Lecture39 PDF

Module 39
Structural steel II
Lecture 39
Structural steel II

NPTELPhaseII:IITKharagpur:Prof.R.N.Ghosh,DeptofMetallurgicalandMaterialsEngineering|||
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Keywords:Hot&coldworking,effectofgrainrefinementonstrength&toughness,factorsaffecting
ferritegrainsize,austenitegrainsizecontrol,solubilityofNbC,VC,TiC,solubilityproduct,controlled
rolling,recrystallizationcontrolledrolling,dualphasesteel,ausforming
Introduction

Thisisthesecondmoduleonstructuralsteel.Thebulkofthesteelproducedworldovercomes
underthiscategory.Theseareprimarilyusedforloadbearingapplications.Mostoftheseare
made (shaped) from continuously cast billet or slab. These are essentially killed steel having
little alloy addition other than C, Si and Mn. The element that is primarily responsible for its
strengthiscarbon.However,thelast34decadeshave seentheintroductionofinnumerable
numberofnewgradesofsteelwithverylittleadditionofalloyelementsbutwithmuchmore
precise control over the processing parameters at every stages of manufacturing. This is an
excellentexampleofhowourbasicunderstandingoftheunderlyingprinciplesofstrengthening
mechanismhasledtothedevelopmentofhighstrengthlowalloysteel.Thiswillformthemain
focusofthismodule.Themaindrivingforcehasbeenthebenefitsaccruingfrommoreefficient
useofsteelbyreducingtheweightofcriticalengineeringstructures.
Hot/coldworking:

Deformation processing is a critical step for the production of structural steel. Slide 1 would
helpyourecollecttheimportantfeaturesofhotandcoldworking.Hotworkingisdoneabove
theuppercriticaltemperaturewhenthesteeliscompletelyaustenitic.Higherthetemperature
loweristhestressneededtoshapethesteel.Theflowstressremainsnearlyconstantinspiteof
large deformation because of instant recrystallization. Therefore it may be possible to have
very high degree of deformation in every stage of hot working. The usual hot working
temperatureisintherangeof0.90.7timesthemeltingpointofsteel.
Cold working however is accompanied by hardening. Higher stress is needed in successive

stages of deformation. When the steel becomes too hard it is necessary to soften it by
annealing.Thetotalprocesscyclemaythereforeconsistofseveralstagesofcoldworkingand
annealing. During annealing the microstructure of cold worked steel gets restored by re
crystallization. This occurs by nucleation and growth, the two thermally activated processes.
Theexpressionsforthecriticalnucleussize,theactivationbarrierandthenucleationrateare
given in slide 1. Clearly to get fine grains you need to have lower r*, G*, and higher .
Therefore the most favorable condition to get a fine grain structure is a combination of high
2 coldworkandrelativelylowertemperatureofannealing.Duringhotworkingdeformationand
recrystallization may be assumed to be occurring simultaneously. The same concept ofgrain
refinementcanalsobeextendedtohotworkingaswell.
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Hot / cold working

HW: instant re-crystallization on plastic deformation
CW: T < re-crystallization temperature
2 16 3
r* & G*
Gv 3 Gv
2
G* Slide1
N exp
RT
Higher Gv ~ lower Trcrys.& finer grains. To get fine

grains finish rolling done just above recrystallization
temp & not allow time for grains to grow.
The expressions given in slide 1 for r* and G* are valid for homogeneous nucleation only.
Howevertherearealwaysfavorableinterfacespresentinsolidswherenucleationofgrainscan
occurmuchmoreeasily.Thisaspecthasbeenintroducedinmodule7anddiscussedindetailin
module 29. The expressions for r* for both homogeneous and heterogeneous nucleation are
identical. However the activation hill (G*) may be significantly lower than that of
homogeneousnucleation.Thereforealthoughr*remainsunaffectedthenucleationratecould
be much higher depending on the nature of the interfaces (grain boundaries, grain edges or
graincorners).Thiswouldensuretheformationofalargenumberofnuclei.Ifthereisnospace
forthesetogrowtheaveragegrainsizeisexpectedtobefine.Thepresenceoffineprecipitates
that could pin the grain boundaries (do not let these grow) can also significantly contribute
towardsgrainrefinement.Thishas beenexplainedwiththehelpofasetofsketchesinfig1.
Heterogeneous nucleation can also be promoted by introducing extremely fine particles that
couldactasinterfacesfornucleationandalsopintheboundariesofthenewgrainsthatform.
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(a) Fig1:Ifthegrainsareequiaxedthesurfacearea(S)per
unit volume is less. With deformation grains become
elongated.Asaresultthesurfaceareaperunitvolume
would increasesignificantly. This wouldprovide more
(b)
numbers of nucleation sites. Therefore the final grain
sizeafterrecrystallizationislikelytobemuchfiner.
(c)

Grainrefinement:effectonstrength&toughness:

Grainrefinementistheonlymechanismthatincreasesboththestrength()andthetoughness
of a metal. The relationship between the strength and the grain size (d is the average grain
diameter)isbestdescribedbythewellknownHallPetchequation.Thisisgivenby:
/ (1)
Althoughtheatomswithinagrainarearrangedinaregularfashionthereisatotallackoforder
withinathinregionnearagrainboundary.Itisindeeddifficulttohaveaclearideaaboutthe
waytheatomsarearrangedwithinthiszone.Howeverasadislocationglidingonaslipplane
approachesaboundaryitexperiencesarepulsiveforce.Itcouldbemadetodisappearatthe
boundaryprovidedtheforceactingonthedislocationishighenoughtocreateastepresulting
inanincreaseinthenetareaofthegrainboundary.Higherthegrainboundaryenergyhigheris
thestressneededtomovethedislocationintotheboundary.Youmayreferbacktomodule14
torecollectaboutthenatureofgrainboundary.Thesimplestoftheseisthetiltboundary.This
isanarrayofedgedislocationarrangedoneovertheother.Itsenergycanbeestimatedbutitis
much lower than that of a high angle grain boundary that you find in microstructures. The
strength of such boundaries is much higher than that of the individual grains at room
temperatures. However with increasing temperature the strength of the gain and the grain
boundarydecreases.Thisisillustratedwiththehelpofadiagraminslide2.
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Grain refinement: strength & toughness
The only mechanism that improves both
strength & toughness
Trans granular
fracture Cleavage plane: {100}
GB ECT Slide2
f G
GB: crack arrester

T Inter granular
Fine grains are fracture BCC: ferrite
stronger at lower temp lower DBTT
Note that with increasing temperature the strength of the grain boundary decreases more
rapidly than that of the grain. There is a temperature at which the strengths of the two are
equal.Thisisknownastheequicohesivetemperature(ECT).Belowthisgrainboundariesare
stronger whereas above this grains are stronger. This is why coarse grain structures are
preferredforhightemperatureloadbearingapplications.Howeverthebulkofstructuralsteel
is meant for room temperature applications. The best way to have an estimate of ECT is to
examinethenatureofthefailureofthetensiletestspecimensatvarioustemperatures.Below
ECT grains are weaker therefore you expect transgranular failure whereas above ECT grain
boundariesareweakerthereforeyoushouldexpectintergranularfracture.
Slide2alsoexplainstheroleofgrainboundaryasacrackarrester.Steelispronetoductileto
brittletransition.Thisisassociatedwiththeexistence ofcleavageplanesalong which acrack
canpropagateeasily.Thesegregationofinterstitialalongcubeplanesismainlyresponsiblefor
theexistenceofcleavageplanes.Onceacrackinitiatesitpropagatesrapidlythroughthegrain
butitcannotcrosstheboundary.Thisisbecausethenextgrainhasadifferentorientationand
henceadifferentcleavagestrength.Finegrainstructureprovidesmorefrequentcrackarrester
andthereforeitislikelytohavehigherstrength.Whilediscussingheattreatmentofsteelthe
importanceofausteniticgrainsizewashighlighted.Thismaybeimportantforheattreatment
becauseitaffectsthehardenabilityofsteel.Howeverforstructuralapplicationitisthegrain
5 size of ferrite that matters. The aim thermomechanical processing should always be to get
extremelyfineferritegraininthefinalproduct.
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Factorsdeterminingferritegrainsize:

Slide 3 illustrates with the help of a set of diagrams how cooling rate and prior austenite ()
grain size of steel affects final grain size of ferrite () as well as the width of ferrite lamellae
withinpearlite(P).ThesketchontherightshowstwocoolingcurvessuperimposedontheCCT
diagram of hypoeutectoid steel. The initial austenite grain size of the two samples is exactly
thesame.Onethatcoolsslowlyspendsmoretimebetweentheonsetofferriteprecipitation
andthestartofeutectoiddecomposition.Itislikelytohavemorenumbersofrelativelylarger
ferritegrainsandcoarsepearlite.Asagainstthisthesamplethatcoolsfasterspendslesstime
betweentheonsetofferriteprecipitationandthestartofeutectoiddecomposition.Itislikely
to have fewer numbers of relatively fine ferrite grains and fine pearlite nodules. The reasons
areasfollows:
Highercoolingratemeanslowertransformationtemperature(higherGv)
HigherGvmeansloweractivationhill(G*)andhigherrateofnucleation
Thesketchontheleftofslide3showstheeffectofaustenitegrainsizeonthesizeoftheferrite
grains. The austenite grains have been represented by a set of adjacent hexagons. Note that
the number of triple points or the nodes (where 3 grains meet) per unit area is less if the
austenitegrainsizeislarge.Thecriticalsizeofferritenucleihasbeendenotedascircles.The
triples are the preferred sites for the nucleation of ferrite. Note that if the austenite grain is
coarsethereisenoughspacefortheferritegrainstogrow.Inthecaseoffineraustenitegrain
sizethereishardlyanyspaceleftforthegrowthofferritegrains.Thereforetheaverageferrite
grain diameter is expected to less if the austenite grains were finer. In short the following
featuresofprioraustenitearelikelytoaffectferritegrainsize:
Finergrainsmeanshighernumberofnucleationsites
Finergrainsmeanslessspacefortheferritegrainstogrow
Elongated grains means higher S/V ratio. It means more nucleation sites per unit
volume.
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Factors determining ferrite grain size
1. Cooling rate from state

grain size & shape

Slide3
T
CP
FP
Finer grain higher time

the no. of sites
Higher CR : lower transf
Finer grains temp: higher Gv :
lower G* : higher Ndot.

Effectofferritegrainsizeonthestrengthandtoughnessofsteel:

Slide 4 illustrates with the help two plots the effectofferritegrain size on the yield strength
(YS)andimpacttransitiontemperature(ITT)ofsteelingeneral.Theyieldstrength(YS)follows
HallPetchrelationship.NotethatYScouldbeincreasedfrom150MPato450MPabydecreasing
ferrite grain size from 100 to 2.5 (3 fold increase). The ductile to brittle transition
temperature too follows a similar relation but with a negative slope. Note that by grain
refinement ITT can be decreased from 25C (room temperature) to 150C (sub zero
temperature).Thisisprimarilybecausegrainboundariesactascrackarresters.Finerthegrain
higheristhenumberofcrackarrestersperunitvolume.Thereforecrackpropagationislikelyto
bemoredifficult.
Grainboundariesalsoactassinksforimpuritiesinthemetal.Segregationofimpuritiesatthe
grainboundariesmakethemstronger.Thepresenceofimpuritiesalsoactsaspinningagents.
Thismakesgraingrowthdifficult.Howeveriftheamountofimpuritiesishighenoughtoforma
continuousnetworkaroundtheboundariesitmaymakeitbrittle.Thisshouldbeavoided.Grain
refinementisawaytoavoidsuchapossibility.Ifgrainsarefineryouwouldneedhigheramount
of impurities to form a brittle film around the boundaries. Therefore fine grain structures in
generalarelesspronetobrittlefailure.
7
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Effect of GS on strength & toughness
100 2.5 100 2.5
450 25
ITT
Slide4
150 -150
5 1/d 20 5 1/d 20
k
Y 0 Hall Petch relation
d
Austenitegrainsizecontrol:

The bulk of structural steel is made from continuously cast billets or slabs. Hot working
invariably is the primary forming process. The cast billets or slabs are first homogenized at
about12001300C.Theexacttemperaturemayvarydependingonthecompositionofsteel.
The microstructure at this stage is expected to 100% austenite. However the transformation
from ferrite carbide structure at room temperature to homogeneous austenite is a diffusion
controlledprocess.Thecaststructurewouldalwayshavemacroaswellasmicrosegregations.
Longhoursofsoakingmaybenecessarytoremovemicrosegregation.Macrosegregationscan
only be removed by extensive plastic deformation (upset forging). In order to get the finest
possiblestructureafterhotworkingitisnecessarytoexercisepropercontrolonthegrainsize
ofausteniteduringthehomogenizationprocess.Iftheinitialgrainsizeofausteniteisfinethe
finalstructureafterplasticdeformationislikelytobefiner.Oftenitisnecessarytoknowwhat
the size of austenite grain is before deformation starts. Slide 5 describes an experimental
method of determination of austenite grain size. On quenching austenite transforms into
martensite. The transformation is extremely fast. Once a needle or a lath nucleates it travels
from one end of the grain to the other. The needle or the lath cannot cross the austenite
boundary.Thereforeinprinciplethelengthofthelongestneedleoralathwithinagrainisa
measure of its size or diameter. There are special etching reagents to reveal such structures.
8 Often the duration of soaking is fixed. It may be of the order of an hour for 1015mm thick
samples.Heatasetofsamplestodifferenttemperatures.Whenthetemperaturegoesbeyond
A1 pearlite transforms into austenite. However, the austenite may still have undissolved
carbides (C). The sketch on the left of slide 5 shows a time temperature diagram for the
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transformation of steel from F+P structure to homogeneous austenite. You may refer to
module34torecollectthemechanismofastenitization.AlittleaboveA1thestructureconsists
of ferrite (F), austenite (A) and carbide (C). As the temperature goes up ferrite dissolves in
austenite.AtA3thedissolutionofferriteinausteniteiscompleted.Steeloftenhasextremely
fineparticlesofcarbidesandnitridesduetothepresenceofstrongcarbideornitrideforming
alloy elements. The presence of such precipitates act as pinning agents for the grain
boundaries.Aslongassuchprecipitatesarepresentthegrainsdonotgrowveryfast.Beyonda
criticaltemperature(Tc)whentheydissolveunusualgraingrowthoccurs.
Austenite grain growth
A Tc
Tc
GS: d
T A+C
A3
F+A+C A1
F+P
Slide5
time temp
Austenitize & Homogeneous :

quench to get excessive GG
martensite
Theaustenitegrainsizecanbemeasuredfromthemicrostructuresofsamplesquenchedfrom
different temperatures. Plot the average grain diameter as a function of the soaking
temperature.Thesketchontherightofslide5showssuchaplot.Notethatbeyondacritical
temperature (Tc) the grains grow very fast. Heating beyond this point should be avoided.
InherentlyfinegrainsteelhashighTc.Aluminumkilledsteelcomesunderthiscategory.Thisis
because of the presence of extremely fine particles of aluminum oxide and nitride at prior
austenitegrainboundaries.
The presence of carbides and nitrides in microalloyed steel too are extremely effective in
pinningausteniteboundaries.Thispreventsexcessivegraingrowthduringthermomechanical
processing.Theirpresenceincreasesthetemperaturebeyondwhichsuchprecipitatesdissolve.
Thisiswheregraingrowthratemayincrease.Howeverinthepresenceofmicroalloyelements
(suchasNb)insolidsolutionmaystillexertaforceonthegrainboundary.Thisdoesnotallow
9 rapiduncontrolledgrowthofaustenitegrains.
Whatcouldbe donetogetextremely finegrainstructureinsteelafterhotrolling?Themost

effectivewaytodosoistohavealargenumberofultrafineparticlesofcarbides,nitridesor
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oxides at austenite grain boundaries. This is best achieved by adding very small amounts of
strongcarbide,ornitrideformingelementsinsteel.ThemosteffectivealloyadditionsareNb,V
and Ti. All of them have strong affinity for oxygen as well. In order to have the maximum
benefitsuchalloyadditionsaremadeafterthemoltensteeliskilledbyaluminumaddition.The
total amount of such alloy addition hardly exceeds 0.2%. Therefore these are often called
microalloyedsteel.Thefinedispersionsofoxides,nitridesandcarbidesofAl,Nb,TiandVat
austeniteboundariesactasgraingrowthinhibitors.
Apartfrommicroalloyadditionitisalsonecessarytohavetherightcontrolonthetemperature
ofhotworking,theamountreductionperpassandthesubsequentcoolingrate.Therearetwo
differentwaysthiscanbeachievedinpractice.Theseareasfollows:
Controlledrolling(CR)
Recrystallizationcontrolledrolling(RCR)
CR
Hotworkingbelowre Nucleationofferrite
crystallizationtemperature grainsataustenite
Initialaustenite
grainstructure grainboundaries
RCR
Deformedgrain Recrystallizationofand Nucleationofferrite

Initialaustenite simultaneousprecipitation
grainstructure grainsataustenite
ofVNatgrainboundaries grainboundaries
inhibitsgraingrowth.
Fig2:Showsthemaindifferencebetweenthetwodifferentwaysofgeneratingextremely
finegrainsofferriteinmicroalloyedsteel.

During controlled rolling (CR) although most of the deformation is given at the normal hot
working temperature the last stage of rolling is done at a temperature below the re
crystallizationtemperatureofaustenite.Thepresenceofextremelyfinecarbidesandnitridesof
NborTipinsthegrainsofaustenitesoeffectivelythatitsrecrystallizationtemperaturegoes
up. Recrystallization controlled rolling (RCR) is done at a temperature higher than the re
10 crystallization temperature of austenite. The deformed austenite grains get replaced by new
strain free grains of austenite. During this stage precipitation of carbides and nitrides takes
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place.Thefineprecipitateseffectivelypinsthenewlyformedgrains.Thisinhibitsgraingrowth.
Subsequentlythenewgrainsofaustenitegetreplacedbystillfinergrainsofferrite.
The key to development of high strength steel having good ductility and toughness is closely
associated with the formation of extremely fine ferrite grains. This is best achieved by
increasing the number of sites where ferrite can nucleate. In the absence of inclusions most
preferred site is certainly austenite boundaries. The number of sites per unit volume is a
function oftheshapeand size ofaustenitegrains.Clearly theoffine yetelongated austenite
grains would ensure finer ferrite grains in the final product. Apart from high angle grain
boundariesthereareseveralothersiteswherealsoferritegrainsmaynucleate.Someofthese
sites are dislocation, subgrain boundaries, twin boundaries, and ledges within grain
boundaries. They too contribute towards grain refinement during thermomechanical
processing.
Theselectionoftherightalloyingelementwhosecarbide,nitrideoroxidecouldeffectivelypin
the grain boundary of austenite is crucial for the two processing routes forgrain refinement.
Themaincriteriafortheselectionofsuchalloyadditionareasfollows:
HighaffinityforO,N,andC
Lowsolubilityinaustenite
Elements like Al, Nb, Ti and V fulfill these criteria. C and N present in steel would react with
thesetoformcarbidesandnitrides.ForexampleNbpresentassoluteinsteelmayreactwith
dissolvedNtoformNbNasperthefollowingreaction:
Nb+N=NbN:itsequilibriumconstant (2)
[NbN] = activity of NbN. It can be taken as 1 because it is a pure solid. [Nb] = activity of Nb
present as solute in austenite. It is equal to weight fraction Nb (WNb) because it is extremely
small.[N]=activityofsolublenitrogeninaustenite=WN=weightfractionN.Grainboundaries
are the preferred sites for the precipitation of NbN. Slide 6 explains the concept of solubility
product (SP) that determines the amount of carbides or nitrides that form. It is equal to
[Nb][N].
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Solubility product
Nb + N = NbN SP = [Nb][N] = f(T)
[ NbN ] 1
K T2
[ Nb][ N ] WNbWN
T Slide6
G RT ln K H T S Nb
B T1
log K A
T
N
If steel is heated above T2 there is no precipitate

to pin GB. Austenite grains grow rapidly
Theequilibriumconstantofachemicalreactionisafunctionoftemperature.Slide6explains
how from the elementary concepts of chemical thermodynamics an expression for K can be
derived.Thissuggeststhatatagiventemperaturethesolubilityproductisaconstant.Itshould
increasewithtemperature.Thesketchinslide6showstherelationshipbetweentheamounts
ofdissolvedNb&Ninausteniteintheformofasetoftwoplotsattwodifferenttemperatures.
A filled circle in the plot denotes the total Nb & N present in the steel. If the soaking
temperaturegoesbeyondT2allofthesewillbepresentassolidsolution.Therewillnotbeany
NbNprecipitatetopintheboundary.Theaustenitegrainwouldgrowrapidly.
Iftheexpressionforthesolubilityproductisknownsuchplotscaneasilybegenerated.Asan
illustrationthefollowingequationforthesolubilityproductforNbNinaustenitecanbeusedto
generatesuchaplot.Thisisgiveninfig3.
log 1.71(3)
Thesolubilityproductinferritewouldbestillless.Slide7showswiththehelpofaschematic
graphtherelativestabilityofvariouscarbidesandnitridespresentinsteel.Lowerthesolubility
producthigheristhestabilityofthecompound(carbideornitride).Thestabilityofcarbidesand
nitrides decreases with increasing temperature. In general nitrides are more stable than
carbides.Thepresenceofbothhasbeeneffectivelyexploitedtoimprovethestrengthofsteel
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eitherbyrecrystallizationcontrolledrollingorbycontrolledrolling.TheformerusesVwhereas
thelatterusesNb/Tiasmicroalloyadditions.
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0.02
0.015
900
Wt%N
0.01
1000
1100
0.005 1200
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Wt%Nb

Fig3:GivethesolubilityofNinausteniteinthepresenceofNbastrongnitrideformeratfour
different temperatures. The solubility limit is a function of temperature. Let the amounts of
total Nb and N in steel be 0.06 and 0.01 respectively. At 1100C a part of the two will be
presentasgrainboundaryprecipitatesandapartwillbeinausteniteassolutes.Howeverifthe
temperaturegoesbeyond1200CtheentireNbandNwillgointosolution.
Solubility product
NbC VC
Log{(M)(C)}
TiC
VN
AlN TiN Slide7
NbN
High T 6 10000/T 10 Low T
Lower solubility product means higher is the

stability of the precipitate

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Grainrefinementbycontrolledrolling:

Slide 8 explains with the help of sketches how grain refinement can be achieved by proper
selectionofhotworkingtemperatureduring.Thefigureontheleftshowshowthewidthofthe
stock decreases during different stages of rolling. The bulk of the deformation occurs at the
highest possible rolling temperature. This is the stage where the structure consists of
homogeneousaustenite.Thedottedlinewithinthestockrepresentsitstemperature.
Hot rolling schedule for GR

Mean stock temp a
Initial Homogeneous
b
rolling Rapid
recrystallization c
T delay Stock width Partial
recrystallization d Slide8
Final
No recrystallization
rolling e
A3
Stock
A1 f
time
Controlled rolling leads to grain refinement

Slide8alsosuggeststhatthehotworkingprocesscanbedividedintothefollowingstages:
Initialrolling:wherethereisrapidrecrystallizationofhomogeneousaustenite
Delay:nildeformationstagewhenrecrystallization&graingrowthtakesplace
Finalrolling:Partialornilrecrystallizationofaustenite
Controlledcooling:nucleation&growthofferritegrainsandpearlitenodules
Themicrostructuresofthestockatvariousstagesofdeformationarerepresentedbyasetof
sketches(af)ontherightofslide8.Themainfeaturesofthestructurearegivenbelow.
a. Coarsehomogeneousaustenitegrainsbeforedeformation
b. Relativelyfinegrainsofausteniteasaresultofrapidrecrystallization
14 c. Graingrowthandprecipitationofcarbidesandnitridesatgrainboundaries
d. Initialstageoffinalrollingwhenonlypartialrecrystallizationofaustenitetakesplace
e. Towardstheendoffinalrollingwhenthereisnorecrystallization
f. Transformationofaustenitetoferritecarbidestructure
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Theprecipitationofcarbidesandnitridestakesplaceduringthestagethatfollowsinitialrolling.
This is when recrystallized austenite grains may grow a little until these are pinned by the
precipitates. The final rolling is done at temperature close to the nil recrystallization
temperature of austenite. When the final rolling starts partial recrystallization of elongated
austenite grains may take place but most of it remains in cold worked state (Note that the
microstructure labeled as d in slide 8 shows that a few grains of stain free austenite have
formed along the grain boundaries of elongated austenite. On subsequent cooling the
elongatedaswellasthenewlyformedaustenitegrainswouldtransformmostlyintostillfiner
grainsofferrite.
Finish rolling & cooling schedule for fine

grain steel
Air cool
900 5c/s
water cool
~15c/s
Deformation
Ferrite start Slide9
T Ferrite finish
Coiling
temp 500-675C
time
Controlledcooling:

Fastercoolingafterfinishrollingcanalsocontributetofurthergrainrefinement.Steelsthatare
subjectedtocontrolledrollingoftenhaveverylittleCorN.Mostofthesegetfixedbythemicro
alloyingelementslikeNb,TiandVpresentinsteel.ThereforetheaustenitehavinglittleCorN
would transform into ferrite after the final stage of rolling. The grain size of ferrite would
depend on the temperature at which the transformation takes place. This being a nucleation
and growth process lower transformation temperature would favor the formation of finer
grains of ferrite. This is because of higher nucleation rate (reason higher driving force) and
slowergrowthrate(reasonlowerdiffusivityorselfdiffusioncoefficient).Slide9showswiththe
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helpofatimetemperatureplotatypicalfinishrollingfollowedbyacceleratedcoolingschedule
foramicroalloyedgradeofsteel.Thedottedlinesinslide9representsferritestartandferrite
finishlinesoftheCCTdiagramofthesteel.Thecoolingcurveintersectsthestartandfinishlines
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at a substantially lower temperature thereafter the sheet goes for coiling. The coiling
temperature may be in the range 500675C depending on the application. The cooling rate
aftercoilingmaybecomeslow.Sincethetransformationofaustenitetoferriteisoverbynowit
may not matter much. The only change that might occur is the precipitation of carbides or
nitrides.Thiswouldinhibitferritegraingrowthandcontributetowardsprecipitationhardening.
Factors determining re-crystallized GS

Temperature, strain, & strain rate
100
GS
Slide10
10
1100 T 900 Strain/pass Strain rate
Slide10showstheeffectofhotrollingtemperature,strain/pass(amountofdeformation)and
strain rate on the grain size of recrystallized austenite. The key processing parameters for
gettingfinegrainausteniteareasfollows:
Lowerhotworkingtemperature
Higherreductionperpass
Higherstrainrate
Slide 11 highlights the main problem of implementing controlled rolling in practice. This is
connected with the magnitude of rolling load. It depends on the flow stress of austenite. It
increaseswithdecreasingtemperature.Existingrollingmillsinplantmaynotbeabletosupport
suchahighload.Thereforeitmayneedamajorchangeintherollingmillofaplant.
Adoption of RCR is a possible alternative. The rolling temperature is so chosen that

precipitationofcarbides/nitridestakesplaceduringrecrystallization.Therollingtemperature
16 beinghigheritmightbepossibletogivehigherdeformation/passatamuchlowerload.
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Limitation of controlled rolling
Controlled rolling: below re-crystallization temp
Re-crystallization controlled rolling: nitrides form
during re-crystallization inhibits grain growth.
Slide11
CR Ferrite nucleation in High rolling
pan caked austenite load
RCR Low rolling

load
initial rolling recrystallized
Dualphasesteel:

Dual phase steel: +M

Inter critical heat treatment
A3
M
% phases
T F A Slide12
A1
RA F
%C A1 T A3
Limitation: high cooling rate to
convert to M: applicable to
P M thin plates / sheets
F F

Dual phase steel consists of ferrite and martensite. It can be produced by intercritical heat
treatment. The concept has been explained with the help of a set of diagrams and sketches
representingmicrostructuresinslide12.Thestructurebeforeheattreatmentconsistsofferrite
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(F) and pearlite (P). The amount of pearlite (P) depends on %C. The steel is heated to a
temperature between A1 and A3. Pearlite transforms into austenite as the temperature goes
beyondA1,buttheferriteremainsasitis.AtA1%Cinausteniteisaround0.8%(Thisissameas
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that of the eutectoid. Look at the phase diagram in slide 12). On quenching from this
temperature austenite is expected to transform into high carbon martensite (M). The Mf
temperaturedecreasesas%Cinausteniteincreases.Ifitislowerthanroomtemperatureapart
oftheaustenitemayremainasitis.Thisiscommonlyknownasretainedaustenite.Astructure
containingRAisunstable.Itcanberemovedbytempering.Thefinalstructurewouldtherefore
consist of ferrite (F), retained austenite (RA) & martensite (M). The relative amounts of the
threephasesarefunctionsofthetemperatureatwhichthesteelwasheatedto.Theplotson
therightshowtheeffectofintercriticalheattreatmenttemperatureontheamountsofRA,F
andM.TheamountofretainedausteniteisthehighestatA1anditdecreaseswithincreasing
temperature. Beyond a particular temperature it might be totally absent. This is possibly the
mostfavorabletemperatureforintercriticalheattreatment.Theamountofmartensiteisthe
lowestatA1anditmayreach100%asTgoesbeyondA3.Theamountofferriteisthehighestat
A1 and it keeps decreasing with increasing temperature. The most favored microstructure of
dual phase steel consists of islands of low carbon lath martensite in a matrix of ferrite. The
strength of low carbon martensite is significantly higher than that of fine pearlite. It also has
reasonable ductility. Therefore such steel is likely to have an optimum combination of high
strengthand%elongation.Acolorcodehasbeenusedonlytodistinguishthedifferentphases
insteel.Thishasnorelationwiththeirappearanceunderamicroscope.
Strength vs. ductility
40 SS hardening:
P, Si
% elongation
Slide13
Nb, V steel DP steel

10
400 TS: MPa 1000

18 Thepropertiesofdualphasesteelcanvarywidelydependingonthecompositionandthefinal
heattreatmenttemperature.Slide13showstherangeofstrengthandductilityyoucouldgetin
dual phase (DP) steel. In comparison to microalloyed or solid solution strengthened it gives
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better combination of strength and ductility. However, it needs an additional heat treatment
that may add up to its cost. In principle it is possible to incorporate an isothermal hold for a
specifieddurationatanappropriatetemperatureafterfinishrollingandsubsequentquenching.
Thesketchinthissliderepresentsinverserelationbetweenstrengthandductility.Acomplete
version of this plot (often referred to as banana plot) has been included in a subsequent
module.
Ultra high strength steel wire
Patenting:
A3 isothermal
A1
P
T P Slide14

Ms
+M
Mf
time 500C
Fine lamellar pearlite: cold drawn to desired
strength & diameter: 1200 3000MPa UTS:
spring, wire ropes for suspension bridge

Patenting: Apart from alloying steel offers multiple opportunities of thermomechanical

processingtogetextremelyhighlevelsofstrength.Oneoftheseisknownaspatenting.Thisisa
specialheattreatmentgiventowirebeforeitiscolddrawntoitsfinalsize.Slide14describes
theisothermalheattreatmentcycle.Thesketchontheleftshowsthecoolingschemefollowed
duringtheprocessandtheoneontherightshowsthesetupconsistingofmoltenleadbaththat
helps maintain the desired temperature. It is a continuous heat treatment process. Steel is
converted to austenite at a relatively higher temperature. The grain size is relatively coarse.
Subsequentlyitpassesthroughamoltenleadbathmaintainedatatemperaturecorresponding
to the nose of the TTT diagram. The time spent in the bath is long enough to convert it into
extremely fine pearlitic structure. This steel has excellent drawability. The wire rod after
patentingcanbecolddrawntothedesiredsizeandstrength.Theultimatetensilestrengthof
suchawirecanbeoftheorderof12003000MPa.Thisisusedtomakehightensilestrength
wireropes.
19
Ausforming:Isothermaltransformationdiagramofsteelshowstheexistenceofaregionalittle
above theMstemperatureof steelwhereausteniteisstableforarelatively longer period.In
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certain low alloy steel this might be long enough to allow deformation processing. Slide 15
suggests a processing route where the steel is quenched from A3 + 50C to a temperature a
littleaboveMs.Oncethetemperatureat thesurfaceandthecenterofthesteelisnearlythe
sameitcanbesubjectedtocoldwork.Thetemperatureatwhichcoldworkingisdoneshould
behigherthanMd.Recallthataustenitetransformstomartensitebyshear.Plasticdeformation
toooccursduetoshear.Thereforewhenthesteelisbeingsubjectedtoplasticdeformationthe
nucleation of martensite might occur a little above Ms. This should be avoided because
martensite is hard and difficult to deform. The duration available for deformation is short. It
should be finished before bainitic transformation begins. After cold work it is quenched. The
austenite grains have high dislocation density. On quenching it transforms into martensite.
Sincemartensiteformsincoldworkedstructureitisstongerthannormalmartensite.Thelath
sizetooissmaller.Thereforethestrengthofausformedsteelcanbeashighas2500MPa.Its
%elongation is 8%. It is higher than martensite of similar strength. The major limitations of
ausformingareasfollows:
Onlythinsectionsareamenabletosuchatreatment
Needalloyadditiontohaveanextendedbainiticbaytoallowcoldworking
Notethedifferencebetweenausformingandaustempering.
Ausforming: quench to T > Md + cold work followed by quenching; final structure is

martensite
Austempering:quenchtoT>Ms+longisothermalholdtogetlowerbainite
Ausforming: CW in Bainitic bay
A3 Austempering: aim to
A1 get Bainite good
combination of strength
~RC 50 & toughness
Md
MS Limitation: possible Slide15
Mf in alloy steel & thin
Log(t) Oil quench sections
Avoid Bainite. Aim to get Martensite in cold worked

20 austenite. It can have strength ~ 2500MPa & 8% El.
Better than Martensite of similar strength.

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Summary:

Inthismodulewehaveseenhowourbasicunderstandingofthestructuralchangesthatoccur
insteel duringhotandcold workingcanbeexploitedtoget extremelyfinegrainstructure in
thefinalproduct.Theeffectofvariousprocessingparameterslikeprioraustenitegrainsize,the
amount of reduction per pass and strain rate apart from alloy addition have been discussed.
Thekeytosuccessdependsalotonthecontrolofprecipitationofdesiredcarbidesandnitrides
of micro alloy additions during hot working so that deformed austenite either does not re
crystallizeoronlyundergoespartialrecrystallization.ThisformsthebasisofCRandRCR.The
formerismoreeffectiveingrainsizecontrolbutneedshigherrollingload.Thelatterisamore
popularoptionasthe loadonthemillismanageable.Wealsolookedatthehowdualphase
steel having an optimum combination of strength and ductility can be produced. Finally we
talkedabouthowtransformationcharacteristicsofsteelcanbeexploitedtogetextremelyhigh
strength steel in relatively thin sections. The two of the most commonly used processes that
werediscussedarepatentingandausforming.
Exercise:

1. Whyisitpossibletogetmuchfinergrainstructureinsteelthaninaluminum?
2. Estimate the amount of martensite that can be obtained in 0.2% carbon steel by
quenching from intercritical temperature regime (between A1 & A3) as a function of
temperature.Whichoftheseislikelytogivemaximumstrength?
3. The concept of solubility product is used to estimate the amount ofMX precipitate in
microalloyedsteel(FeMX)intermsofitscompositioninwt%.Ifsolubilityproductof
VN is given by log 3.46 estimate the amount of V present as VN
precipitatesinalloyhaving0.15wt%Vand0.015wt%Nat1273K.
4. Howisausformingdifferentfromaustempering?Isthisahotworkingprocess?
5. Whatistheeffectofmicroalloyadditiononrollingload?
Answer:

1. Steel unlike aluminum offers additional opportunity for grain refinement because of
21 austenitetoferritetransformation.Inadditiontograinrefinementduringsolidification
thereisfurtherrefinementbecauseofnucleation&growthofnewferritegrainsatprior
austeniteboundaries.

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2. Applyleverruletoestimate%asafunctionofintercriticaltemperature.Amountof
willbeminimumnearA1andmaximum(100%)atA3.Onquenchingthisgetsconverted
to martensite. Hardness of martensite depends on carbon content. Therefore
Martensiteformed onquenching fromA1 willhave maximum hardness where asthat
formedonquenchingfromA3willhaveminimumhardness.Hardnessofferriteremains
constant. Apply rule of mixture to get the hardness of ferrite martensite aggregate.
Assume hardness of martensite change linearly from 200VHN at 0% C to 950VHN at
0.8%C.Assumption:thereisnoretainedausteniteinfinalstructure.

3. Since log 3.46 0.000825Use this to generate solubility plot at
1273K. This is shown by line k in the graph. Atomic weights of V & N are 51 & 14
respectively. Plot line VN passing through origin with slope = 51/14. This represents
amountofVneededtoformVN
(Stoichiometry).
0.2
Markthecompositionofthesteelby
0.15 a point (0.15V, 0.015N). Draw a line
0.1 paralleltoVNthroughthispoint.The
V
k point of intersection with k

0.05 represents amount of V that is
VN
0 present in solution. Thus soluble V =
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.12wt% Balance 0.03 is present as
N VN.

4. In austempering the steel is austenitized and then quenched in a bath kept at a little
aboveMstemperatureforsufficientlylongtimetoget100%Bainiticstructure.Whereas
inausformingthesteelistakentoausteniticstatefollowedbyquenchinginabathkept
at a temperature a little above Md and subjected to plastic deformation before
quenchingtogetmartensiticstructure.Mdtemperaturecorrespondstoatemperature
above which martensite does not form even if austenite is being deformed. Since
plasticdeformationduringausformingtakesplacebelowrecrystallizationtemperature
ofausteniteitisacoldworkingprocess.

5. In the case of Nb containing steel grain boundaries get pinned by nano sized NbCN
precipitatesformedsoonafterrollingathightemperature.Finishrollingisdonebelow
22
its recrystallization temperature. This gives rise to elongated austenitic grains which
ultimatelytransformtoferritepearlitestructure.Thisprocesswouldneedhigherrolling
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load.WhereassteelshavingVasmicroalloyadditionprecipitationoccursduringfinish
rollingstagetoinhibitgraingrowth.Thereforerollingloadhereislow.
23
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Module 39

Cold working however is accompanied by hardening. Higher stress is needed in successive

Hot / cold working

Higher Gv ~ lower Trcrys.& finer grains. To get fine

GB: crack arrester

1. Cooling rate from state

Finer grain higher time

Austenite grain growth

Austenitize & Homogeneous :

Whatcouldbe donetogetextremely finegrainstructureinsteelafterhotrolling?Themost

Deformedgrain Recrystallizationofand Nucleationofferrite

If steel is heated above T2 there is no precipitate

AlN TiN Slide7

Lower solubility product means higher is the

Hot rolling schedule for GR

Finish rolling & cooling schedule for fine

Factors determining re-crystallized GS

Adoption of RCR is a possible alternative. The rolling temperature is so chosen that

RCR Low rolling

Dual phase steel: +M

Strength vs. ductility

Nb, V steel DP steel

Ultra high strength steel wire

Patenting: Apart from alloying steel offers multiple opportunities of thermomechanical

Ausforming: quench to T > Md + cold work followed by quenching; final structure is

Ausforming: CW in Bainitic bay

Avoid Bainite. Aim to get Martensite in cold worked

k point of intersection with k

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