OTC 6210

API Oilwell Cementing Practices

D.J. Calvert, Mobil E&P U.S. Inc., and D.K, Smith, Halliburton Services (retired)

Copyright 1990, Offshore Technology

Conference
This
paper
waspresented
at the 22nd Annual OTC in Houston, Texas, May 7-10, 199o,

This paper was selected for presentation by the OTC Program Committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s), Contents of the paper,
as presented, have not been reviewed by the Offshore Technology Conference and are subject to correction by the author(s), The material, as presented, does not necessarily reflect
any position of the Offshore Technology Conference or ita officers, Permission to copy is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words, Illustrations may not be copied, The
abstract should contain conspicuous acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper is presented,

ADSTRACT Cementing technology in the literature dates

from the early 1920s. The major part of this
API Cement Standardization Committee 10 has cementing information, however, represents practices
striven through the years to provide the worldwide used after World War II. In 1937 the American
drilling industry with the latest technology as Petroleum Institute established the first committee
applied to cement specifications and testing of to study the use of cement downhole. There were
downhole materials. In addition to publishing 22 already a few cement testing laboratories equipped
editions of these standards and specifications, this with strength-measuring apparatus and stirring
group has published over 25 technical papers and devices to determine the fluidity or pumpability of
bulletins as a mechanism of keeping the industry cement slurries at downhole temperatures.
informed.
Since these early events in our industry, many
Perhaps the most significant achievement of changes have taken place in cement standardization,
this committee has been the preparation of a new in cement testing, and in field practices,
textbook covering worldwide cementing practices. particularly in drilling below 10,000 feet. API
Individual chapters deal with everything from Cement Standardization Committee 10 and its members
primary cementing to the plugging of wells and were have played a significant role in the research and
suthored by recognized experts of major companies development of all phases of cement technology. In
personnel, most of whom are active in API work. 1989, experts within the industry and from Committee
This book also contains a complete bibliography of 10 finalized an up-to-date text entitled Worldwide
published literature covering papers and patents to Cementing Practices. This book attempts to mold all
1989. Noteworthy in the text is a survey of over the various cementing technologies used today. It is
200 fields, worldwide, covering casing programs, also significant to note that the processes of
drilling fluids and cementing practices. Many cementing a well are very similar in most parts of
worthwhile and useful statistics may also be found the world. Nomenclature and terminology may vary
therein. from one area to another, however, the basic process
is about the same worldwide. Highlights of the
The paper and oral presentation will highlight various chapters and authors opinions are summarized
the latest in cementing and ffndings from these herein.
worldwide surveys of drilling and completion
practices. THE ROLE OF STANDARDIZATIONIN THE MANUFACTUREAND
USAGE OF CEMENT
INTRODUCTION
Portland cement is produced by partially fusing
Several thousand wells are drilled and powdered blends composed of limestone with materials
:ompleted annually throughout the world--some such as clays, shales, blast furnace slag, siliceous
productive of oil or gas while some are dry--yet sands, iron ores, pyrite cinders, etc. From a
during this drilling and completion process most of chemical standpoint these blends may be considered to
these wells are cased, with the casing set in the be mixtures of the oxides of calcium (CaO), aluminum
borehole, surrounded by cement. (A1Z03), silicon (Si02), magnesium (MgO), iron
--------------------------------------------- (Fe203), potassium (K20), and sodium (Na20). During
References and illustrations at end of paper. heating to temperatures of about 2700F, these oxides

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 2 API OILWELL CEMENTING PRACTICES OTC 6210

combine to form calcium silicates and aluminates official agency; however, use of the API monogram
(commonly referred to as clinker) that can react indicates that the manufacturer has agreed to make
with water to form a hydrated product which has cement according to the specifications outlined in
cementitious properties. The paste.of Portland API Spec 10. Although the API defines nine
cement and water will harden under water as well as different classes of cement, only A, B, C, G, and H
in air. Because this paste can set under water, are available from manufacturers and distributed in
Portland cement is known as a hydraulic cement.1 the USA. The number of API classes has been reduced
to the point that API Classes G and H are those most
When hydraulic cements set and harden by widely used.3 Approximately 80% of the cement used
reacting chemically with water, this reaction, in wells in non-Communist countries is manufactured
called hydration, forms a stonelike mass. Hydration in the U.S. and falls within these two classes.
begins as soon as cement comes in contact with Approximately 65% of the well cement made in the U.S.
water. Each cement particle forms a type of growth is API Class H (mostly in the Gulf Coast and
on its surface that gradually spreads until it links mid-continent operations), and 15% is API Class G,
up with the growth from other cement particles or which is marketed in the California and Rocky
adheres to adjacent substances. This building up Mountain areas. The remaining well cement used is
results in progressive stiffening, hardening, and either Class A (10%) or Class C (10%).
strength development. The stiffening of well cement
slurries can be recognized by an increase in In international operations,3 most of the well
consistency that is dependent on time, cement used is API Class G (Canada, Europe, Middle
temperature-pressure conditions, and upon the East, South America, and Far East). Specialty
composition and fineness of the cement and slurry cements8 constitute less than 1% of the worldwide
formulation. down-hole market.

Test procedures and specifications for the Other API Committee 10 Documents.
performance of various types of Portland cement in
construction work are maintained by the ASTM. ASTM Standardization studies also resulted in the
tests were determined by the oil industry to be publication of the following documents under the
inadequate for determining the performance of jurisdiction of Committee 10.
cements in wells because ASTM tests were made under
conditions unlike those encountered in well 1. Bul 10C, Bulletin on Oil Well Cement
cementing operations. Nomenclature , provides the definitions for the
commonly used terms associated with well cementing.
In 1952 the national API Committee adopted
standards for six classes of cements used in 2. API Std 10D, Specification for Casing
cementing operations for oil and gas wells. The Centralizers, covers the minimum performance
first tentative standard in L953 was designated API requirements for standard and close tolerance
Std 10A and entitled API Specification for Oil-Well spring-bow centralizers.
Cements. The standards for six API classes of well
cements were comprised of both chemical and physical 3. API RP 10E, Recommended Practice for
requirements. Application of Cement Lining to Steel Tubular Goods,
Handling, Installation, and Joining, was developed
The chemical requirements were determined by through the joint effort of members of the National
using ASTM procedures, while the physical Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) T-lG-8 Task
requirements were determined in accordance with Group on Cement Lining of Tubular Goods, and API Task
procedures outlined in RP 10B and ASTM. Group on Cement Lining of Steel Pipe.

The petroleum industry purchases cements 4. The proposed API Recommended Practice for
manufactured predominately in accordance with API Performance Testing of Cementing Float Equipment has
classifications as published in API Specifications been approved by the national committee. This
for Materials and Testing for Well Cements.2 These recommended practice was released in print early
standards have been published by the American 1989. Its purpose is to provide recommended
Petroleum Institute in Dallas, Texas since 1953, procedures for the performance testing of cementing
when the first national standards on cements for use float equipment.
in wells were issued. These specifications are
reviewed annually and revised according to the needs PRIMARY CEKENTING - JOB PLANNING
of the oil industry.
The producing performance of a well depends in
Specifications do not cover all the properties great part on a good primary cementing job. In an
of cements over such broad ranges of depth and ideal cement job, mud and gas channels have been
pressure. Specifications do, however, embody a permanently prevented, and there is a complete
realistic method of classifying Portland cement for hydraulic seal between the casing and the formation
use in wells, by specifying the required properties. throughout the zones of interest. To achieve these
They furnish the manufacturer a list of properties objectives, a successful primary cementing operation
needed in the product, and assure the purchaser that requires careful coordination and control of many
the product meets certain minimum requirements. In factors, beginning with job planning (Fig. 1).
addition, they greatly simplify communication
between the manufacturer, the distributor, and the Wellbore Geometry. Before a cement slurry can
consumer. be designed, information about the wellbore must be
collected. This includes wellbore geometry, mud
API specifications are not enforced by an weight, type of mud, cement column height, and types

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 of formations exposed to the wellbore. The wellbore The API has developed, from actual well
should meet certain requirements to be cementable measurements, relationships between BHCT (bottomhole
and achieve the desired objectives. This portion of cementing temperature), and a pseudo BHST
cement job planning begins long before the well is (bottomhole static temperature) for temperature
drilled. Of utmost importance in all planning and gradients of 0,9 to 1.9F/100 ft and for depths to
drilling decisions is the objective of obtaining 20,000 ft. These relationships have been expanded
complete zonal isolation in the wellbore (Fig. 2). for this presentation to make them more complete.
A hydraulic seal must be obtained between the cement The expansion to include more gradients was made with
and the casing and between the cement and the a simple interpolation between the API gradients
formation; at the same time, mud and gas channels (Table 1).
within the cement sheath must be prevented. If
these goals are to be accomplished, the wellbore Strength requirements of cements are dependent
must be designed and drilled to be cementable. The on many factors. Generally, the cement must have
ideal cementable wellbore (Fig. 3) is one that is sufficient strength to (1) support and secure the
(1) 3 in. larger than the outside diameter of the casing in the hole, (2) achieve zonal isolation in
casing (the absolute minimum is 1-1/2 in. larger), the wellbore, (3) prevent communication of fluids
(2) as nearly gauge as possible (without washouts), behind the casing, and (4) withstand the shock of
(3) as straight as possible (without severe drilling, perforating, and fracturing.
doglegs), and (4) stabilized and properly
conditioned (without sloughing, flowing, or losing Very little strength is needed to support pipe.
circulation). Drillers must keep these requirements A minimum compressive strength of about 100 psi is
foremost in all plans. all that is needed to support and secure the casing
in the hole; however, this does not eliminate the
It is imperative that the cementable wellbore need for higher strength later on in the life of the
not be sacrificed in the efforts to reduce drilling well. For most surface and intermediate strings it
days and mud costs. The cost of repairing the is the usual practice to use high-strength cement
cement job can far exceed savings in drilling costs. around the shoe joints and lower-strength, lower-cost
Lost production and lost reserves must also be filler cements around the upper portions of these
included in any analysis of costs. strings. The higher-strength cements around the shoe
joints also contribute to savings because they
In all cementing operations, the cement slurry shorten WOC (waiting on cement) time before shoe
properties, thickening time (pumping time), strength joints can be drilled.
development, permeability, fluid loss rate,
rheology, and free water, are drastically affected The capability of a cement sheath to resist
by downhole temperature and pressure. Of these, the communication during fracturing and subsequent
nest important is thickening time, which is defined producing operations is dependent, among other
as the elapsed time from initial mixing of the factors, on the strength of the cement. Because of
zement with water to achievement of a final the uncertainty in correctly simulating down-hole
consistency of 100 Bearden Units of viscosity. conditions in the laboratory, the most widely-used
Since a cement slurry is a non-Newtonian fluid it is minimum strength required for any operation is 500
incorrect to refer to its viscosity in poise, so the psi in 24 hours at down-hole static temperature.
Dimensionless Bearden Unit is actually a viscosity Where closely-spaced zones during stimulation
index. operations are of concern, cement of high ultimate
strength should be used. When using expendable jet
To select a cement composition that will have perforators a minimum compressive strength of 2000
~dequate pumping time in the down-hole environment psi may be required.
for casing and liner cementing, proper laboratory
job simulations must be made. Usually, the Temperature has a pronounced affect on strength
;imulation is conducted in a high-pressure, development. Up to 230F, increasing temperature
ligh-temperature consistometer where the cement increases strength; however, at higher temperatures
$lurry can be exposed to down-hole temperature and strengths are decreased. An industry survey
>ressure. Several tests with varying admixtures conducted by AP117 revealed that most companies
[retarders, fluid loss additives, etc.) are usually routinely add 35X silica to cement at static
required until an adequate pumping time is obtained, temperatures of 230F and above to stabilize the
mt first it is necessary to determine down-hole cement against losses at these high temperatures
temperature and pressure to use in the lab tests. during placement and settling.

Down-hole cementing temperature has a greater Another important cement slurrv property to
influence on reducing thickening time than does control is fluid-loss rate. Additives are available
pressure. It is therefore important to know to control the fluid-loss rate of the cement and
down-hole temperature as accurately as possible. maintain the proper water:cement ratio. These
However, unlike pressure, the downhole circulating additives also prevent slurry dehydration during
temperature for testing is not always readily placement.
available. Sources of down-hole temperature
information are primary well logs, measured Typical values for fluid-loss control rates for
temperatures during circulation surveys prior to field operation are shown below. For comparison, a
cementing, Horner plots, and local practices. Of cement slurry without fluid-loss additives has a
these, the best source is a bottomhole circulation fluid-loss rate of about 1000 cc/30 minutes under API
survey, followed next by using API in conjunction conditions.
with primary well logs of 24 hours or longer
shut-in, and third API data.

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 4 API OILWELL CEMENTING PRACTICES OTC 6210

For casing cementing (if needed): 250 to 500 cc/30 differential pressure from below is also important in
minutes certain well control situations. If the hydrostatic
For liner cementing (if needed): 50 to 200 cc/30 pressure of the fluid inside the casing becomes less
minutes than the pressure of formation fluids in formations
For prevention of gas channeling: 20 to 50 cc/30 near the bottom of the casing, the well may try to
minutes flow up the casing. In such a situation, the float
For squeeze cementing: 50 - 200 cc/30 minutes equipment becomes a primary well control device.

To ensure that each phase of the cementing

operation is properly carried out, the many details
must be checked. Key words in quality control are
I Multiple-Stage Cementing Collars

Three basic types of multiple-stage cementing

never assume, always check; never estimate, always tools in common use today are (1) the plug-operated,
calculate. (2) the pressure-operated, and (3) the drillpipe
operated. In addition to these tools, multiple-stage
Once cement slurry design and the entire cementing may be completed by perforating various
operation have been engineered to a set of sections of the well casing and pumping cement during
specifications, followup must be made to ensure a initial cementing operations on the well. The latter
successful operation. Applying quality control from method has been outdated by the development of the
the beginning of design and continuing throughout drillpipe-operated multiple-stage cementing tools and
job execution will eliminate many potential errors has not been commonly performed in recent years.
or mistakes that can cause a cementing failure.8
Multiple-stage cementing consists of
PRIMARY CHIENTINGEQUIFUENT conventional placement of cement slurry around the
lower portion of the casing string, followed by
Numerous casing attachments have been developed placement of successive upper stages through ports in
for use in primary cementing operations to aid the a multiple-stage cementing tool, after the lower
operator in successfully placing the casing string section has been cemented. There is also stage
in the wellbore and to enhance mud removal from the equipment available to allow rotation of the upper
wellbore. The type of primary cementing equipment stage after the lower stage has been cemented. Most
used depends on individual well requirements and may multiple-stage cementing is done in two or three
vary widely with geographical areas and from field to stages, but there is no limit to the number of stages
field. of cement which can be performed using the
drillpipe-operated stage collars on the market today.
Floating Equipment
Although numerous stages of cement may be placed
Four styles of guide and float shoes available in the wellbore with currently available tools, the
are the guide shoe, float shoe, automatic-fill float primary use of multiple-stage cementing tools is to
shoe, and differential-fill float shoe. This equip- reduce or eliminate the possibility of lost
ment is available in a variety of steel grades and circulation as a result of excessive hydrostatic
threads, with the simplest being the plain-end guide pressures from a high column of cement.
shoe.
Cementing Plugs
A task group under API Committee 10 has
formulated a recommended practice for performance Two types of top and bottom five-wiper cementing
testing of cementing float equipment to provide plugs are available. Each set is identical in
performance-testing criteria to the industry, and a external appearance and differs only in the material
means of comparing various equipment on the market and design of its internal cores or inserts, which
to operators or end users of the equipment (Fig. 4). provide the strength needed to withstand high landing
forces. Plug inserts (both top and bottom) are
Although there are many criteria to be examined commonly made of a plastic or cast aluminum material.
in determining performance of float equipment, the Strength of the drillable, cast aluminum insert plugs
document is limited to: and the packer action of the mass of rubber above
the top plug insert permit high landing pressures and
1. Durability under downhole conditions. As dependable sealing capability. Cast aluminum insert
normally used, cementing float equipment must plugs are also frequently used when the operator
function after a fluid, sometimes containing desires to pressure-test the well casing to elevated
abrasive solids, has been circulated through the pressures after the top plug is landed on the float
equipment for a period of time. The equipment must collar. Aluminum inserted plugs are typically used
function in various orientations while exposed to at temperatures in excess of 300F. Plastic inserted
elevated temperatures and pressures. plugs are somewhat more drillable than the aluminum
inserted plugs but are normally used in wells with
2. Differential pressure capability from temperatures less than 300F. Both types are easily
below. Because the hydrostatic pressure of the drillable even with the PDC bits commonly in use
fluid occupying the annulus immediately after the today.
cement has been placed is usually greater than the
hydrostatic pressure of the corresponding column of Casing Attachments
the fluid inside the casing, under normal operations
float equipment must be capable of withstanding a Centralizers. The main purpose of casing
differential pressure with the higher pressure being centralizers is to center the casing in the hole to
exerted from below the check valve mechanism. The provide sufficient area for cement to flow uniformly
capability of float equipment to withstand around the casing to form a uniform sheath. Benefits

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of using centralizers are:
1. Casing can be positioned in the center of
deviated or crooked holes and guided past ledges and
keyseats.
2. Cement flows to more uniform thickness
between the pipe and formation, reducing the risk of
channeling.
3. Permits equal hydrostatic pressure in the
annulus around the casing, thereby preventing
differential-pressure freezing or sticking of the
casing to the walls of the wellbore.
4. Helps protects casing while it is being
rotated or reciprocated.
5. Helps reduce pipe movement prior to cement
setting up; this reduces gas channeling.
A general rule of thumb for spacing
centralizers in relatively straight holes is to
place one centralizer for every joint in the section
of the hole to be covered with cement. Most service
companies have computer programs that calculate a
recommended spacing of casing centralizers. These
programs give recommendations for the spacing of
casing centralizers when furnished vital well input
such as mud weight, hole deviations, and required
casing standoff.
Most bow-spring centralizers on the market
today are tested to meet requirements for
performance set out in API Spec 10D.10 This
specification establishes such performance criteria
as maximum starting and running forces and minimum
restoring force of the bow-spring centralizer at 67%
casing standoff. This document stipulates
requirements for all standard sizes of API casings.
Another type of centralizer that is receiving
acceptance in horizontal drilling is the solid
positive device, not covered by API specifications
at this time.
Scratchers. In use today are reciprocating
scratchers and rotating scratchers. Rotating
scratchers are composed of a metal strip with some
type of metal fingers or bristles. Common types are
made of cable loops or spring wire fingers. These
scratchers are attached to the casing by welding or
with ring clamps. Clamps are primarily used on N-80
and higher grades of API casing where welding is not
appropriate.
Since this cleaner is rotated rather than
reciprocated, chances of sticking casing off bottom
are minimized. Rotating scratchers minimize
bridging in the annulus, and wide spacing of cleaner
spikes or cables permit free flow of fluids in the
annulus. The rotating action of the cleaner spikes
or cables also helps obtain a more even distribution
of cement around the casing. If the casing is
properly centralized, spikes or cables do not break
under normal conditions. These cleaners are
activated by rotating the casing string 8 to 15 RPM
while circulating the wellbore.
Innerstring CementinR Method
To combat the problems of pumping large volumes
of cement slurry outside the casing through small
diameter grouting pipes, or to minimize the amount of
cement that has to be drilled out of large diameter
casing after it has been cemented in conventional
manner, the industry has developed downhole equipment
and improved placement methods. By using appropriate
floating, guiding, or baffle equipment and sealing
adapters that may be attached to small-diameter pipe
(such as drillpipe), cementing may be accomplished
through the imer string in a more convenient manner.
This technique permits the use of small-diameter
cementing plugs, and where the casing is equipped
with a backpressure valve or latch-down baffle, the
inner string can be disengaged as soon as a plug is
seated and withdrawn from the casing while
preparations are being made to drill ahead. In a
variation of this technique, the inner string may be
removed after the cement has set.
PRIMARY CMENTING-FIELU EQUIPMRNT
The cementing process is accomplished using a
dry blend of cement and additives mixed with water,
then pumped downhole. Alternately, the additives
(solid or liquid) may be added to the mix water and
this solution mixed with dry cement to form the
slurry. Therefore, surface equipment required to mix
and pump a slurry include dry blenders or liquid
injectors, bulk transports, slurry mixers, pumps,
slurry densometer, and cementing head.
Dry Blenders. For transport to the wellsite,
the dry blend containers (usually referred to as
pods) are equipped so that material can be
pneumatically transferred into or out of the pod.
Poor performance may be caused by:
1. Incorrect additives or incorrect
concentrations of the proper additives.
2. Poor performance of the base cement. This
is usually a cement that does not meet API
performance specifications.
3. Overfilling of the blending equipment. All
dry-blending methods (air agitation, transfer, and
admix pods) perform best if dry solids are less than
capacity of the blend pod volume. The admix pod
blending method is less sensitive to blend size than
are the other systems.
Liquid Additive Systems. Liquid additives may
be added to the mix water directly from the shipping
containers, or they may be metered into the mix water
from an onsite reservoir using liquid additive
equipment. There are precatitionsto be observed when
using liquid additives. If the needed concentration
of a given liquid additive in a slurry is intended to
match the concentration of a more familiar solid
additive, then the specific gravity and percent
activity of the liquid additive must be considered.
Some liquid additives are not truly soluble in
mix water, but are dispersible. Some agitation of
the mix water will be required as liquid additives
are introduced.
Cement Slurry Mixers. Well cement slurries can
be mixed using a continuous type mixer (referred to
as a jet mixer), a batch mixer, or the more widely
used recirculating mixer (often referred to as an
 6 API OILWELL CEMENTING PRACTICES
RCM) . The RCM incorporates features of both a
continuous and batch mixer.
Density Monitoring Devices. For a cement
slurry to have its desired and expected properties
it must be mixed to the design density. A working,
properly calibrated radioactive dens6meter mounted
on the cementing unit is useful to the cementer
since he has access to a continuous readout of
slurry density and can make adjustments in
water:solids feed as needed. The printed strip
chart display provides a permanent record of slurry
quality.
Displacement. Adequate removal of drilling mud
from the annulus is essential to achieving primary
cementing success. This aspect of primary cementing
has received more attention than any other from
researchers. lz>lz Inadequate removal of mucl will
result in dilution of the cement slurry, chemical
contamination of the cement slurry, or channeling
(column of bypassed mud of sufficient vertical
extent that there is loss of hydraulic seal in the
annulus).
Various techniques and material have been
developed to achieve adequate displacement of
circulate drilling fluid from the annulus to help
prevent channeling. A synopsis of techniques and
materials proposed for achieving effective
displacement including the following.
1. A surprisingly large number of primary
cementing jobs are not successfully pumped because
of problems with the slurry. These failures can be
the result of a lack of pre-job testing of the
composition or of improperly conducted pre-job
testing. Other frequent causes of problems are an
improperly constituted dry blend or a nonuniform dry
blend. Another more common (and completely
avoidable) problem is that the cement slurry is too
often not mixed to the designed density.
2. Loss of circulation is the term applied to
the condition in which cement does not come all the
way to the top of the annulus because it is lost to
the formation. This can be the result of excessive
hydrostatic pressure on the formation while
cementing. The slurry density must be reduced to
prevent fracture of the formation. It is not
uncommon to perform a primary cementing operation
using a low-density lead slurry and a
higher-density, higher-strength tail slurry. This
is done to reduce overall hydrostatic loading while
still maintaining suitable cement properties over
the completion interval.
3. Finally, some cement jobs are not
successfully pumped because of equipment
malfunctions. The avoidance of these problems is
primarily the responsibility of the cementing
service company, but the operators representative
on the job should be satisfied that lines, cementing
head, and manifolds have been pressure tested, and
that there is redundance for the critical equipment
items. If there is a problem in which equipment
malfunctions cause a delay in the cementing
operations or prevents successful completion, it
should be duly noted and recorded.
4. Adequate displacement of drilling mud
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OTC 6210
during a primary cementing operation can be achieved
by:
a. Utilizing a drilling mud having minimum
time dependent gel strength and fluid loss
consistent with good drilling practice,
b. Centralizing the casing.
c. Conditioning the mud and hole (but do not
overcondition) .
d. Moving the casing while the displacing
fluids (preflush and cement slurry) are flowing in
the annulus.
e. Using a low-dens:ty, low-viscosity
spacerfpreflush.
f. Pumping the disp acing fluids (preflush and
cement slurry) as rapidly as possible without losing
returns.
Post-Job Considerations. After a well has been
primarily cemented, pressure should be bled from the
casing. If the float valve(s) are holding, (i.e.,
there is no backflow) the casing should be left
unpressured while waiting-on-cement (WOC). If the
casing is left pressured, it will be expanded during
the period when the cement is setting (converting
from a fluid to a solid). On reducing the pressure
to bring the well in, the casing will contract, the
now-rigid cement sheath will not conform to the new
reduced OD, and loss of bond between the cement and
casing is inevitable.
Sufficient WOC time must be observed for the
cement quality to develop adequate strength before
operations are resumed. For a period of hours after
the plug is bumped, the cement is rigid but has very
little strength, and any damage sustained by the
cement sheath during this period may not reheal.
The required period of WOC time varies depending on
the cement and downhole conditions of temperature and
pressure. Cement used to cement an intermediate
casing string should have compressive strength of at
least 500 psi before drilling is resumed. Completion
interval cement should have compressive strength of
at least 500 psi before the well is perforated.
Cement Evaluation
Indirect Indications. A cement-top temperature
survey used in conjunction with annular volume
calculated from an openhole caliper log, taken before
casing was run, can provide some indication of
mud-displacement efficiency. For example, if the
primary cementing job were conducted with essentially
full returns and the indicated length of the primary
cement column is 15 to 20% longer than calculated, it
can be assumed that a substantial amount of mud was
bypassed.
The cement-bond log (CBL) is widely used to
provide a measurement of cement coverage in the
annulus. The CBL is an electroacoustic device which
provides three separate measurements: signal travel
time, casing signal amplitude, and total energy
display.
It is evident that the CBL provides considerable
102
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OTC 6210- D. G. CALVERT AND D. K. SMITH
information, but it must be considered an indirect
cement evaluation tool, since it does not address
annular hydraulic seal directly.
The most recent development to measure cement
sheath is a high frequency, ultrasonic device
consisting of a series of transducers. The basic
purpose of the ultrasonic tool is to cause the
casing to vibrate (resonate) in its thickness mode,
then measure that resonance.
Direct Indications. More direct cement
evaluation methods actually monitor flow behind pipe
by measuring temperature or noise anomalies using
appropriate cased-hole logs.
When unwanted gas enters a cemented annulus
there will be a cooling anomaly at the point of
entry due to expansion of the gas. As the gas moves
uphole, a heating anomaly will be observed as the
geothermally-heated gas from downhole moves to
cooler portions of the wellbore. Unwanted water
normally moves downhole after entering a cemented
annulus, resulting in a cooling anomaly moving down.
A radial differential temperature (RDT) tool
utilizes either one or two temperature sensors in
the same horizontal plane. In use the tool is
positioned in the casing at the elevation of the
suspected unwanted flow, then rotated. Logs taken
using this tool provide information regarding both
the presence (or absence) of unwanted flow aridthe
locatlon (depth and azimuth) of unwanted flow. The
latter information is useful in repairing the well.
A noise logging tool utilizes a sensitive
microphone used in conjunction with amplification
and other electronics. If the background noise
level is low, i.e., with the well shut-in, the noise
logging tool can hear the entry of unwanted fluid
into the wellbore. Flow of gas is more easily
detected than flow of water.
Following the cementing of surface and
intermediate casing, a pressure integrity test (PIT)
of the casing shoe is usually conducted. The
procedure is to drill the float and the shoe plus a
small amount of additional hole. Sufficient surface
pressure is then applied so the pressure at the shoe
is at least equal to the maximum hydrostatic
pressure expected to be imposed on the shoe before
the next casing string is set. If the required
pressure is reached, drilling proceeds. If the
required surface pressure can not be attained, the
shoe must be repaired by squeeze cementing.
The most definitive test of the primary
cementing of a production well is a production test.
If the well produces the expected fluid(s) at
anticipated rates, it can be assumed that the
primary cement job is successful. If the above
described conditions are not met, some of the
diagnostic procedures just described should be
applled so a decision can be made as to whether or
not remedial cementing is required.
LINER CEMENTING
A liner is any string of casing having its
top below the surface of the ground. Most liners
are supported by liner hangers, although shorter
liners may be set on bottom. Liner length may vary
7
from less than one hundred up to several thousand
feet. A liner suspended or set opposite a section of
the hole and through which further drilling is
contemplated, is called a drilling liner. A liner
set opposite or just on top of the producing zone is
called a production liner. Liners which extend from
the top of a previously existing liner to some point
further up the hole, but still below the wellhead,
are called stub liners. A tieback liner is a liner
sealed in a previously existing liner extending to
the wellhead (Fig. 5).
The main reasons for running liners in
preference to full strings are cost and design
necessity. In some cases, drilling hydraulics are
severely restricted if a full string is run instead
of a liner; or, in other cases, tension requirements
would limit casing selection, greatly increasing the
cost of drilling a deep well. Several years ago,
derrick strengths and hoisting limitations precluded
full strings. This is a rare problem today. Liner
and casing programs should be designed from the
bottom up, taking into consideration completion
requirements, better cementing, availability and
cost of corrosion-resistant casing and other tubular
alloy steels, bit selection, optimum hole cleaning,
directional or horizontal drilling, and hole
stability.
Liner Equipment Selection
Liner Hangers. Liner hangers are either
mechanically set or hydraulically set. The
mechanically-set liner hanger is set by turning the
drillpipe setting string at the surface, causing the
slip cage to unjay at the liner hanger, and
allowing the slips to set when the drillstring is
lowered. This hanger is most popular in areas where
the hole is reasonably free of doglegs, and the rig
is stationary.
In cases where the hole is quite deviated or
crooked, or where the liner hanger must pass through
an existing liner hanger downhole, the
hydraulically-set liner hanger is a more acceptable
choice. This liner hanger is also more popular when
the drilling rig is on a floating vessel and subject
to vertical motion. The hydraulically-set liner
hanger is preferred for setting stub liners. The
two liner hanger types generally have equal slip
areas and hanging capacity.
Liner Packer. When the first modern liner
cementing equipment was designed in the late 1940s,
liner packers were included as a basic part of the
liner installation. Liner top packers are run in at
the same time as the liner hanger when the liner is
cemented. The original intent of a liner top packer
was to relieve the hydrostatic head from the
formation when the packer was set after bumping the
plugs . Then the operator could reverse out all
excess cement, and no drillout was necessary above
the liner (or inside, if the liner was a production
liner), and the plug landing collar was below
intended perforations. Days of rig time could be
saved. However, as deeper wells were drilled, liner
packers would be subjected to high differential
pressure and temperature. Elements on the earlY
liner top packers were canvas; only later were more
reliable elastomer seals used as they are today.
Nevertheless, high differential pressure may often be
103
 8 API OILWELL CEMENTING PRACTICES OTC 6210

excessive for thin pack-off elements which may have top of the liner. For example, in a planned squeeze
been damaged during circulation and cementing. method, he may fill only 60 to 70Z of the annular
capacity behind the liner with cement, and then
Today, when liners are cemented through squeeze the top of the liner later by pumping a
difficult and abnormally pressured formations, it slurry into the liner annulua after setting a
may be necessary to run a high-pressure liner retrievable or drillable packer in the intermediate
tieback packer to shut off liner top leaks that can casing above the liner. The squeezed cement rarely
not be squeezed. joins the top of the previously displaced cement, but
some operators find this cement gap to be tolerable
Liner tieback packers are run after the liner so long as the top of the liner does not leak.
is cemented and cleaned out, and may be set either
by weight of the drillpipe string or by hydraulic Since the early 1950s, several thousand liner
setting tools. Use of the hydraulic setting tool, cementing jobs have been run.16 Many improvements
with its capability to convert pressure into setting have been made in equipment and techniques. Future
force, is superior to use of drillpipe weight for development in deep well liner cementing will include
setting a tieback packer. Because of buckling (1) improvement in liner equipment, (2) movement of
friction of the drillpipe in the casing, only a liners during cementation, (3) accurate circulating
small percentage of set-down force reaches the temperature measurement, (4) better plug systems
packing element of weight-set tieback packers. The (including a plug before and after the slurry), (5)
amount of differential pressure a packer will hold better cement slurry chemistry, (6) better spacers,
is directly proportional to the force setting the and undoubtedly, (7) better planning.
packer.
Nothing is better for a good liner cement job
Running the Liner than good hole conditioning and stability, and many
liner cementing problems can be eliminated if the
In a typical liner setting assembly the hole is free of doglegs and the mud is in good shape.
drillpipe is used as a running-in and cementing Mud and cement are never compatible, and should be
string.13 kept separate by spacers and wiper plugs when
possible.
The liner is run to and hung at a point just
above bottom. The setting tool is then released REMKOIAL CEKENTING
from the liner by right-hand rotation. Cement is
then mixed and pumped into the drillpipe through the Remedial cementing broadly describes cementing
cement manifold. The drillpipe wiper plug in the operations which are performed to remedy an
manifold is released and displaced by mud until it undesirable condition in a well. More recently, the
latches into the liner wiper plug on the bottom of term has been used to refer to the most widely
the liner setting tool, causing a small increase in practfced remedial cementing operation as squeeze
pressure before the two plugs shear and are cementing.
displaced as one plug to the plug landing collar
where the plugs will latch and a pressure buildup at Squeeze cementing is the process of applying
the surface is noticed. The setting tool and hydraulic pressure to a cement slurry to (1) force or
drillpipe is then removed from the well. squeeze the slurry into the desired location and
(2) force water from the slurry after placement to
Techniques vary within the industry for the create a mass which will remain in place and harden
placement of cement around the liner (Fig. 6).115 to provide a seal.
Perhaps the most commonly used method is the
placement of cement around and over the top of the Squeeze cementing operations may be performed
liner in a conventional single stage. Excess cement during drilling and completion operations or at some
above the top of the liner may be reversed out later time during the wells producing period.
before the drillpipe is removed. The disadvantage Regardless of the reason for the squeeze, the most
of this method is the difficulty in calculating the difficult problem in squeeze cementing is placing the
proper amount of cement to be used. If the cement proper amount of cement or sealant in just the right
volume is overestimated, the excess cement must be place to remedy the problem.
drilled out. There is also the possibility of the Fundamental squeeze techniques can be
drillpipe sticking if the cement sets before the categorized by the pressure at which the cement or
operation is complete. sealant is placed, the methods used to provide
pressure isolation for injection, and the fluid
Another widely used practice in the Anadarko pumping procedures used.
basin is the placement of excess cement over the top
of the liner in a single stage so that 8 to 10 Pressure. Squeeze operations may be performed
joints of the intermediate casing will contain at pressures above or below the fracturing pressure
cement to be drilled out after setting. The of the exposed formations. Placement of a cement
philosophy is that it is easier to drill set cement slurry or other sealant at pressures greater than the
than to squeeze the overlap area. fracturing pressure of the zone are referred to as
high-pressure squeezes (Fig. 7). Similarly,
Of course, the ideal liner cementing job will operations where the sealant is placed at pressures
replace all of the mud behind the liner with good less than the fracturing pressure of the formation
cl-cancement, and this should be the objective of are called low-pressure squeezes (Fig, 8).
the well operator; however, there are many reasons
why this objective might not be achieved. Sometimes The original method of squeezing was the
the operator may choose not to bring cement over the

104

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 OTC 6210 D. G. CALVERT AND D. K. SMITH 9

Bradenhead method,L7 which is accomplished through 2. Where no voids exist behind casing.
the tubing or drillpipe without using a packer or
similar tool. Pressure is built up by closing the 3. Small single zones.
blowout preventers or wellhead control valves after
the cement has been pumped to near the bottom of the 4. Leaking liner tops.
cementing workstring.
5. Squeezing casing shoes.
The squeeze tool method uses a retrievable or
nonretrievable (drillable) packer or retainer tool Low-pressure squeezes can be used in most
run on tubing or set on wireline to a position near operations, provided that a void exists and can be
the top of the zone to be squeezed.3 This technique opened up with clean, solids-free fluids. Careful
is generally considered superior to the Bradenhead planning and well preparation are required for low
method because it confines pressures to a specific pressure squeeze operations. Failure to realize this
point in the hole. Before the cement is placed, a seriously jeopardizes the application and success of
pressure test is conducted to determine the low-pressure placement techniques; however, some
formation breakdown pressure. In certain instances, conditions make high-pressure squeezes necessary.
the section below the perforations to be squeezed
must be isolated with a bridge plug. When Squeeze cementing technology and understanding
retrievable tools are used, the remaining slurry may of the operation continues to increase. Sufficient
be washed out after the desired squeeze pressure is technology and understanding exists to considerably
obtained. improve squeeze cementing success If applied. Some
misconceptions linger which sometimes preclude
Squeezing objectives and zonal conditions application of techniques, materials, or procedures
determine whether high pressure or low pressure is which will increase the possibility of success.
used. Attention to detail during planning, preparation, and
execution of the operation is required for consistent
Material Selection and Application successful operations.

Slurries of Portland cement and water are the The following items have been concluded from a
most common basic materials used for remedial review of literature and field practices.
cementing operations of all kinds. Portland cement
slurries are relatively inexpensive and can be 1. Squeeze cementing is primarily a placement
modified with a variety of readily available problem.
additives. Most oilfield cementing equipment is
designed to readily prepare and pump Portland cement 2. Problem diagnosis and job planning are
slurries. critical to the success of any squeeze operation.

High-Pressure or Low-Pressure Squeeze? 3. Each type of problem requiring a squeeze

cementing operation has key variables which must be
Low-pressure squeezes are preferred for most identified and addressed or controlled for job
squeeze cementing operations. Cement slurry designs success.
are frequently complex, but less cement is often
needed and there is generally better control over 4. Filtration control is used in most cement
placement. However, there are conditions which compositions for squeeze cementing and is important
preclude the use of low pressure placement. to the success of low-pressure squeeze operations.
Low-pressure squeeze operations are often applied
for the purposes listed. 5. Low fluid-loss cement slurries can be
efficient fracturing fluids. Formation permeability
1. Filling existing voids behind the casing. must be considered when selecting the amount of fluid
loss for a cement composition.
2. Squeezing multiple zones in one operation.
6. Low-pressure squeezes are preferred wherever
3. Squeezing long perforated intervals. it is possible to apply them. Low-pressure squeezes
allow better control of placement of the cement in
4. Squeezing low bottomhole pressure wells. all existing voids to be sealed.

5. Squeezing low permeability zones. 7. Clean, solids-free workover fluids and

flushes ahead of the cement are preferred for most
6. Squeezing productive intervals. squeeze cementing operations and are important
prerequisites for low-pressure squeeze operations.
7. Squeezing when clean, solids-free fluids When drilling fluid precedes cement, results are
are in the wellbore and used as injection usually poor.
fluids ahead of cement.
8. High-pressure squeeze operations may be
High-pressure squeezes are often required or required when no void exists behind the pipe or when
applied for the following conditions or types of solids-laden workover fluids will precede the cement.
squeeze operations.
9. Temperature is the single most important
Squeezing with solids-laden fluids factor governing hydration of cement. Accurate
(dril;~ngmucl) in hole. temperature information is needed to properly design
the cementing composition for the operation.

105

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10 API OILWELL CEMENTING PRACTICES
10. Well type/history and mechanical
configuration of the operation affect temperatures
during the squeeze. Injection wells in waterfloods
may be much cooler than producing wells at the same
depth. If the well can not be circulated at the
injection point, the static temperature of the zone
should be used for cement slurry design.
11. Laboratory testing methods can not
accurately simulate the conditions of most squeeze
cementing operations.
DOWNHOLE PLUGGING
Setting downhole plugs is too often given less
attention than is warranted. Other cementing
applications, especially primary and liner, have
been treated far more extensively in the literature,
possibly because of the greater expense usually
involved, and the larger scale on which most
conventional primary and liner cement jobs are
performed. Nevertheless, setting cementing plugs,
despite its lack of glamour, is an essential
operation performed under many well conditions.
Because of the frequency with which plug jobs are
performed, it is strongly recommended that all
concerned give the same consideration to planning
and performance of plug-cement jobs that is given to
larger scale primary and liner cementing
applications.
Several problems have been identified as
obstacles to obtaining optimum plug-cement job
results. Typically, these problems are also usually
associated with the type of plug required -- for
abandonment, whipstock, lost circulation, zonal
isolation -- and the conditions normally found in
each situation. Obtaining quality cement plugs
under a wide variety of well conditions (for
instance in an older, producing well) is dependent
on the specific job elements which influence
placement of cement in the desired location without
contaminating the cement slurry. A review of the
elements that influence plug cementing can make
those responsible for the critical decisions
affecting job design and execution more aware of
important factors to consider for obtaining optimum
plug-cement job results.
Generally, plugs are set and assumed by the
operator to be in place. Although there have been
cases in which abandoned wells have been reopened,
and all plugs were at the exact location at which
they were placed, the converse has also been true.
Location and strength of plugs should be well
established after setting (Fig. 9).
Reasons for Plug Failure
Despite the relative simplicity of
plug-cementing operations, plug-cement jobs have
historically had a significantly high failure rate.
Guidelines established within the industry have
alleviated conditions in recent years, but failures
still occur for a variety of reasons. The most
common reasons for plug-cement job failures include
(1) interaction between the fluid system in the well
and the plug-cement slurry, (2) insufficient pre-job
preparation, and (3) improper application of
cementing practices, i.e., displacement mechanics.
---
1Ub
OTC 6210
As with primary cementing, the wellbore fluid in
place at the time of the plug job is a critical
factor regarding the success or failure of the
procedure. At the time many plug jobs are conducted,
the fluid system in the well may have been static for
a significant period of time. In plug jobs
performed while drilling fluid is in the wellbore,
gel strength of the mud system can prevent placement
of a competent cement plug because cement slurry may
channel through the gelled fluid instead of
effectively displacing it.
Density and chemical composition of the mud
system also greatly affect the outcome of the
plug-cement job. For instance, it may be necessary
to place a moderate- to heavy-weight cement slurry on
top of a lower-density conditioned well fluid system.
Because of the density differential the cement slurry
will tend to migrate downward into the well fluid,
thus contaminating the cement and dislocating the
cement plug. With the use of a bridge plug or cement
basket this problem can be avoided. An alternative
means of providing a solid foundation for accurate
plug placement to these mechanical methods involves
utilizing common oilfield chemistry to accomplish the
same effect by placing either a bentoniteL8 or
reactive silicate pill.
Sufficient volumes of spacer and cement are
vital to success of the plug placement procedure.
Inadequate spacer volumes would likely result in
incomplete mud removal because of poor cement/mud
separation. Insufficient cement volume, resulting
from incorrectly estimating the hole volume, would
result in a contaminated, weak cement plug of
inadequatelength.
Once the plug has been set, it is common
practice to test the plug to verify its location and
strength. Referred to as tagging the plug, the
general procedure is performed by lowering the
drillstring, tubing, or casing to the plug depth to
determine whether the cement plug will support some
or all of the weight of the load. Strength of the
plug is most important for sidetracking operations,
since the plug must provide significant resistance to
the drill bit if a whipstock tool is not being used,
or must provide adequate support for the plug when a
whipstock tool is set. Where plugs are set to
protect fresh water aquifers, plug strength and
bonding are also vital.
It is significant to note that all boreholes
eventually will require plugging; this is a
highly-regulated operation that is becoming more
regulated as state and federal agencies give it more
attention. 19 Successful plug-cementing results,
though sometimes elusive under certain well
conditions, are obtainable if proper attention is
given to critical job factors. Many of these factors
are identical to those which are (or at least should
be) considered essential for successful primary
cementing results. These factors include
cement-slurry design (especially regarding realistic
thickening-time specifications), displac~ent
mechanics, adequate cement volumes, and job
performance (use of appropriate procedures for
existing conditions, exercising caution in cement
placement, and pulling the placement pipe string).
Simply stated, if the same consideration is given to
plug cementing as is given to designing and
 performing liner or casing -jobs,the job result A list of the service companies offering bond
should be cement plugs which are accurately located logging capabilities are:
and possessing desired physical properties, e.g.,
set time and bonding. Company: Schlumberger
Tool: VDL
CIMENT SHEATH EVALUATION Plot: WF

Considerable progress has been made in the Company: Western Altas/McCullough

development of cement sheath evaluation techniques Tool: VDL
in the last few years. Correct application of these Plot: Signature/XY Plot
techniques, coupled with a clear concept of cement
strength development mechanisms, can lead to fully Company: Halliburton Logging Services
recognizable cement sheath quality and quantity. Tool : Spectrum
For correct application of the available cement Plot: Signature
evaluation tools and techniques, a clear
understanding of the principles involved is Company: Halliburton Logging Services
necessary. Tool : Microseismogram
Plot : KY Plot
Casing support requires the presence of any
solid material in the annulus but not necessarily FIELD OPERATIONS - SURVEY
100% circumferential coverage of the casing.
Hydraulic isolation, on the other hand, does require In the preparation of this volume of Worldwide
100% annular fill of a nonpermeable material. The Cementing Practices, a survey was made of 339 fields
cement bond log measures the percentage of casing located throughout active drilling areas of the
circumference that is intimately contacted by world. Since over 70% of this drilling activity is
cement; the result is generally referred to as in North America, logically a greater response was
percent bonding. received from the United States and Canada. Not all
of the over 16 items surveyed are covered herein.
None of the current devices or techniques However, depths, casing-hole relationships, cements,
possess the capability to determine the existence of and casing equtpment are expressed as percentages in
a channel in the annulus between the cement sheath each area for surface, intermediate, production or
and the formation. If the channel is not in contact liner operations (Table 2).
with the casing, no channeling in the annulus will
be evident. Ultrasonic tools investigate only the SUMMARY
effects of the material in intimate contact with the
exterior surface of the inner casing. The current As we look ahead, research within our industry
devices available for evaluation of the quality and will continue to provide new products, services and
bonding characteristics (or the absence thereof) are techniques in the cementing of wells. In
a quantum leap in technology from the original bond forecasting tomorrow it is not likely we will ever
evaluation device. replace cement as a sealing and bonding agent
downhole. It is, however, reasonable to expect
Evaluation of the logs for cement quality and improvements in testing techniques, better casing
bonding characteristics is still an art. Effects of equipment, new cement additives, automation of
gas contamination on logging parameters (whether it mixing and blending equipment, better usage of
be amplitude, attenuation, or acoustic impedance), computer technology and new downhole temperature
what constitutes adequate casing support, and what gathering techniques to aid the cementing process.
materials can provide effective zone isolation must New completion technology as we are witnessing today
all be seriously considered when attempting to make in horizontal drilling will present new challenges,
intelligent remedial cementing decisions. yet we will find solutions to most problems as we
have since the conception of the oil industry.
The analyst must possess a detailed knowledge
of the density of the cement systems used to cement REFERENCES
the casing, as well as unintended variations of the
cement density created during the mixing and pumping 1. Bogue, R.H.: The Chemistry of Portland cement,
of the cement. The analyst must have knowledge of Reinhold Publishing Company (1947).
the variations in cement compressive strength caused
by changing temperatures up the hole, and the 2. API Spec 10, Specification for Materials and
effects of poor estimates of the geothermal profile Testing for Well Cements< Fourth Edition, API,
of the hole. The probability of the analyst Dallas (August 1988).
actually being able to obtain that volume of
information about the cement is rather small. 3. Smith, D.K.: Cementing, Monograph Vol. 4 SPE
Consequently it is imperative that the analyst (1) Henry L. Doherty Series, NY and Richardson, TX
be able to recognize low density, low compressive (1987).
strength cements in the annulus (as opposed to
liquids in the annulus), (2) accept the fact that 4. Smith, R.C.: Successful Primary Cementing Can
set cement in the annulus (even gas-cut cement) can be a Reality,
JPT (Nov. 1984), 1851-1858,
not be displaced, (3) a microannulus can not be
repaired, and (4) has the good sense to recognize 5. Shryock, S.H. and Smith, D.K.: Geothermal
that after all the best guesses have been proposed Cementing - The State-of-the-Art, Halliburton
he may still be wrong. Services Brochure C-1274.

---
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~_ _
-. _ .-= :
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.=. ~.. .=. .._~_~: . _
. .
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 12 API OILWELL CEMENTING PRACTICES OTC 6210

6. Matthews, W.R. and Kelly, J.: How to Predict 13. BULLETIN D17, Running And Cementing Liner In The
Formation Fracture Pressure and Fracture Delaware Basin, Texas, Second Edition, API,
Gradient, Oil and Gas J. (Feb. 20, 1967), Dallas (March 1983).
92.
14. Arceneaux, M.A.: Liner Operations Made Easy,
7. Venditto, J.J. and George, C.R.: Better Pet. Eng. Intl. (Sept. 1986).
Wellbore Temperature Data Eaual Better Cement
Job, World hil (Feb. 1984): 15. Bowman, G.R. and Sherer, B.: How To Run And
Cement Liners, World Oil, Parts 1-9, (March,
8. Smith, R.C.: Use this checklist to improve 1988 - January, 1989).
primary cementing operations, World Oil, March
1986. 16. Lindsey, H.E.: Running and Cementing Deep Well
Liners,iiWorld Oil, Part 1 (Nov. 1974)Y part 2
9. API RP 10F, Recommended Practice for (Dec. 1974), Part 3 (Jan. 1975).
Performance Testing of Cementing Float
Equipment, First Edition (June 1989); API 17. Shryock, S.H. and Slagle, K.A.: Problems
Dallas. Related to Squeeze Cementing, paper SPR 1993
presented at the 1967 Annual California Regional
10. API SPEC 10D, Specification for Casing Meeting, 10S Angeles, Oct. 26-27.
Centralizers, first edition (April 1971); second
edition (Feb. 1973); third edition (1986); API, 18. Banister, J.A.: Methods and Materials for
Dallas. Placing Cement Plugs in Open Holes, paper
presented at the 1957 Interstate Oil Compact
11. Crook, R.J. and Haut, R.C.: Primary Cementing: Commission Meeting, Yellowstone, WY, June 10-12.
The Mud Displacement Process, paper SPE 8253
presented at the 1979 SPE Annual Technical 19. Texas Railroad Commission Rule 14: Plugging,
Conference and Exhibition, Las Vegas, Sept. Oil and Gas Division, Austin, TK (1983).
23-26.

12. Keller, S.R., Haut, R.C., Crook, R.J., and

Kulakofsky, D.S.: Deviated-Wellbore CementinQ.
Part 1, Problems, ~ (Aug, 1987) 39, No. 8,-
955-960.

108

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 TABLE 1 -- MIYOMEOLE CEMENTINGTEMPERATUREBY DEPTw

Temperature Gradient, OF/lOO ft

Well 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0
Depth Temp T~er~re7F

1000 BHCT 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80
BHLT 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100

2000 BHCT 89 89 89 89 90 90 90 90 91 91 91 91 91
BHLT 96 98 100 102 104 106 108 110 112 114 116 118 120

3000 BHCT 94 94 94 95 95 96 96 96 97 97 97 98 98
BHLT 104 107 110 113 116 119 122 125 128 131 134 137 140

4000 BHCT 99 99 100 100 101 101 102 102 103 103 104 104 105
BHLT 112 116 120 124 128 132 136 140 144 148 152 156 160

5000 BHCT 105 106 106 107 108 109 109 110 111 112 113 115 117
BHLT 120 125 130 135 140 145 150 155 160 165 170 175 180

6000 BHCT 111 i12 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 123 126 129
BHLT 128 134 140 146 152 158 164 170 176 182 188 194 200

7000 BHCT 118 119 120 122 124 126 127 129 131 133 138 143 148
BHLT 136 143 150 157 164 171 178 185 192 199 206 213 220

8000 BHCT 125 126 128 129 132 135 138 140 143 146 153 160 167
BHLT 144 152 160 168 176 184 192 200 208 216 224 232 240

9000 BHCT 132 134 136 138 142 147 150 154 158 163 172 180 189
BHLT 152 161 170 179 188 197 206 215 224 233 242 251 260

10,000 BHCT 139 141 144 146 152 158 163 167 174 180 190 200 210
BHLT 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280

11,000 BHCT 144 148 152 156 164 172 177 182 190 199 211 224 236
BHLT 168 179 190 201 212 223 234 245 256 267 278 289 300

12,000 BHCT 150 155 160 165 175 185 191 197 207 217 232 247 262
BHLT 176 188 200 212 224 236 248 260 272 284 296 308 320

13,000 BHCT 155 162 169 176 188 200 208 215 226 238 254 270 286
BHLT 184 197 210 223 236 249 262 275 288 301 314 327 340

14,000 BHCT 160 169 178 187 201 215 224 233 246 258 276 293 311
BHLT 192 206 220 234 248 262 276 290 304 318 332 346 360

15,000 BHCT 165 176 187 199 214 230 241 252 266 280 298 317 335
BHLT 200 215 230 245 260 275 290 305 320 33.5 350 365 380

16,000 BHCT 170 183 197 210 228 245 258 270 286 302 321 340 359
BHLT 208 224 240 256 272 288 304 320 336 352 368 384 400

17,000 BHCT 176 191 207 222 242 261 275 289 307 325 344 363 382
BHLT 216 233 250 267 284 301 318 335 352 369 386 403. 420

18,000 BHCT 182 199 217 234 256 277 293 308 328 347 366 385 404
BHLT 224 242 260 278 296 314 332 350 368 386 404 422 440

19,000 BHCT 187 207 227 247 271 295 311 328 349 370 389 408 427
BHLT 232 251 270 289 308 327 346 365 384 403 422 441 460

20,000 BHCT 193 215 237 259 286 312 330 348 370 392 412 431 451
BHLT 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480

* BHCT is the bottomhole circulating temperature.

BHLT is the bottomhole log temperature after 24 hours shut-in.

109

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 TA2NJf2

sUM14ARY
OF WRLIWIDE DRlLL2W ASD cU4PwrIGt4PRAcT2cfc3

MAJOR 12T248AND AREAS SURVEYED MAJOR ITF.?4S

AND ARSAS SURVEYED
SO. AKERICA SO. AMERICA
EDROPE, EUROPE,
AFRICA, AFRICA,
UNITED NORTH MIDDLE AND TOTAL UNITED NORTH MIDDLE AND TOTAL
m AMERIcA FAR EAST m a AMERICA FAR EAST *
Total Fields in Survey 204 21s 121 339 ProductionCasing - Number of fields 178 187 90 277

Percentageof Fields

Total Depth [ft~ Depth (feet~

O - 6,000 36% 35% 41% 37% Less than 6000 49% 48% 50% 48%
6,001 - 10,000 37 37 36 37 6001-10,000 35 35 39 37
10,001 - 15,000 1s 17 15 17 10,001-15,000 14 15 9 13
15,000+ 9 11 8 9 15,000+ 2 2 2 2

Cash - Hole Size

4-1/2 - 6-1/4, 6-1/2, 7-7f8, 8-1/2 42 40 27
MAJOR IlT2.18
AND ABEAR SURVEYEO 5-1/2 - 7-7/S, 8-1[4, 8-3/4 47 45 3: 43
so. A14ER2cA 7 - 8-1/2, 8-3/4, 9-1[2, 9-7[8 6 7 37 17
SUROPE, 7-518 - 9-5/8 -- 3 1
AFRICA, 9-5/8 - 12-1/4 -- 19 6
NORTH MIDDLS ANO TOTAL Other 5 8 2 6
AlOfSICA FAR EAST *
- API Class A-B 20 19 35 24
SurfaceCasinE - Number of Fields 204 218 121 339 c 3 3 .. 2
G 23 27 60 38
Percentageof Fields H 54 51 1 35
Other -- -- t! 1
Depth (feet~
o - 500 42% 40% 31% 37Z CasiR EquipmentUsed
501 - 1000 20 21 31 24 Guide or Float Shoe 100 100 100 100
1001+ 38 39 3s 39 Float Cnllar 814 85 39 70
Centralizers 85 85 92 87
Cas inu (Hole Size-Inches) Other - StaSe TOOIS, Basketc,etc. 20 21 46 29
8-5/8 - 9-5/!3,10, 12-1/4,12-1/2 51 48 31
9-518 - 10-3/4, 12-1/4,12-1/2 19 20 2.7 21
10-3/4 - 11-1/2, 13-1/2,14-3[4 6 6 1s 11 MAJOR IT7?W,AND ARSAS SURVEYED
13-3/8 - 17-1/2 13 12 35 20 SO. AMERICA
20 - 26 7 7 20 11 EUROPE,
Other 4 7 -- 5 AFRICA,
UNITED NORTH MIDDLE AND TOTAL
S API Class A 40 3s 61 46 - AMERICA FAR EAST s
c 9 9 -- 20
G 1s 22 39 14 Liner (Casing) - Number of fields .45 53 45 98
H 24 22 -- 14
Other 9 9 -- 6 Percentageof Fields
Casinp,EquipmentUsed Length of Liner (feet)
Guide or Float Shoe 91 -90 93 91 Less than 3000 60% 55% 71% 62%
Float Collar 78 77 22 57 3001-6000 36 38 29 34
Centralizers 67 66 47 59 6000+ 4 7 -- 4
Other .- 1 7 3
Depth (feet)
Less than 10,000 18 19 29 23
10,001 - 15,000 29 26 35 31
MAJOR ITEMS AND AREAS SUWSTSD 15,001 - 17,500 38 38 9 24
SO. AMERIcA 17,501+ 15 17 27 22
EUROPE,
AFRICA; Liner - Hole Size
NORTH KIDDLE AND 4-112 - 6-1/4 2 8 11 9
AmRIlx FAR EAST WORLD1 5 - 6, 6-1/2, 6-314 11 13 24 18
5-1/2 - 6-1/2, 6-314 24 21 .- 11
I IntermediateCasinR - Number of fields 61 71 96 167 6-5/8 - 7-7/8 5 4 -- 2
7 - 8-1/2, 8-3!4, 9-1/2 44 40 53 46
7-5/8 - 8-1[2 7 9 11 10
7-7/8 - 8-1/2 7 5 -- 3
Other -- -. -- --
42.% 56Z 50%
22 22 22 X API (lass A -- -- 7 3
I lo, ool-i5,000 25 25 16 20 c .- .. --
10 6 8 G 20 32 78 53
Ii 73 62 4 36
I Cas@ - Hole Size
7 - 8-1/2 7 8
10
13
--
11
4 Casing EquipmentUsed
Other 7 6 11 8

20 -- 8 Guide m Float Shcw 100 93 97

100
42 48 46 Float Collar 100 100 51 78
10-3/4 - 14-3/4 -- 3 6 5 Centralizers 56 60 56 58
13-3/8 - 17-1/2 5 9 27 19 Other -- -- 7 3
18-5/8 - 23 -- -. 6 4
Other 10 8 -- 4

I - API Class A-B 10 9 31 22

c 13 11 -- 5
32 65 51
47 -- 20
I Other 2 1 4 3

94 96 95
I
93 52 70
I Centralizers 79 76
.-
64 69
36 20

110

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 (72)M
( 5ji ,, ,.
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Complete Cement Sheath
withoutMud or Gas Ctmnnels

Cmg
DsplacemenlFlutd QP
,<,
:
d

m-m k !.
Csment Bonded
To Fwmations

Cement Bondsc

F
To Casing

Cement Slurry
Slurry ,s .m.lated. wghed. Pay Zone
and adw$kd
I

1
Dcwnhole
],, :,

Fig. 2Objectives of a primary cementing job.

D + 3 (7.62 cm)

:,,:
.,.,. ~, :,: FTopsrlyCond!tmned Hole
,,, , ., & Mud
,, ,,
,, ,, No Sloughing
.,,
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., .:.,
,, ,, Gauge Diameter
. ,,,
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., Straight As %sstble
,,,, ,:
,,.
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Fig. 1Subsurface cementing equipment (Ref. 3). , .,,. .,
.,, ,. ,,, ,
No Flow
, .:,,,, ,,
,. ,,,
:,, :.,,: :,, , NO Last Chwlat[on

8 ., .;<,, ,. ,
,.. ,, .,,,:,,,,:.. ,,
CONTROLLED
PRESSURE TEMPERATURE
TEST CELL
~DEBRIS SCREEN

INLET
RESSURE --1 F+==h
i AK EXHAUSi OUTLET
I
I Fig. 3The cementable wellbore.
II II\\ fATMopHER[cPR=S)

-HEATING
ELEMENTS

LINER CEMENTING
FLOAT COLLAR
OR FLOAT SHOE
Jk-=E2LJ L=J L

I
SYNTHETIC ~ ,W,
,.m,xo,.,,
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,.., 0+

m .,,
., .I!2QKJQ8 f PMw&!H
TEMPERATURE RANGE 70 F (21 lCI 4009F (204 C) Ltw

PRESSURE RANGE O 5,000 psi (S4,400 kPa) .,,

ki!! \

Fig. 4API floating equipment. Fig. 5Liners for deep wells (Ref. 3).

111

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COnhl,nat,on

G..d Cement
$, f .,
LMillableor
Re!r,evable Packet
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, -:/ :.:.
Casing
j,:
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P.ssibly No

cement Cement
; ,, ,
Cement
;$ Csment Aoprox.
, cement Appmx 80e. of Line
t 80. .t Liner
~ -

CONVENTIONAL EXCESSIVE CEMENT PLANNED LINER PLANNED SQUEEZE

REVERSE EXCESS TO BE ORILLED OUT SQUEEZE TRIP WITH RETRIEVABLE
CEMENT OUT OF HOLE PACKER

~lg. 6Techniques for placing cement around liner (Ref. 3).

:: :,
:.
t!- .,
.. .?
1 i 7
EXISTING CEMENT
SHEATH

1 CEMENTFROM
b < sQUEEZE JOB

Fig. 7Results of high-pressure squeeze Fig. 8Results of low-pressure squeeze

of perforations. of perforations.

SEITING DOWNHOLE PLUGS

9,0 PPG
I
.. ;1:
.$
.. SPACER ,.
,.
,. I
. . ,:, . . . R
.:. ,,. . ,,

.,. . ,, .:. ,4.:.

16-17,5
. . . . . .. . ,..
. . .... . C;M~NT .,-.. I
,. ..
. .
. . .
. .. I
9.0 Pm :
4
MUD . .
, ..
,. .. ,
![ . . .
IDEALIZED EXPERIMENTAL RECOMMENDED TECHNIQUES
CASE RESULTS

Fig. 9Abandonment (Ref. 3).

112

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