Electronic Circuits

ECE 271
Electronic Circuits I
Topic 1
Introduction to Electronics
Chap 1 - 1
NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov
Topic Goals
Explore the history of electronics.

Describe classification of electronic signals.
Introduce tolerance impacts and analysis.
NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov Chap 1 - 2

1. The Subject of the Course
The subject of the course is modern electronics, or

microelectronics.
Microelectronics refers to the integrated-circuit (IC)
technology
IC can contains hundreds of millions of components
on a IC chip with the area of the order 100 sq. mm.
Subject of study:
- electronic components/devices that can be used singly
(discrete circuits)
- electronic components/devices that can be used as
components of the IC

2. Brief History
The Start of the Modern Electronics Era
It can be said that the invention of the transistor and the subsequent development of the
microelectronics have done more to shape the modern era than any other invention.
Bardeen, Shockley, and Brattain at Bell The first germanium bipolar transistor.
Labs - Brattain and Bardeen invented Roughly 50 years later, electronics
the bipolar transistor in 1947. account for 10% (4 trillion dollars) of
the world GDP.
Chap 1 - 4
Electronics Milestones
1874 Braun invents the solid-state 1958 Integrated circuits developed by

rectifier (using point contact based on lead Kilby (TI) and Noyce and Moore
sulphide) (Fairchild Semiconductor)
1906 DeForest invents triode vacuum 1961 First commercial IC from Fairchild
tube. Semiconductor
1907-1927 1963 IEEE formed from merger of IRE
First radio circuits developed from and AIEE
diodes and triodes. 1968 First commercial IC opamp
1925 Lilienfeld field-effect device patent 1970 One transistor DRAM cell invented
filed. by Dennard at IBM.
1947 Bardeen and Brattain at Bell 1971 4004 Intel microprocessor
Laboratories invent bipolar introduced.
transistors. 1978 First commercial 1-kilobit memory.
1952 Commercial bipolar transistor 1974 8080 microprocessor introduced.
production at Texas Instruments. 1984 Megabit memory chip introduced.
1956 Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley 1995 Gigabite memory chip presented.
receive Nobel prize.

Chap 1 - 5
Evolution of Electronic Devices
Vacuum Discrete
Tubes Transistors
SSI and MSI VLSI

Integrated Surface-Mount
Circuits Circuits

Chap 1 - 6
Evolution of Electronic Devices
A work of art from the Museum of Modern Art, Paris

Chap 1 - 7
Microelectronics Proliferation
The integrated circuit was invented in 1958.
World transistor production has more than doubled every
year for the past twenty years.

Every year, more transistors are produced than in all
previous years combined.
Approximately 1018 transistors were produced in a recent
year.

year.
To compare:
Number of cells in a human body -
Chap 1 - 10
year.
To compare:
Number of cells in a human body - 1014
Chap 1 - 11
year.
To compare:
Number of seconds elapsed since Big Bang

year.
To compare:
Number of seconds elapsed since Big Bang 1017

year.
To compare:
Number of ants in the world -

year.
To compare:
Number of ants in the world - roughly 50 transistors for every ant
in the world.
*Source: Gordon Moores Plenary address at the 2003 International Solid State Circuits
Conference.
Rapid Increase in Density of
Microelectronics
Memory chip density Microprocessor complexity

versus time. versus time.

Chap 1 - 16
Device Feature Size
Feature size reductions enabled by
process innovations.
Smaller features lead to more
transistors per unit area and therefore
higher density.
SSI small scale integration (< 102)

MSI medium SI (102- 103)
LSI large SI (103- 104)
VLSI very large SI (104- 109)
ULSI & GSI ultra large SI & giga-
scale integration (> 109)

Chap 1 - 17
3. Types of Signals
Analog signals take on
continuous values - typically
current or voltage.

Chap 1 - 18
3. Types of Signals
current or voltage.
Digital signals appear at
discrete levels (do not confuse
with discrete times).

Chap 1 - 19
3. Types of Signals
current or voltage.
Digital signals appear at
discrete levels (do not confuse
with discrete times).
Usually we use binary signals
with only two levels - VL and VH
One level is referred to as
logical 1 and logical 0 is
assigned to the other level.
Typically:
VL 0V , VH 5V - was
standard for many years
VL 0V , VH 3.3, 2.5,1.5V -
used now.
Bipolar levels also exist

Chap 1 - 20
Analog and Digital Signals
Analog signal
Analog signals usually are

continuous in time and in
values.

Chap 1 - 21
Analog signal Discrete time signal
Analog signals usually are Sampled, discrete time signals are

continuous in time and in discrete in time (values are
values. typically separated by fixed time
intervals).
The values are continuous.
Needs digitization.

Chap 1 - 22
Sampled discrete time signal

Chap 1 - 23
Sampled discrete time signal Digitized discrete time signal -

discrete time and digitized
discrete values.
The values are not continuous
belong to a finite set.

Chap 1 - 24

discrete values.

Chap 1 - 25

discrete values.

Chap 1 - 26
Digital-to-Analog (D/A) Conversion
The input is a binary number
b {b1b2 ...bn }, f .i. {1001011}
Lets introduce
VFS = Full-Scale Voltage
and then define

Chap 1 - 27
b {b1b2 ...bn }, f .i. {1001011}
Lets introduce
and then define
The least significant bit (LSB) - the smallest possible binary number
(smallest voltage change) is known as resolution of the converter.
VLSB 2 n VFS , f .i. {0000001}

Chap 1 - 28
b {b1b2 ...bn }, f .i. {1001011}
Lets introduce
and then define
VLSB 2 n VFS , f .i. {0000001}
The most significant bit (MSB) - VMSB ?

Chap 1 - 29
b {b1b2 ...bn }, f .i. {1001011}
Lets introduce
and then define
VLSB 2 n VFS , f .i. {0000001}
The most significant bit (MSB) - VMSB 21VFS , f .i. {1000000}

Chap 1 - 30
b {b1b2 ...bn }, f .i. {1001011}
Lets introduce
and then define
VLSB 2 n VFS , f .i. {0000001}
Then for an n-bit D/A converter, the output voltage is expressed as:
VO (b1 21 b2 22 ... bn 2 n )VFS

Chap 1 - 31
b {b1b2 ...bn }, f .i. {1001011}
Lets introduce
and then define
VLSB 2 n VFS , f .i. {0000001}
VO (b1 21 b2 22 ... bn 2 n )VFS
(b1 2n 1 b2 2n 2 ... bn 20 )2 n VFS

Chap 1 - 32
b {b1b2 ...bn }, f .i. {1001011}
Lets introduce
and then define
VLSB 2 n VFS , f .i. {0000001}
VO (b1 21 b2 22 ... bn 2 n )VFS
(b1 2n 1 b2 2n 2 ... bn 20 )2 n VFS
(b1 2n 1 b2 2n 2 ... bn 20 )VLSB
Chap 1 - 33
Analog-to-Digital (A/D) Conversion
Analog input voltage Vx is converted to the nearest n-bit number that

represent VO - the closest (WRT to the accuracy = VLSB /2) value to
the Vx
VO (b1 21 b2 22 ... bn 2 n )VFS
(b1 2n 1 b2 2n 2 ... bn 20 )VLSB
Output is approximation of input due to the limited resolution of the

n-bit output. Error is expressed as:
V Vx (b1 21 b2 22 ... bn 2 n )VFS

Chap 1 - 34
A/D Converter Transfer Characteristic
(input-output)

Chap 1 - 35
(input-output)

Chap 1 - 36
(input-output)

Chap 1 - 37
(input-output)

(input-output)
VFS
VLSB / 2
16

(input-output)
VFS
VLSB / 2
16

Chap 1 - 40
(input-output)
VFS
VLSB / 2
16

Chap 1 - 41
(input-output)
VFS
VLSB / 2
16

Chap 1 - 42
(input-output)
VFS
VLSB / 2
16

Chap 1 - 43
(input-output)
VFS
VLSB / 2
16

Chap 1 - 44
(input-output)
VFS
VLSB / 2
16

Chap 1 - 45
(input-output)

Chap 1 - 46
4. Notational Conventions
In many circuits the signal will be a combination of the dc and time
varying values.
Total signal = DC bias + time varying signal
vT VDC vsig
iT I DC isig
Resistance and conductance - R and G with same subscripts will
denote reciprocal quantities. Most convenient form will be used within
expressions.
1 1
Gx and g
Rx r

Chap 1 - 47
5. Circuit Theory Review: Thvenin and
Norton Equivalent Circuits
Thvenin
Norton

Chap 1 - 48
Thvenin
Norton

Chap 1 - 49
Thvenin
Norton

Chap 1 - 50
Circuit Theory Review: Find the
Thvenin Equivalent Voltage
Problem: Find the Thvenin

equivalent voltage at the output.
Solution Approach: Voltage
source vth is defined as the
output voltage with no load.

Chap 1 - 51

Chap 1 - 52
Applying KCL at the output node,

vo vi vo
i1 0
R1 RS
vo vi
Current i1 can be written as: i1
R1
Substituting into previous expression:
1 1 1 1 RS
vo vi , vo vi
R1 RS R1 1 RS R1

Chap 1 - 53
Thvenin Equivalent Voltage (cont.)
Using the given component values:

1 RS 50 11 k
vo vi vi 0.718vi
1 RS R1 50 11 k 20 k
and
v th 0.718v i

Chap 1 - 54
Thvenin Equivalent Resistance

Chap 1 - 55
Thvenin Equivalent Resistance
Problem: Find the Thvenin

equivalent resistance.
Solution Approach: Find Rth as
the output equivalent
resistance with independent
sources set to zero.
Test voltage vx has been added to the
previous circuit. Applying vx and
solving for ix allows us to find the
Thvenin resistance as vx/ix.

Chap 1 - 56
Thvenin Equivalent Resistance (cont.)
Applying KCL,
vx
i1 i1 ix 0
RS
vx
where i1
R1
v 1 ( 1) RS R1
we get ix x vx 0 , or ix vx 0
RS R1 R1 RS
vx RS R1 (1 k)(20 k)
Rth 282
ix ( 1) RS R1 (50 1)(1 k) 20 k

Chap 1 - 57
Circuit Theory Review: Find the Norton
Equivalent Circuit
Problem: Find the Norton

equivalent circuit.
Solution approach: Evaluate
current through output short
circuit.

Chap 1 - 58
Equivalent Circuit

Chap 1 - 59
Equivalent Circuit
Problem: Find the Norton

equivalent circuit.
Solution approach: Evaluate
current through output short
circuit.
A short circuit has been applied

across the output. The Norton
current is the current flowing
through the short circuit at the
output.

Chap 1 - 60
Equivalent Circuit (cont.)
Applying KCL,
i1 i1 in 0
0 vi vi
Where 1 i
R1 R1
1
Thus in vi
R1 Short circuit at the output causes
zero current to flow through RS.
50 1 vi
in vi (2.55 mS)vi
20 k 392
Rth is equal to Rth found earlier.
Chap 1 - 61
Final Thvenin and Norton Circuits
vth = 0.718vi in = (2.55x10-3)vi
Check of Results: Note that vth = inRth and this can be used to check the
calculations: inRth=(2.55 mS)vi(282 ) = 0.719vi, accurate within
round-off error.

Chap 1 - 62
6. Signal spectrum
Any periodic signal can be represented in the form of Fourier series:

v(t ) a0 ak cos k0t bk sin k0t
k 0
t0 T t0 T t0 T
1 2 2
a0
T
t0
v(t )dt , ak
T
t0
v(t ) cos k0 dt , bk
T
t0
v(t )sin k0dt
T is the period of the function; ak , bk Fourier coefficients,

0=2/T (rad/s) is the fundamental radian frequency and f0=1/T (Hz) is the
fundamental frequency of the signal. 2f0, 3f0, 4f0 , .. are called the
harmonic frequencies.

Alternative representation: v(t ) A0 Ak cos(k0 t k )
k 0
bk
A0 a0 , Ak ak bk , k tan
2 2 1
ak

Chap 1 - 63
Fourier Series example
For example, a square wave is represented by the following Fourier series:
2VO 1 1
v(t) VDC sin 0 t sin3 0 t sin5 0 t ...
3 5
Signal Spectrum
The spectrum of the periodic signal is the graph of the Fourier coefficients
vs the harmonic frequencies.
Periodic signals have discrete spectra.
Non periodic signals have continuous spectra often occupying a broad

range of frequencies.
Chap 1 - 64
Frequencies of Some Common Signals
Audible sounds 20 Hz - 20 KHz
Baseband TV 0 - 4.5 MHz
FM Radio 88 - 108 MHz
Television (Channels 2-6) 54 - 88 MHz
Television (Channels 7-13) 174 - 216 MHz
Maritime and Govt. Comm. 216 - 450 MHz
Cell phones and other wireless 1710 - 2690 MHz
Satellite TV 3.7 - 4.2 GHz
Wireless Devices 5.0 - 5.5 GHz
Show the Fourier applet here

7. Circuit Element Variations
All electronic components have manufacturing tolerances.
Resistors can be purchased with 10%, 5%, and
1% tolerance. (IC resistors are often 10%.)
Capacitors can have asymmetrical tolerances such as +20%/-50%.
Power supply voltages typically vary from 1% to 10%.
Device parameters will also vary with temperature and age.
Circuits must be designed to accommodate these
variations.
We will use worst-case and Monte Carlo (statistical)
analysis to examine the effects of component parameter
variations.

Tolerance Modeling
For symmetrical parameter variations
Pnom(1 - ) P Pnom(1 + )
Pnom - is the parameter specification
- is the tolerance
For example, a 10K resistor with 5% percent tolerance
could exhibit the resistance in the following range of values:
10k(1 - 0.05) R 10k(1 + 0.05)
9,500 R 10,500
Chap 1 - 67
Circuit Analysis with Tolerances
Worst-case analysis
Parameters are manipulated to produce the worst-case min and
max values of desired quantities.
This can lead to over design since the worst-case combination of
parameters is rare.
It may be less expensive to discard a rare failure than to design for
100% yield.

Circuit Analysis with Tolerances
Worst-case analysis
Parameters are manipulated to produce the worst-case min and
max values of desired quantities.
This can lead to over design since the worst-case combination of
parameters is rare.
It may be less expensive to discard a rare failure than to design for
100% yield.
Monte-Carlo analysis
Parameters are randomly varied to generate a set of statistics for
desired outputs.
Based on that we calculate the average values and optimize the
design so that failures due to parameter variation are less frequent
than failures due to other mechanisms.
In this way, the design difficulty is better managed than a worst-
case approach.

Worst Case Analysis Example
Problem: Find the nominal and
worst-case values for output
voltage and source current.
Solution:
Unknowns: VOnom, VOmin ,
VOmax, IInom, IImin, IImax .
Approach: Find nominal values
and then select R1, R2, and VI
values to generate extreme cases
of the unknowns.
Nominal Source current: Nominal voltage solution:

nom
VInom R
I Inom nom VOnom VInom nom 1 nom
R1 R2nom R1 R2

15V
278 A 18k
18k 36k 15V 5V
18k 36k

Chap 1 - 70
Worst-Case Analysis Example (cont.)
Now we need to figure out how to find the min and max possible of the
voltage and current in question.

Rewrite VO to help us determine how to find the worst-case values.
R1 V
VO VI I
R1 R2 R2
1
R1

Chap 1 - 72
R1 V VO is maximized for max VI, R1 and min R2.

VO VI I
R1 R2 R2
1 VO is minimized for min VI, R1, and max R2.
R1

Chap 1 - 73

VO VI I
R1 R2 R2
R1
VImax 15V (1.1)

V O
max
5.87V
R2min 1 36 K (0.95)
1 max
R1 18K (1.05)

Chap 1 - 74

VO VI I
R1 R2 R2
R1
VImax 15V (1.1) VImin 15V (0.90)

V O
max
5.87V V O
min
4.20V
R2min 1 36 K (0.95) R2max 1 36 K (1.05)
1 max 1 min
R1 18K (1.05) R1 18K (0.95)

Chap 1 - 75
Worst-case source currents:
VImax 15V (1.1)

IImax min min 322A
R1 R2 18k(0.95) 36k(0.95)

Chap 1 - 76
VImax 15V (1.1)

IImax min min 322A
R1 R2 18k(0.95) 36k(0.95)
VImin 15V (0.9)

IImin max max 238A
R1 R2 18k(1.05) 36k(1.05)


Chap 1 - 77
VImax 15V (1.1)

IImax min min 322A
R1 R2 18k(0.95) 36k(0.95)
VImin 15V (0.9)

IImin max max 238A
R1 R2 18k(1.05) 36k(1.05)

Check of Results: The worst-case values range from 14-17 percent

above and below the nominal values. The sum of the three element
tolerances is 20 percent, so our calculated values appear to be
reasonable.

Chap 1 - 78
Monte Carlo Analysis
All parameters are selected randomly from the possible distributions
Circuit is analysis is performed and solution is found
Many such solutions are performed and statistics are gathered.
The analysis can be done using programs like MATLAB, Mathcad,

SPICE, or a spreadsheet to complete a statistically significant set of
calculations.
For example, with Excel, a resistor with 5% tolerance can be
expressed as: R Rnom(1 2(RAND() 0.5))
The RAND() function returns

random numbers uniformly
distributed between 0 and 1.

Monte Carlo Analysis Result
WC WC
Histogram of output voltage from 1000 case Monte Carlo simulation.

Chap 1 - 80
Monte Carlo Analysis Example
Problem: Perform a Monte Carlo

analysis and find the mean, standard
deviation, min, and max for VO, IS,
and power delivered from the source.
Solution:
Unknowns: The mean, standard
deviation, min, and max for VO, IS,
and PS.
Approach: Use a spreadsheet to
evaluate the circuit equations with
random parameters.

Chap 1 - 81
Monte Carlo Analysis Example (cont.)
Monte Carlo parameter definitions:

VI 15(1 0.2( RAND() 0.5))
R1 18, 000(1 0.1( RAND() 0.5))
R2 36, 000(1 0.1( RAND() 0.5))
Circuit equations based on Monte Carlo parameters:
R1 VI
VO VI II PI VI II
R1 R2 R1 R2
Results:
Avg Nom. Stdev Max WC-max Min WC-Min
Vo (V) 4.96 5.00 0.30

5.70 5.87 4.37 4.20
II (mA) 0.276 0.278 0.0173 0.310 0.322 0.242 0.238
P (mW) 4.12 4.17 0.490 5.04 -- 3.29 --

Chap 1 - 82
Temperature Coefficients
Most circuit parameters are temperature sensitive.

P = Pnom(1+1T+ 2T2) where T = T-Tnom
Pnom is defined at Tnom
Most versions of SPICE allow for the specification
of TNOM, T, TC1(1), TC2(2).
SPICE temperature model for resistor:
R(T) = R(TNOM)*[1+TC1*(T-TNOM)+TC2*(T-TNOM)2]
Many other components have similar models.

Numeric Precision
Most circuit parameters vary from less than +- 1 %

to greater than +- 50%.
As a consequence, more than three significant digits
is meaningless.
Results in the text will be represented with three
significant digits: 2.03 mA, 5.72 V, 0.0436 A, and
so on.

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ECE 271

Explore the history of electronics.

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov Chap 1 - 2

The subject of the course is modern electronics, or

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov Chap 1 - 3

1874 Braun invents the solid-state 1958 Integrated circuits developed by

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov

SSI and MSI VLSI

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov

A work of art from the Museum of Modern Art, Paris

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov Chap 1 - 8

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov Chap 1 - 9

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov Chap 1 - 12

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov Chap 1 - 13

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov Chap 1 - 14

Memory chip density Microprocessor complexity

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov

SSI small scale integration (< 102)

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov

Analog signals usually are

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov

Analog signals usually are Sampled, discrete time signals are

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov

Sampled discrete time signal

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov

Sampled discrete time signal Digitized discrete time signal -

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov

Sampled discrete time signal Digitized discrete time signal -

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov

Sampled discrete time signal Digitized discrete time signal -

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov

Analog input voltage Vx is converted to the nearest n-bit number that

Output is approximation of input due to the limited resolution of the

V Vx (b1 21 b2 22 ... bn 2 n )VFS

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov Chap 1 - 38

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov Chap 1 - 39

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov

Problem: Find the Thvenin

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov

Applying KCL at the output node,

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov