FIELD PENETRATION TESTS ON SOIL

1. INTRODUCTION
The in situ tests in the field have the advantage of testing the soils in their natural,
undisturbed condition. Laboratory tests, on the other hand, make use of small size
samples obtained from boreholes through samplers and therefore the reliability of
these depends on the quality of the so called undisturbed' samples. Further, obtaining
undisturbed samples from non-cohesive, granular soils is not easy, if not impossible.
Therefore, it is common practice to rely more on laboratory tests where cohesive soils
are concerned. Further, in such soils, the field tests being short duration tests, fail to
yield meaningful consolidation settlement data in any case. Where the subsoil strata
are essentially non-cohesive in character, the bias is most definitely towards field
tests. The data from field tests is used in empirical, but time-tested correlations to
predict settlement of foundations. The field tests commonly used in subsurface
investigation are:
Penetrometer test
Pressure meter test
Vane shear test
Plate load test
Geophysical methods

1.1 Advantage of in-situ testing (against lab testing)

It avoids the problems of sample recovery and disturbance
Some in-situ tests are easier to conduct than lab tests
In-situ tests can offer more detailed site coverage than lab testing.

1.2 Type of field tests and their purpose

S.No Purpose of test Type of test

1. Bearing capacity and Plate load test

settlement

2. Testing of piles Pile load test

3. Relative density (i) SPT

(Coarse grained soils) (ii) DCPT

4. Shear strength (i) SCPT

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 (ii) Vane shear test

5. Strength and deformation (i) Pressure meter test

characteristics
(ii) Dilatometer test

6. Permeability Piezometer test

7. Compaction control Proctors needle test

8. Water content (i) Calcium carbide method

(ii) Sand bath method
(iii) Alcohol method

Penetrometer Tests
Standard penetration test (SPT)
Static cone penetration test (CPT)
Dynamic cone penetration test (DCPT)

The standard penetration test is carried out in a borehole, while the DCPT and SCPT are
carried out without a borehole. All the three tests measure the resistance of the soil strata to
penetration by a penetrometer. Useful empirical correlations between penetration resistance
and soil properties are available for use in foundation design. This is the most extensively
used penetrometer test and employs a split-spoon sampler, which consists of a driving shoe, a
split-barrel of circular cross-section which is longitudinally split into two parts and a
coupling. IS: 2131-1981 gives the standard for carrying out the test

STANDARD PENETRATION TEST

Introduction
Most commonly used in-situ test
Especially for cohesion less soils, which cant be easily sampled
Useful for determining the relative density, angle of shearing resistance of
cohesion less soil and unconfined compressive strength of cohesive soil
The test is conducted in a borehole using a standard split-spoon sampler
Also used to determine unconfined compressive strength of cohesive soils

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Split Spoon Sampler
Driving shoe : Made of tool-steel, about 75 mm long
Steel Tube : 450 mm long, split longitudinally in two halves
Coupling : 150 mm long, provided at the top
Check Valve
4 Venting Ports : 10 mm diameter

Fig 4.1 Split spoon sampler

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 Fig 4.2 Standard penetration test procedure
Procedure
The bore hole is advanced to desired depth and bottom in cleaned.
Split spoon sampler is attached to a drilled rod and rested on bore hole bottom.
Driving mass is dropped onto the drill rod repeatedly and the sampler is driven
into soil for a distance of 45cm. The number of blows for each 15cm penetration
are recorded.
First 15cm penetration is considered as seating penetration.
The number of blows for the last two 15cm penetration are added together and
reported as N-value for the depth of bore hole.
The Split spoon sampler is recovered, and sample is collected from split barrel so
as to preserve moisture content and sent to the laboratory for further analysis.
SPT is repeated at every 75cm or 150cm interval for longer depths.
Generally there should be 30 blows per minute according to IS:2131-1963
If number of blows for 15cm drive exceeds 50, it is taken as refusal and the test is
discontinued.
SPT Corrections: Dilatency Correction
Silty fine sands and fine sand below the water table develop pore pressure which
is not easily dissipated.
Pore pressure increases the resistance of the soil thus, Penetration Number (N)
also increases
This correction is applied when observed value of N exceeds 15

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 1
Nc = 15+2(NR 15)
Where,
Nc = Corrected penetration number
NR = Recorded value

If NR<=15; Nc = NR
Overburden Pressure Correction
In granular soils, overburden pressure affects the penetration resistance
If two soils, having same relative density but different confining pressures are
tested, the one with a higher confining pressure gives a higher penetration number
as the confining pressure in cohesion less soils increases with the depth, the
penetration number for soils at shallow depths is underestimated and that at
greater depths is overestimated.
For uniformity, the N- values obtained from field tests under different effective
overburden pressures are corrected to a standard effective overburden pressure.

Gibbs and Holtz Correction (1957)

Applicable for 0 <= 280 kN/m2 and for dry or moist clean sand.
350
NC = NR *
0 +70

Where,
NC = Corrected N value
NR= Observed N value

0 = Effective overburden pressure (kN/m2 )

Ratio (NC/NR) should lie between 0.45 and 2.0
If the ratio is greater than 2, NC should be divided by 2 to obtain the design value used
in finding the bearing capacity of soil
Overburden correction is applied first and then Dilatency correction is applied.

Correlation of SPT with CPT:

If the cone penetration results are related to the SPT number N, indirect correlations
are obtained between the cone test results and the engineering properties of soil.
The following relation hold approximately good between the point resistance of the
cone (qc) and the standard penetration number (N)

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 i. Gravels (qc) = 800N to 1000N
ii. Sands (qc) = 500N to 600N
iii. Silty sands (qc) = 300N to 400N
iv. Silts and clayey silts (qc) = 200N

Correlation of SPT with DCP:

The following approximate correlations may be used when a 50 mm diameter cone is
used
Ncbr = 1.5N for depths up to 3 m
Ncbr = 1.75N for depths between 3 to 6 m
Ncbr = 2.0N for depths greater than 6 m
The central research institute, Roorkee, has developed the following correlation
between the dynamic cone resistance (Ncbr) of 65 mm diameter cone without using
Bentonite slurry and the SPT number (N)
Ncbr = 1.5N for depths up to 4 m
Ncbr = 1.75N for depths between 4 to 9 m
Ncbr = 2.0N for depths greater than 9 m

Correlation of SPT with Engineering properties

The value of the standard penetration number N depends upon the relative density of
the cohesion less soil and unconfined compressive strength of the cohesive soil. If the soil is
compact or stiff, penetration number is high.

Relative Density
SPT N-VALUE RELATIVE DENSITY

0-4 Very loose

4-10 Loose

10-30 Medium

30-50 Dense

>50 Very dense

Table 4.1 Relation between N value and relative density

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Unconfined Compressive Strength of Cohesive Soils
The consistency and the unconfined shear strength of the cohesive soils can be
approximately determined from the SPT number N. The following table gives the
approximate value of the unconfined shear strength for different ranges of N.
The unconfined compressive strength can also be determined from following relation
qu = 12.5N
where qu is unconfined compressive strength (KN/m2)

Consistency qu (KN/m2)

Very Soft Medium Stiff Very Hard

Soft Stiff

SPT N- <2 2-4 4-8 8-15 15-30 >30

value

qu <25 25-50 50-100 100- 200- >400

200 400

Angle of shearing resistance of cohesionless soil

The angle of shearing resistance () of the cohesionless soil depends upon
the number N. In general, the greater the N-value the greater the angle of shearing
resistance (). The following table gives average values of for different values of
N.

SPT N-VALUE Angle of shearing resistance ()

0-4 25-32

4-10 27-35

10-30 30-40

30-50 35-45

>50 >45

The graph shows the variation of SPT number N with the variation of the angle of
shearing resistance

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Numerical Example 1:
A soil profile is shown below along with the standard penetration numbers in the clay
layer. Use given equations to determine the variation of Cu and OCR with depth.
What is the average value of Cu and OCR?

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Solution:

Numerical Example 2:
Referring to Table 2 given below estimate the SPT-N1 value you would use for a
footing which is 2 x 2 m in dimensions and located at 2 m depth. Assume the unit
weight of both sands is 18.1 KN/m3 and 19.7 KN/m3 above and below ground water
table, respectively. GWT is at 6 m depth. Assume that the given N values are
corrected for energy efficiency and field procedures.

Solution:
Silty sand correction:
SPT-N values should be corrected for the increased resistance due to negative excess
pore water pressure.
Applied when all three conditions are satisfied simultaneously:

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 (i) When the test is carried out in very fine sand or Silty sand
(ii) When the test is carried out below ground water table
(iii) When N is greater than 15 (N > 15)

N = 15+ (N-15) Where, N : Silty sand corrected SPT-N value

Overburden correction (CN):

1
CN = 9.78 <= 2.0
(2 )

Where, CN: correction factor

Within this depth interval the weighted average of SPT-N1 can be used solely for the analysis
of given footing.
N1avg = (12+15+13+9+7+8)/6 = 11

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 Advantages of SPT
Especially used for cohesion less soil which cannot be easily sampled.
Relatively simple and quick to perform.
Provides a representative soil sample.
Provides useful index of relative strength and compressibility of soil.
Able to penetrate dense layer, gravel and fill.
Equipment and expertise for the test is widely available

Disadvantages of SPT
Limited applicability to cohesive soils, gravels, cobbles and boulders.
Somewhat slower than other sample methods due to sample retrieval.
Samples that are obtained are disturbed.
Lack of reproducibility of the test results
Drilling disturbances, mechanical errors and operational errors all can cause
significant variation in test results.

Precautions
Results of SPT are not reproducible in cohesion less soil below water level. If the
water level in the borehole is lower than natural groundwater level, quick
conditions develop and soil becomes loose.
The split spoon sampler must be in good condition with no excessive damage or
wear and tear to the cutting shoe.
The drill rods should be the right size and not too heavy or too light and should
not be bent.
The height of free fall of weight must be 750 mm. It will result in a value different
from the actual value for N.
The bottom of borehole must be properly cleaned before seating the split spoon
sampler.
If casing is used in borehole it must not be driven ahead of the level at which SPT
is being carried out.
The rate of delivery of the blows should not be too fast.

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 Limitations
This test is unsuitable for gravelly soil & soil for having SPT N value greater than
50. Also in dense sand anchorage becomes to cumbersome & expensive & for
such cases Dynamic SPT can be used. This test is also unsuitable for field
operation since erroneous value obtained due to presence of brick bats, loose
stones etc.

STATIC CONE PENETRATION TEST

Cone Penetration Tests are conducted to obtain the cone resistance, the side friction and, if
there is a piezocone, the pore pressure. The soil type can be determined by analysing these
result the values can also be used in the design of shallow foundations through the estimation
of stiffness and shear strength of cohesive soils. The cone penetration test (CPT) is a method
used to determine the geotechnical engineering properties of soils and describing relative
position of soil strata. It was initially developed in the 1950s at the Dutch Laboratory for Soil
Mechanics in Delft to investigate soft soils. Based on this history it has also been called the
"Dutch cone test". Today, the CPT is one of the most used and accepted in soil methods for
soil investigation worldwide.
The aim is to determine the effort required to force a point through the soil and so obtain
resistance value which corresponds to the mechanical properties of the soil. The preliminary
use is in cohesionless soils when static penetration test is difficult to perform or dynamic
properties of the soil are of special interest.

Dutch cone
This method is used to determine penetration resistance of soil
Also known as Dutch cone test
Cone dimensions
Apex angle:60o
Overall diameter: 35.7 mm
End area: 10 cm2
Rate of penetration : 10mm/s
Depth of penetration : 35mm/s

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 Fig 5.1 Dutch cone

Procedure
The Dutch cone has an apex angle of 60 and an overall diameter of 35.7 mm,
giving an end area of 10 cm2
Push the sounding rod with cone into the ground for some specified depth. Then
push the cone with friction sleeve for another specified depth (> 35 mm). Repeat
the process with/without friction sleeve
Pushing rate = 1 cm/s
Mantle tube is push simultaneously such that it is always above the cone and
friction sleeve.
Tip Load, Qc = Load from pressure gauge reading + Wt. of cone + Wt. of
connecting sounding rods
Tip resistance :

qc=

Where Ac = Cross sectional area of cone (10 cm2 )

With frictional sleeve , Add its self-weight as well : Qt = Qc+Qf
Frictional Resistance
Qt Qc
qf = , Where Af is surface area of friction sleeve
Af

Friction Ratio
q
fr = q f
c

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 For cohesive soils (undrained shear strength)
qc p0
Su = Nk

p0 = Overburden pressure = z
Nk = Cone factor = 15 to 20

Fig 5.2 Cone point resistance vs Friction ratio

Applications
Soil profile (stratigraphy): soil type identification
Estimation of geotechnical parameters (strength, compressibility, permeability)
Evaluation of groundwater conditions (pore pressure)
Geo-environmental: distribution and composition of contaminants
Advantages
Borehole is not necessary
Almost continuous data (reading every 10mm)
Elimination of operator error (automated)
Reliable, repeatable test results
It can be done quickly to cover a large area economical
The test helps to identify variability of subsoil profile and to locate soft pockets
such as filled up ponds.
When DCPT is carried out close to a few boreholes, suitable corrections may be
obtained for a particular site and the number of bore holes can be reduced.

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Disadvantages

Inability to penetrate through gravels and cobbles

Elimination of operator error
Lack of sampling
Less populated database than SPT due to the new technology
It is normally not possible to evaluate the mechanical properties of the soil at great
depths when the friction along the extension rod is significant.

Limitations
The Test is suitable for gravelly soils & soil for having SPT N value greater than
50
In dense sands anchorage becomes to cumbersome & expensive & for such
Dynamic SPT can be used
This test is also unsuitable for field operation since erroneous value obtained due
to presence of brick bats, loose stones etc.

Numerical Example 1:
The cone penetration resistance obtained in a clay soil in a CPT was 5kg/cm2.
Determine the undrained strength of the clay. The total overburden pressure at the
depth was 100kN/m2.
Solution:
qc = Nkcu + 0
0
or cu =

Taking Nk = 20,
50100100
cu = = 245kN/m2
20

If the effect of overburden pressure is disregarded,

cu = 5000/20 = 250 kN/m2

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 Numerical Example 2:

Solution:

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 DYNAMIC CONE PENETRATION TEST

Introduction
This test is done to determine penetration resistance of soil
Cone is Driven by means of hammer blows
No. of blows required for every 100 mm penetration is measured
No. of blows required for 300mm penetration is taken as dynamic cone
penetration resistance
Height of Fall of hammer : 750 mm

Weight of Hammer : 65 kg

Cone Diameter : i)50mm (without Bentonite slurry)

ii)65mm (with Bentonite slurry)

Cone used for DCPT

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Typical test setup

Procedure
The standard cone of 60o is connected to the drilling rod.
The driving head with the guide rod is connected and properly fixed on the top of
the drilled rods.
This complete assembly is kept in position with the cone resting vertically on the
ground where the test is to be carried out.
For the circulation of the bentonite slurry the pumping unit of the bentonite slurry
is properly connected to the guide rod through flexible tube.
The cone is driven into the soil by blows of 65 Kg hammer falling from a height
of 750mm. The blow count for every 30cm penetration is made to get a
continuous record of the variation of the soil consistency with depth.
The sufficient circulation of the bentonite slurry is necessary for elimination of
the friction on the rods.
Sometimes the Bentonite slurry is not used when the investigation is required up
to a depth of 6m only.
Advantages
The test does not need a borehole.
It can be done quickly to cover a large area economically.
The test helps to identify variability of subsoil profile and to locate soft pockets
such as filled up ponds.
When DCPT is carried out close to a few boreholes, suitable corrections may be
obtained for a particular site and the number of bore holes can be reduced.

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Disadvantages
The test is normally not suitable for cohesive soils or very loose cohesion less
soils.
It is normally not possible to evaluate the mechanical properties of the soil at
great depths when the friction
Along the extension rod is significant.

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 VANE SHEAR TEST

What is Shear Vane Test?

The vane shear test is an in-situ geotechnical testing methods used to estimate the undrained
shear strength of fully saturated clays without disturbance. The test is relatively simple,
quick, and provides a cost-effective way of estimating the soil shear strength; therefore, it is
widely used in geotechnical investigations. Under special condition, the vane shear test can
be also carried out in the laboratory on undisturbed soil specimens however the use of the
vane shear test in in-situ testing is much more common.
From experience it has been found that the vane shear test can be used as a reliable in-situ test
for determining the shear strength of soft-sensitive clays. It is in beds of such material that the
vane shear test is the most valuable, for the simple reason that there is at present no method
known by which the shear strength of clays can be measured.
The vane shear test should be regarded as a method to be used under the following
conditions:
Where the clay is deep, normally consolidated and sensitive.
Where only the undrained shear strength is required.
It has been found that the vane shear test gives similar results to that as obtained from
unconfined compression tests on undisturbed samples. It is necessary that the soil mass
should be in saturated conditions if the vane test is to be applied. Vane shear test cannot be
applied for partially saturated soils for which the angle of shearing resistance is not zero.

Introduction
Determination of in-situ shear strength of saturated clay of very soft to medium
consistency
Difficulty in sampling and underestimate of shear strength of such soil in
laboratory
Undrained strength both in undisturbed and remoulded samples are obtained for
estimating the sensitivity of the soil

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 Fig 7.1 Vane shear test apparatus
Vane:
Four mutually perpendicular blades, L =2D
Dia. 37.5 mm, 50 mm ,75 mm or 100 mm
Dia of central rod to which the blades are welded >12.5 mm
Torque applicator:
Attachment to secure the string of rods connecting the vane
Speed control (0.1o/sec)
Rod system:
The rods connect the vane to the torque applicator

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 Rods are 1m and can resist the maximum torque

Procedure:
Bore hole is made by suitable method up to the required depth
Casing may be driven up to the full depth of the hole
Vane is then connected to 1m extension rods as required
The assembly is then lowered into the borehole
The vane is then pushed inside bottom surface to a depth 5 times the dia of
the hole
The assembly is then connected to torque applicator through a connector
Vane is rotated at the rate of 0.1o/s after a minimum period of five minutes
The vane is rotated till shear failure or when the torque indicator dial gauge
moves back
Note the maximum divisions of the torque application
Using the calibration chart provided by the manufacturer convert the reading
into Torque cm-kg

Determination of Cohesion or Shear Strength of Soil:

Consider a cylinder of soil generated by the blades of the vane when they are inserted
into the undisturbed soil in-situ and gradually turned and rotated about the axis of the
shaft or vane axis. The turning moment applied at the torsion head above the ground is
equal to the force multiplied by the eccentricity.
Let the force applied = P kg.
Eccentricity (lever arm) = x cm.
Turning moment = Px kgcm.
The surface resisting the turning is the cylindrical surface of the soil and the two end
faces of the cylinder.

Therefore, the resisting moment = (2**L* Cu*r) + (2 2 * Cu*2/3*r)

= 2 2 Cu*(L+2/3*r)
Where, r = radius of the cylinder
Cu = the undrained shear strength.
It is apparent at failure the resisting moment of the cylinder of the soil is equal to the
turning moment applied at the torsion head.

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 Therefore,

Px=2 2 Cu*(L+2/3*r) = T

Cu =
2 Cu(L+2/3r)
Here standard dimensions of the field vane are
L = 11.25cm, r = 3.75cm
A correlation is established as follows,
Cu (field) = Cu (vane)
Where, is the correction factor

Calculation
The maximum torque applied T can be related to the undrained strength (Su or
Cu) of a clayey soil:
T
Cu
d h d3
2

2 6

The standard dimensions of the field vane are L = 11.25cm, r = 3.75cm.

For actual design purpose, the field
Vane shear values should be corrected as
Su (corrected) = Su (field)
Where is a correction factor function of
The soil plasticity index
= 1.7 - 0.54 log (PI),PI plasticity index

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 Fig 7.2 Graph between vs IP
Advantages
The test is simple and quick.
It is ideally suited for the determination of the undrained shear strength of non-
fissured fully saturated clay.
The test can be conveniently used to determine the sensitivity of the soil.
The test can be conducted in soft clays situated at a great depth, samples of which
are difficult to obtain.
Reproducible results in homogeneous soils
Inexpensive method for measuring clay sensitivity

Disadvantages
The test cannot be conducted on the clay containing sand or silt laminations or the
fissured clay.
The test does not give accurate results when the failure envelope is not horizontal.
Field vane shear strength must be corrected
Results can be affected by anisotropic soils, sand lenses, shells, and seams

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