ECE ELECTIVE 2 NAVIGATIONAL AIDS

Hisoler, Bernie
Mansonata, Romnick
Orang, Ronald

CELESTIAL NAVIGATION
DEFINITION

Celestial navigation, also known as astronavigation, is the ancient art and science of
position fixing that enables a navigator to transition through a space without having to rely on
estimated calculations, or dead reckoning, to know their position. Celestial navigation uses
"sights," or angular measurements taken between a celestial body (the sun, the moon, a planet
or a star) and the visible horizon.

HISTORY OF CELESTIAL NAVIGATION / PEOPLE INVOLVED

Celestial navigation has been with us since the beginning of time. Various civilizations
have used it, some like the Polynesians, with remarkable and extremely daring skills. Indicated
below are significant milestones in the development of celestial navigation. The persons or
people involved in such development are also noted whose ideas lead to the generation of
instruments to further improve this navigational method. This shall provide a glimpse on how
development took place which has eventually initiated the creation of modern navigational
systems like GPS among others.

More than 3,500 years ago, people realized that the sun could be used to tell the time of
day. As a result, they learned how to construct instruments called Sundials.
Compass was first used in China in the 400 BC in Feng Shui (geomancy). The first
Compass was a simple piece of lodestone floating on water that pointed South.Following
on from this, flat pieces of iron were used instead which, when magnetized by lodestone
which is a naturally occurring magnetic ore. This was then replaced with a needle by the
6th Century.
The Quadrant was the first altitude-measuring instrument developed for use in celestial
navigation, dating back to the 15th century. Its first recorded use at sea was by Diego
Gomes in 1461.
The origins of the Astrolabe were in classical Greece and it was originally an elaborate
astronomers instrument used for finding the position of celestial bodies. In about 1480,
the astrolabe was adapted for maritime use.
The Cross-staff, or Jacobs staff, is believed to be invented around 400 BC by the
Chaldeans but was used mainly by the astronomers. Only in 1514, Johann Werner
proposed to use it for navigation.
 In about 1594 John Davis, an English captain, developed a simple Back-staff which
eliminated the problems encountered when using the Cross-staff. Davis' Back-staff was
intended to be an improvement on the mariners' quadrants, astrolabes and cross-staves.
Around the late 1600's and early 1700's, there was a huge advancement in the design of
instrument for measuring angles. Instrument makers were shifting their focus to optical
systems based on mirrors and prisms. The critical development was made
independently and almost simultaneously by John Hadley in England and by Thomas
Godfrey, a Philadelphia glazier, about 1731 with the invention of the Octant.
Although the idea of using a Chronometer to calculate longitude dates from the 13th
century, the Chronometer itself was not made until the 18th century by a skilled English
clock-maker, John Harrison. John and his brother, James, were so successful at
correcting the existing causes of inaccuracies in clocks that by 1726, they had
manufactured two clocks which lost no more than 1 second a month. This was a
remarkable achievement and advanced far beyond any existing technologies of that
time.
o The first of Harrisons series of five sea-clocks (chronometers) was completed in
1735. The major improvement was that the pendulum originally used in the clock
was replaced by a balance spring with two 5 pound weights connected by brass
arcs.
o In 1739 H2 was completed. H2 was tall and heavier but it took up less deck
space. The main innovation in the mechanism of H2, one which Harrison used in
all his subsequent longitude time-keepers was a remontoire.
o By 1741 John Harrison had commenced H3. His aim was to achieve a uniform
running of the clock. H3 was fairly similar to H2 but it was slightly shorter, lighter
and had circular balances instead of dumb-bell shapes. A bi-metallic curb was
used to allow for variations in temperature.
o After the creation of H3, Harrison immediately began work on H4, which was his
most famous and important timekeeper. H4 was definitely a breakthrough as its
diameter was only 5.25 inches.
o Harrisons final longitude time-keeper H5 had been completed in 1772 and was
mechanically very similar to H4.

FUNDAMENTAL MEASUREMENTS

Direction, the easiest to find of the three, is defined using four cardinal points: North,
South, East and West. In the Northern Hemisphere, North can be found by locating
the Polaris while in the Southern Hemisphere, South can be found similarly using the Southern
Cross. Alternatively, direction could be told by means of a compass.

Latitude is slightly harder to find in the sense that it is more difficult to obtain accurate
readings. The instruments employed in finding latitude share two common problems. Firstly,
they are weather dependent and cannot be used when the sky is overcast because the view of
the celestial objects is obscured. Secondly, they do not function properly under the unstable
conditions of a ship.
 Time is a quantity measured in hours, minutes and seconds. Many centuries ago,
scientists discovered that time was the key to finding longitude on Earth. The counter-clockwise
rotation of the Earth resulted in areas of different longitude having different sunrise and sunset
timings, thus giving rise to different time zones.By finding the difference in time in different time
zones, the separation in terms of longitude could be obtained.

INSTRUMENTS

A Sundial indicates the time of day from the shadow cast by the sun.
The Compass works on one fundamental principle: Earth itself is a big magnet.
A magneticcompass consists of a small, lightweight magnet (generally a needle with one
end often marked "N" for North), balanced on a nearly frictionless pivot point
A Quadrantis a very simple device in the form of a quarter circlewith degreegraduations
along the arc used to determine latitude.
Astrolabe was originally used by astronomers to find the position of the stars and
planets.
o A Mariner's Astrolabealso called seaastrolabe, was an inclinometer used to
determine the latitude of a ship at sea by measuring the sun's noon altitude
A Cross Staffis made up of a long staff, and four shorter sliding cross pieces of varying
length, that moves up and down the longer staff. The observer will shift the cross piece
until its upper and lower edges is in line with the celestial body and the horizon
respectively.
The (Davis) Back Staff is used by facing away from the sun, sighting upon the horizon,
adjusting a cursor until its shadow falls upon the sight through which the horizon
appears, and measuring the resulting arc.
Octants and Sectants are reflecting instruments used primarily in navigation.
o Octant - instrument's arc is one eighth of a circle
o Sextant - instrument's arc is one sixth of a circle
A Nocturnal is a primitive navigational tool used to tell time at night through the celestial
clock (stars). One of its ring is to be set to date, the Polaris is to be sighted at the center,
and the arm is to be swung to align with the pointer stars (Ursa Major or Ursa Minor).
Chronometersaretimepieces or timing deviceswith a special mechanism for ensuring
and adjusting its accuracy.

MODERN CELESTIAL NAVIGATION

Indicated below are further advancements in celestial navigation in todays dispensation, which
will depict how this navigational method evolved from simple primitive to highly sophisticated
and complex applications.

Quartz Crystal Marine Chronometershave replaced spring-driven chronometers

aboard many ships because of their greater accuracy. They are maintained on GMT
directly from radio time signals. This eliminates chronometer error (CE) and watch error
(WE) corrections.
 Navigational Calculators is certainly one of the professional navigators most useful
tools is the navigational calculator or computerprogram. Calculators eliminate several
potential sources of error in celestial navigation, and permit the solution of many more
sights in much less time, making it possible to refine a celestial position much more
accurately than is practical using mathematical or tabular methods

A Star Tracker is an optical device that measures the position(s) of star(s) using
photocell(s) or a camera. A variation on terrestrial celestial navigation was used to help
orient the Apollo spacecraft en route to and from the Moon. To this day, space missions,
such as the Mars Exploration Rover use star trackers to determine the attitude of the
spacecraft.

Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles use celestial navigation to check and correct their
course (initially set using internal gyroscopes) while outside the Earth's atmosphere. The
immunity to jamming signals is the main driver behind this apparently archaic technique.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Advantages:

Works anywhere the sky can be seen.

Does not require complex and heavy equipment in the aircraft and a complex array
of ground and/or space-based equipment and infrastructure. Instruments are
portable
Knowing position using known features on the surface is not necessarily required.
It is not subjected to manmade interference.
Used primarily as a backup to satellite and other electronic systems.

Disadvantages:

Requires clear line of sight to celestial bodies in the sky.

Requires a high degree of skill or complex automated equipment.
Celestial navigation is a very laborious task.
It is subject to man-made and equipment error and inaccuracy.