at the wheels. Wheel brakes are good in heat dissipation
because energy wheel has separate brake drum which increases surface area and also quick heat disFipation. In automobiles
wheel brakes are generally used.
(c) Construction : Generally two types of brakes are used. One is drum brakes and another is disk brakes.
(d) Method of actuation : Following are the ways of actuation.
Master cylinder: It is called heart of hydraulic base system. It contains two main chambers, fluid reservoir and another is
compression chamber in which piston operates. Fluid chamber which provides the fluid for braking when we apply the brakes
with foot pedal.
Fluid chamber compensate the fluid volume in pipeline due to any leakage or any temperature variation. To prevent leakage
there are two rubber seals on both end of the piston in compression chamber. A rubber boot is provided at one end of push
rod to present any dirt entering into cylinder. In brake line there is a fluid check value with rubber cup inside in the
compression chamber, Main purpose of fluid check value is to maintained residual pressure in brake lines even when brakes
are released.
In primary seal side there are number of holes on the piston head. Two holes are connected to reservoir to the compression
chamber. Size of smaller holes is about 7mm and it is also called compensation part/Byepars second hail is called
recuperation port! intake. To keep fluid at atmospheric pressure their is a vent in the cap.
When push rod is operated with links it actuate the piston and further pressure is directed toward pressure lines which apply
brakes on the wheels when brakes pedal is released spring pressure in master cylinder push the piston in extreme position.
This pressure of spring some times delay the return fluid from lines into compression chamber again. This condition cutes
vacuum in compression chamber but is destroyed immediately by intake port in master cylinder which forces fluid into piston
which deflects the rubber cup and enters the compression chamber destroying the vacuum.
Q. 18. What are the problems occurring in Braking system and what are their remedies?
Ans.
1. Brakes binding:
(a) To avoid brakes binding anchor pin should be lubricated at regular interval.
(b) Brake shoe retracting spring should be replaced with new one after regular interval.
(c) In hydraulic brakes by-pass port should be proper cleaned with compressed air and fresh fluid is filled in master cylinder,
it should never be cleaned
with wire drill.
(d) A hole on the master cylinder is to be cleaned.
(e) Brake shoe of vehicle for particular wheel may be adjusted so that dragging of vehicle is avoided.
2. Brake judder: It may take place due to wrong brake adjustment which may be corrected by proper fitting of brake lining
by replacing old loose rivets with
new one. In general conditions whole brake lining is replaced.
3. Hand brake Ineffective : This problem occurs when starching of operating cable is not properly adjusted. This
arrangement comes with nut at one end which
cause switching of wire.
4. Vehicle pulling one side:
(a) Some time dissimilar lining of brake shoe is fitted with different wheels. This problem is avoided by replacing with similar
lining on all wheels.
(b) Some times dust enters into the brake drum, this also cause pulling of vehicle into one side. This problem is avoided by
cleaning the drum.
(c) Some times oil or grease enters the brake drum which puts more load on clean linings. This problem is rectified by
replacing greasy lining with dry
lining.
5. Graffing brakes : When brakes are to sensitive, following types of problem occur due to reasons.
(a) Back plate may be loose, which should be tightened.
(b) Some time brake lining is greasy due to oil leakage should be replaced.
(c) If brake shoes- are not properly adjusted it should be adjusted after regular interval of time.
(d) Some time brake drum have a problem, it should be replaced with new brake drum.
Chapter 7 : Electric System
Q. 6. What do you mean by battery capacity ? What is the requirement of a good spark plug?
Ans. Battery capacity is represented by amount of current it delivers. And this current
depends upon the area of plates in the cell and quantity of electrolyte.
Spark plug gap should vary from 0.9 mm to 2.03 mm. The electrodes of spark plug should be made of nickel and chrome
alloys that resist corrosion. Spark plug threads may be coated with an antiseize compound to make plug removal easier.
Q. 7. What type of tests which can be conducted on the battery for testing:
Ans. (i) Specific gravity test
(ii) Open voltage test.
(iii) High discharge test
(iii) Cadmium test.
In this energy produced from engine converted into electrical energy. Regulator is used to regulate the flow of the current for
charging the battery.
Q. 11. What are the components of startor motor on testing which can be conducted
on starting system?
Ans. (i) Armature
(ii) Field coil
(iii) Brushes
(iv) Brush holder
(v) Dolanoid switch.
In this rotating armature is fitted between two permanent magnet pole on the armature. Number of turns on primary
winding is few hundred where as on secondary winding it in few thousands of this wire. The contact breaker and condense
also inserted into the primary circuit and they also rotate with armature.
(ii) Rotating magnet type:
In this magnets only rotate where as fesi coil is fixed. In this condenser, primary and secondary coils are stationary. In this
condenser and contact breaker are also fixed.
Q. 17. What are the tests occurred for testing the battery?
Ans. There are following points which are required for battery testing are:
(i) Specific gravity test
(ii) Open voltage test
(iii) High discharge test
(1).Specific gravity test : In this a glass tu}e is provided called hydrometer which have a scale to measure the specific
gravity of electrolyte. It is provided with
rubber bulb at top and samplers at the bottom. If sample reading is not upto the mark then b&tery is not properly charged
or battery cells should be changed.
(ii) Open volt test: This test is performed with the help of ordinary voltmeter. When battery cell shows 2.1 volt it means that
battery is fully charged in open condition. If we check the battery of car which is in running condition few time before means
recently charge than we have to remove the surface charge by simply one the head lights for a minute and take reading after
switching off the head lights after two minutes.
(iii) High discharge test This test is very sevore test it should be done on fully charged battery or at least half charged. If this
tst perform more than 15 secords it can also damage battery plates permanently.
it is performed with simple voltmeter connected with two resistance coil. This test should be performed only for 510
seconds when cell tester test performed nearly 150200, times.
(i) Armature : Armature winding should be checked with multimeter by checking continuity between each segment. If there
is problem, winding should be
replaced.
(ii) Field coil : Field coil is checked by testing continuity with the help of multimeter. (iii) Brushed : Brushes should be
checked usually if they are wear more than it actual
size replaced with new one immediately because this cause interrupt of current.
(iv) Brushes holders : Brushes holder should be checked with multimeter and also
check the proper insulation between holder and holder frame. If there is problem
replace the particular part.
(v) Solenoid switch: Before doing this test first remove the lead curve connecting the switch to starter motor then apply
battery voltage between switch terminals.
If problem occurs pinion should be attached.
The main component of contact breaker are the lines, heel and contacts.
(iv) Condenser: Basically condenser is a storage device which store current for small period of time. Its main function is to
reduce arcing and pitting of contact breaker point. It also increase the intensity of spark.
Condenser store excess energy during breaking period and at make it generally consist of metallic plates usually of tin foil or
aluminum foil.
Separated by thin sheets of insulating paper on Mica:
(v) Distributor Generally whole housing which contains contact breaker, condenser, ignition advance mechanism and
distributor is called distributor. The main function of this is to supply high voltage impulse to each spark plug at required
firing order of the engine. There are generally main types of firing
order :
4cyliner in line 13 42, 1 2 43
6cyliner in line 1 53 6 2 4
8cylindertype1--5486372
The whole distribution consist of rotor and cap. The material of these is a bakelite.
In the distributor according to cylinder number there are similar contacts in the
distributor.
(vi) Spark plug: At last there is a spark plug which is the weakest part of ignition system. It is generally mounted on the
above of cylinder of the engine and it can withstand under very severe condition of temperature during combustion of fuel. It
can withstand temperature upto 2500C and pressure of nearly 7 MPa in the cylinder.
It has generally three main parts.
(1) Centre electrode
(ii) Ground electrode
(iii) Insulator electrode
Q 20. Discuss the construction and working of a combined voltage and current regulator. How temperature
compensation achieved in such a regulator?
Ans. In this regulator generally three major parts are cutout relay, current regulator
and voltage regulator
It basically consist of series and shunt winding, both these winding wound on the
single core. In-this series winding have less number of turns having thick wire are used as
Combined voltage and current regulator compared to the secondary winding. One point is connected with field terminal and
other end is connected with grounded by a contact part where in shunt winding one end is connected with cut out relay and
other end is grounded.
Voltage regulator working In voltage regulator when generator producing more or higher voltage then the prescribed limit,
the force of shunt and series winding pull down the armature and cause break of contact points. Due to this whole process,
voltage drop occur in circuit due to resistance in series in the generator field circuit aria due to this voltage again series
which cause making of contact and their by grounding the generator field circuit. All of this processes help to guards the
circuit against high voltage and overcharging of battery.
Current regulator working : This regulator is consist of series winding. When regulator is not working contact points are
closed at no load. When load increases on circuit generator voltage is not able to regulate the voltage regulator. At this
condition current rises and at one stage it breakes the contact point circuit which is sufficient to pull the armature. After this
resistance increase in generator field circuit which causes down the generator output so that series winding on current
regulator circuit connect. At this stage contact points are again connected and another point is grounded.
In this way regulator works. Its operating frequency is near about 200 times per second.
A temperature compensator is basically provided in the shape of bimetallic strip on the armature of voltage regulator. It
operates with the variation of temperature range when there is high temperature it bends the bimetallic strip and weakens
the circuit and at this stage voltage requirement is less. Temperature compensator basically provide higher charging rate in
winter as compared to summer. It takes care of seasonal temperature variation which affect charging capacity of a battery.
Q. 3. What preventive steps should be taken when vehicle laying up for long time?
Ans. There are following points which should be applied:
(i) Paint all unpainted parts to avoid corrosion.
(ii) Apply chromium protective paste on the chromium plated parts.
(iii) Wash, clean and lubricate the vehicle thoroughly.
(iv) In radiator, add 1% water soluble anti-corrosion oil in radiator water. Then start
the engine and after proper warming of engine draw out the wLole water so that
radiator system become rust free.
(v) Jackup the vehicle so that types are inflated or remove load from tyres.
(vi) Spray the rocker arms, values and springs etc. with anti corrorion engine oil SAE
(v) Inferior grade of petrol used which causes detonation, use proper grade of oil.
(vi) Incorrect uses of gears:
Use gears according to the road conditions in hilly area use first or second gears,
otherwise clutch plates are worn out.
Q. 6. Write note on Bias and Radial plies and how does a radial ply tyre contributes to saving of fuel.
Ans. Bias Plies : Bias plies are criss-cross and these tend to move against each other
and produce heat.
Radial Tires: In this plies run parallel to each other. It provide better fuel economy
because radial has less rolling resistance and less engine power is required to roll the tire.
Q. 9. Write note on pollution due to vehicle emission and exhaust emission control system.
Ans. Automobile emissions control is the study and practice of reducing the
polluting emissions produced by automobiles.
Motor vehicles produce many different pollutants. The prin!ipal pollutants of concernthose that have been demonstrated to
have significant effects on human, animal, plant, and environmental health and welfareinclude:
1. Hydrocarbons : This class is made up of unburned or partially burned fuel, and is a major contributor to urban smog,as
well as being toxic. They can cause liver damage and even cancer. The regulations regarding hydrocarbons vary according to
the engine regulated, as well as the jurisdiction. In some cases, non-methane hydrocarbons are regulated, while in other
cases, total hydrocarbons are regulated. Technology for one application may not be suitable for use in an application that
has to meet a total hydrocarbon standard.
2. Carbon monoxide (CO) : A product of incomplete combustion, carbon monoxide reduces the bloods ability to carry oxygen
and is dangerous to people with heart disease.
3. Nitrogen oxides (NOr) : These are generated when nitrogen in the air reacts with oxygen at the high temperature and
pressure inside the engine. NO is a precursor to smog and acid rain.
4. Carbon dioxide (C02) CO2 is not a pollutant per Se, but is a greenhouse gas and so plays a role in global warming. The
only way to reduce CO2 emission is to burn less fuel.
5. Particulates : Soot or smoke made up of particles in the micrometre size range:
Particulate matter cause respiratory health effects in humans and animals.
6. Sulphur oxides (SO) : A general term for oxides of sulphur, which are emitted
from motor vehicles burning fuel containing a high concentration of sulphur.