1

UNIT I
Now challenge came as to how to distribute the stored water to the inhabitants
and as a result development was in the form of introduction of pipe system:
When the source of water supply happened to be situated lower than the areas to
be served, it became necessary to lift water by the installing installation of pumping
machinery, which was therefore, the next step in the development of public water
supply.
As civilization advanced further, the demands on the water supply systems
increased with higher consumption requiring larger quantities of water. This led to the
construction of not only underground storage tanks but, also of elevated or overhead
reservoirs, known as service reservoirs.

NEED FOR PROTECTED WATER SUPPLY:

It is necessary that all water supplies must be free from all types of impurities,
hether suspended or dissolved in water and no risk should occur to health of the public
as a result of any water consumption. Various methods for purification of water brought
into use since ancient times.

Earliest method known for secure potable supply was the use of water from wells
or springs ie, ground water. It was believed that such water in the course of its
movement through the porous sub-strata was completely relieved of its entire
suspended load of impurities.

Next surface water from rivers or reservoir, method employed was to let such
waters remain undisturbed or some time till all the turbid suspended load / particles
settled down and clears potable water drawn off from upper layers. This led to
construction of impounding reservoirs.

In due course of time, it was found that the process of filtration was quite reliable
from the above two methods as the main idea was to get clear water for consumption
which would be free from very minute suspended and dissolved particles.

In later stages, it was observed that water having undergone through filtration
was still found to contain minutely-sized living organisms as were apparently not visible
to the naked eye. These were found to be responsible for breeding germs causing
disease like cholera, typhoid, dysentery etc.

Therefore, thoroughly ensure protected water supplies of any health hazard, it

was necessary to remove these organism by disinfecting water through the process of
adding chlorine or chlorinous compounds to water ie, chlorination. Some of the other
methods are treatment through ozone, ultra-violet etc.

Water being a good solvent contains excessive amounts of minerals or poisonous

substances dissolved in it, which causes many health hazards and difficulties to public.

Thus, it may be seen of what great importance, a public water supply or water
works system has to be done from the point of view providing an adequate and reliable.
Supply of water to public ensuring that the supplies are not only potable but, fully that
should be protected against every infection.

In order to provide protected water supplies to the communities, the Central and
State Governments have established a NATIONAL WATER SUPPLY & SANITATION
PROGRAMME to provide water supply and sanitary facilities. In order to assist the
 2

States, the CENTRAL PUBLIC HEALTH ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANISATION has been

established under the Ministry of Health.

OBJECTIVES OF WATER SUPPLY SCHEMES:

To ensure safe wholesome water to the public adequately.

To provide assured supply of water easily to the users.
To minimize the loss during transmission.
To eliminate the chances of water contamination.
To achieve the necessary flushing action in the sewerage system.
To provide adequate supply for fire fighting.

WATER SUPPLY SCHEME: QUANTITY OF WATER

WATER DEMAND:

Before planning a water supply scheme, it is the Engineers duty to examine

carefully, the various types of water demand a city may have. The demand may be
classified in the following categories.

Domestic water need

Institutional demand
Industrial demand
Fire demand
Water unaccounted for.

1) DOMESTIC WATER NEED

Quantity of water required for various domestic usages, in ascertained. Needs

such as bathing, drinking, cooking, washing etc. come under this demand.

A minimum of 70 100 litres per capita per day (lpcd) should be allowed for
domestic need.
PURPOSE CONSUMPTIONS
For drinking 2 lites
Cooking, washing etc. 10 12 litres
Bathing, washing clothes 40 60 litres
Flushing water closets 25 litres
Other needs 10 litres.
Total 70 100 lites.

2) INSTITUTIONAL DEMAND:

This is also known as public demand. It includes the quantity of water required
for various public utility purposes. Water required for various public buildings and
institutions, public parks, play grounds etc. come under this demand.
 3

Sl. Types of Institution Recommended rate

No. (lpcd)
1 Hospital including laundry
a) Not exceeding 100 beds 390
455
b) Exceeding 100 beds
2 Hotels 180 (per bed)
3 Hostels 135
4 Restaurant 70 (per seat)
5 Airport & Sea Port 70
6 Junction Stations 70
7 Terminal / Intermediate Stations 45
8 Day School / College 45
9 Offices 45
10 Factories 45
11 Cinemas & Theatres 15

3) INDUSTRIAL DEMAND

Includes the requirement of small industries distributed within the town. The
water requirement for this purpose will depend upon the number, nature, and size of
industries.

Sl. Nature of Industry Units of Water

No. Production Requirement
(in litres)
1 Automobiles Vehicle 40000
2 Distillary Litres of proof 122 170
allowed
3 Fertilizer Tonne 80000-200000
4 Leather Kg (tonned) 40
5 Paper Kg. 200 400
6 Special Variety Paper Kg. 400 1000
7 Straw Board Kg. 75 100
8 Petroleum Refinery Tonne (Crude) 1500-2000
9 Steel Tonne 200000-25000
10 Sugar (Cane sugar) Tonne 1000 2000
11 Textile Kg. 80 140
12 Wood Pulp (Sulphate) Tonne 240000
13 Coke Tonne 14000
14 Ice Tonne 1850
15 Wood Securing Kg. 10 12
16 Thermal Power Megawatt 150000-160000

4) FIRE DEMAND

Fire demand is the quantity of water required for fighting a fire out-breaks. This
quantity is normally obtained on the basis of certain empirical formulae.

i) National Board of fire underwriters formulae

 4

Q = 4637 P (1 - 0.01 P)

ii) Freeman Formula:

Q = 1136.5 (P/5 + 10)

The above formulae usually gives quite high results. The following empirical
formulae due to kuichling have been found to give satisfactory results:

iii) Kuichlings Formulae

Q = 3182 P
where,
Q = Fire demand in lpm
P = Population in thousands
Thus for a population of 1,00,000 values of fire demand:
i) National Board of Fire underwriters:
4637 100 (1 0.01 x 100) = 41,733 lpm
ii) Freeman Formula:
1136.5 (100/5 + 10) = 34,095 lpm
iii) Kuichling Formula:
3182 100 = 31,820 lpm

5) WATER UNACCOUNTED FOR

Includes sthe quantity of water due to wastage, losses, thefts etc. some water is
lost due to leakages at joints and valves. Some loss may take place due to illegal and
unauthorized connection. Losses can be reduced by providing good quality joints and
fittings, timely maintenance, proper inspection and investigation etc.

ESTIMATING REQUIREMENT

It is of prime importance in the design of the water supply system. Framing an

estimate giving the total quantity of water that will be required by the community after
the completion of the works. The estimate enables the determination of sizes and
capacity of all the constituents of the water supply system. This is arriving at with the
help of two factors.

1) The probable population estimated at the end of the design period

2) Rate of water supply per capita per day.

DESIGN PERIOD:

This is the period into the future for which the estimate is to be made. The
period should neither be too long so that face finance burden is not thrown on the
present generation, nor should be too short so as to avoid the design becoming
uneconomical. In practice, a period varying from 20 30 years is considered sufficient
for design purposes.

PER-CAPITA CONSUMPTION:

For the purpose of estimating total requirement of water of community, it is usual

to calculate the consumption on an overage basis and express it in litres per capita per
day. If Q is the total quantity of water in litres required by a community per year
 5

having P as its population, then the capita consumption or demand in liters per capita
per day (lpcd) is given as:
= Q / (P x 365)

FACTORS AFFECTING PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION:

CLIMATE: Hotter places require higher consumption ie, more use of water for bathing,
in public use more of lawn and street sprinkling.

CLASS OF CONSUMERS: People having higher economic status and better standard of
living, requirements of water supply would be greater.

INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE: Consumption is usually higher when water supply has to
cater for large industrial and commercial uses.

QUALITY OF WATER: System having a safe and whole source water supply would
always be more popular with consumers who would consequently depend less for their
requirements upon such sources of water supply as private wells.

PRESSURE IN THE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM: It is of great importance in the case of

localities having a number of two or three-storeyed buildings. Adequate pressure would
mean an uninterrupted and constant supply of water.

EXTENT OF METERING SYSTEM: Metered water supply ensures minimum waste as

the consumer then knows that he has to pay for the water used by him and
consequently is more careful in use. Meters also help in cutting down waste or loss of
water through leakage or breakage in pipes.

SEWAGE FACILITIES: Where ample facilities of a water-borne sewerage system exists,

residences and buildings require more water for flushing of sanitary applications viz,
water closets, urinals etc. and for efficient drainage through pipes, drains and sewers.

SYSTEM OF SUPPLY: When water is supplied for certain fixed houses of the day only,
results in some reduction of the consumption. This may be due to decrease in losses
and other wasteful use.

FLUCTUATION IN WATER DEMAND

Per-Capita Consumption is only estimating an average amount of water per day

over a period of a year one person will require. But practically, it is found out that the
variation in the rate of demand varies depending upon the season or month, day and
hour.

1. Seasonal or Monthly variation

2. Daily variation
3. Hourly variation

1. SEASONAL OR MONTHLY VARIATION: Variations are prominent in tropical

countries like India
In Summer: Rate of consumption reaches maximum use to greater use of water for
streets and lawn sprinkling.

Rest Months: The rate of consumption goes down at a moderate level during the
 6

2. DAILY VARIATION:
The rate of water demand may also vary from day to day. There may be many
reasons such as:
i) Change in climatic condition.
ii) Due to holidays
iii) On special functions
iv) Change in time

On a rainy day, consumption will be much less compared to that on a dry &
hot day.
Rate of demand on Sundays & other holidays will be more due to leisurely
bathing, washing of clothes and houses etc.

It can be well seen in figure-2 about the daily variation.

Various methods which are generally adopted for estimating future populations
by engineers are described below.

3. HOURLY VARIATION: Are very important as they have a wide range. During active
household work house ie, from 6.0 am to 10.0am and 4.0 pm 8.0 pm, bulk of the daily
requirement is taken. During other hours the requirement is negligible like mid night to
4.0 am

Taken on an average the maximum hourly consumption may be 200% - 300% of

the average hourly consumption of the day.

Average daily per capita demand = Qty. required in 12 months / (365 x Population)

Maximum daily demand = 1.80 x Average daily demand

Maximum hourly demand of max. day ie peak demand

= 1.50 x Average hourly demand

= 1.50 x Maximum daily demand/24
 7

= 1.50 x (1.80 x average daily demand) / 24

= 2.70 x Average daily demand / 24
= 2.70 x Annual average hourly demand

The effect of variation is shown graphically in Figure

Succeeding Months.

In winters: It is well known that the rate of consumption of water is minimum during
winter seasons.

It has been observed that the fluctuation in the rate of consumption may be as
much as 150% of average annual consumption. A rough graph has been drawn as
figure-1.

ARITHMETIC INCREASE METHOD

It is based upon the assumption that the population increases at a constant rate
ie dp/dt is constant.

Pn = Po + nx

Pn = Forecasted population after n decades from present.

Po = Population at present (last known census)
n = No. of decades between now and future.
X = Arithmetic mean of population in known decades.

GEOMETRIC INCREASE METHOD:

It is assumed that per decade percentage increase or percentage growth rate

( ) is constant and the increase is compound over the existing population every
decade. Thus, it is also known as Uniform Increase Method.

Pn = Po (1 + P / 100)n
Po = Initial Population (last known census)
Pn = Future Population after n decade
 8

r , Geometric Average = t r1, r2 . Rt

It is also known as Incremental method. In this method, the per decade growth
rate is not assumed to be constant as in the arithmetic or geometric progression
methods, but is progressively increasing or decreasing, depending upon whether the
average of the incremental increase in the past data is positive or negative.

Pn = Po + nx + n(N+1)/2 x y

X = Average increase of populations is known decades.

Y = Average of incremental increases of the known decades.

Question: The population of 3 decades from 1930 to 1970 are given below in table.
Find out the population after 3 decades by using (i) arithmetic (ii) geometric (iii)
Incremental increase method.

Year 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970

Population 25000 28000 34000 42000 47000

By Arithmetic Increase Method

Year Population Increase in Population (x)

1930 25000
1940 28000 3000
1950 34000 6000
1960 42000 8000
1970 47000 5000
Total 22000

X = 22000 / 4 = 5500

a) Population after 1 decade beyond 1970

P1980 = P1970 + 1 * x
= 47000 + (1 x 5500) = 52,500

b) Population after 2 decades beyond 1970

P1990 = P1970 + 2 * x
= 47000 + (2 x 5500) = 58,000

c) Population after 3 decades beyond 1970

P2000 = P1970 + 3 * x
= 47000 + (3 x 5500) = 63,500

BY GEOMETRIC INCREASE METHOD

Year Population Increase in % increase in population ie,
Population in growth rate (r)
each decade = 3 / 1 x 100
1930 25000
1940 28000 3000 3000 / 25000 x 100 = 12%
 9

1950 34000 6000 6000 / 28000 x 100 = 21.4%

1960 42000 8000 8000 / 34000 x 100 = 23.5%
1970 47000 5000 5000 / 42000 x 100 = 11.9%
Geometric Mean = 4 12 x 21.4 x 23.5 x 11.9
= 16.37% per decade

a) Population after 1 decades:

P1980 = P1970 (1 + r/100)n = 47000 (1 + 16.37/100)1 = 54694

b) Population after 2 decades:

P1990 = P1970 (1 + r/100)2 = 47000 (1 + 16.37/100)2 = 63647

c) Population after 3 decades:

P2000 = P1970 (1 + r/100)3 = 47000 (1 + 16.37/100)3 = 74066

BY INCREMENTAL INCREASE METHOD:

Year Population Increase in Incremental increases ie,

Population increment on increase
1930 25000
1940 28000 3000
1950 34000 6000 + 3000
1960 42000 8000 + 2000
1970 47000 5000 - 3000
Total 22000 + 2000
Average X= 22000 / 4 = Y = 2000/3 = 667
per 5500
decade
a) Population after one decade

P1980 = P1970 + 1 * x + 1(1+1)/2 * y

= 47000 + 1 x 5500 + 1 x 2/2 x 667 = 53,167

b) Population after two decades

P1990 = P1970 + 2 * x + 2(2+1)/2 * y

= 47000 + 2 x 5500 + 2 x 3/2 x 667 = 60,001

c) Population after three decade

P2000 = P1970 + 3 * x + 3(3+1)/2 * y

= 47000 + 3 x 5500 + 3 x 4/2 x 667 = 67,502
 10

UNIT II
SOURCES, QUALITY & STANDARDS OF WATER

Hydraulic Cycle:

Hydrological cycle is the water transfer cycle which occurs continuously in nature.
It has 3 phases (i) Evaporation & Transpiration (ii) Precipitation (iii) runoff

Evaporation from surfaces of ponds, lands and transpiration from surface

vegetation ie, from plant leaves and forests takes place. These vapours rise and form
clouds resulting in droplet growth. The clouds melt and sometimes burst resulting in
precipitation of different forms like rain, snow, hail, sleet, mist, dew, frost.
A part of this precipitation flows over the land called runoff and a part infiltrates
into the soil which builds up ground water table. The surface runoff joins the streams
and the water is stored in reservoirs a portion of surface runoff and ground water
flows back to ocean. Again evaporation starts from surfaces of lakes, reservoirs and
oceans and the cycle repeats.

Sources of Water:
After estimating the water requirement for the proposed water supply scheme,
the planner of the scheme must go in for search of nearby / distant water sources which
may be able to supply the required amount of water.
 11

The various sources of water available on the earth can be classified into the
following two categories.

(a) Surface Sources such as,

i) Ponds and lakes
ii) Streams and rivers
iii) Storage reservoirs and
iv) Oceans, generally not used that much for water supply at present, but
now we are using after disclamation to some extent.

(b) Sub-surface sources or under ground sources such as,

i) Springs
ii) Infiltration galleries
iii) Infiltration wells and
iv) Wells and tube-wells

Surface Sources of Water Supplies

River: The water received from precipitation in the surface water which flows in
the form of rivers, streams, lakes and ponds. The principle advantage of river as a
source of water supply is the large quantity of water available for supply throughout the
year. However, since water has to travel a long distance from the source located in
mountains where it is fairly pure to the towns in plains, its quality deteriorates as river
serves as a natural drain for all discharges. It contains large amount of organic matter,
suspended matter, clay, silt. Being easily accessible, rivers are freely used for washing,
bathing, etc. Pollution is caused by pilgrims, bathe, discharges of trade effluents from
industries.

Lakes: These are simple collections of inplant surface water in a valley with a
high ground which with little escape, allow water to be naturally stored. As water is
drawn from uninhabited upland hilly areas, it is relatively pure. It is usually soft,
contains less quantities of nitrogenous matter than rain water but has more dissolved
matter. When drawn from low land areas it may contain phosphates, nitrates, peaty
matter, drawn from fertilized cultivated areas giving water yellowish brown appearance.

The primary source of all water supply is precipitation which is the water falling
from the atmosphere to the surface of the each in the form of rain, snow, etc.

Reservoir

An impounding reservoir may be defined as an artificial lake created by the

construction of a dam across a valley containing a water course. The reservoir
essentially consists of three parts (i) a dam to hold back water (ii) a spillway through
which excess stream flow may discharge (iii) a gate chamber containing the necessary
valves considerations affecting the location of impounding reservoirs are

i) Existence of suitable dam site

ii) The quantity of water available
iii) Distance & elevation of the reservoir with reference to point of distribution
iv) Density and distribution of population over the catchment area
v) Existence of towns, highways, rail yards and other cultivable areas
 12

vi) Geological conditions of the storage basin.

vii) Freedom of water shed from swampy areas.

UNDER GROUND SOURCES

Springs : Springs may be regarded as outcrops of ground water which often appear
as small water holes at the foot of hills or along river banks. Springs are of two types,
1) Gravity Spring
2) Artesian Spring

The gravity spring may result from outcropping of an impervious stratum

underneath the water bearing formation or from the overflow of water table by the
continuous rise in the water table into the sides of the valley. The yield of the gravity
spring varies with the position of water table or of rainfall and is therefore uncertain.

The artesian spring is one resulting from the water bearing stratum being under
pressure, uncertain and overlain by impervious strata water flows to the surface through
the weaker spots in the upper impervious strata, either some fault or crevice in the rock.
The yield of the artesian spring is more uniform and almost constant through the year.

WELLS: A well is a vertical cylindrical opening which extends from the surface of
the ground down into the water bearing formation. The water bearing formation is
terms as the aquifer.

Classification:
Wells according to the Aquifer tapped
(1) Shallow wells (2) Deep wells

Shallow: Constructed by tapping the uppermost water bearing stratum.

 13

Deep: Deeper and more extensive aquifer in order to get larger and more
reliable supplies of water. It is usually constructed by tapping a water bearing stratum
underneath an impervious stratum.

Wells according to the condition of flow:

(a) Gravity wells
(b) Pressure Wells

Gravity Wells: One in which the surface of the water in the aquifer outside of and
surrounding the well is at atmospheric pressure. The water flows under gravity into the
well and rises to the height of saturated material surrounding it.

Pressure Well (Artesian Well): The aquifer is confined between two impervious
strata, one above and the other below so that water flows under pressure into the well,
the water in the aquifer being at pressure greater than the atmosphere. In some cases,
the pressure may be so great that the water rises from the ground surface and flows
from the well. This is termed as a flowing well.
 14

Wells according to the type of construction

1) Dug well or percolation well

2) Sunk wells
3) Driven wells
4) Tube wells

Dug Wells

It is a shallow well having masonry walls and excavated from the ground
surface.
A well curb is constructed and the masonry wall is built on top; its weight
causing the well to sink
Soil is removed from inside side by side.
More masonry (in decreasing sections due to less load as we go towards the
top) is added as the excavation proceeds till the well has been raised to the
requisite height.

Hand Pump well

The existing dug well is converted into protected water supply by covering and
filling hand pump on them.

i) the well should be located in a place not subject to flooding upstream from
sources of contamination.
ii) Pump should be cased to 3.0m, to provide natural filter through 3.0m of soil.
iii) Concrete masonry platform around the pump to slope away surface water.
iv) Priming should be avoided.
v) Chlorination should be done.
 15

Sunk Well: It is a masonry barrel, positioned in sub-strata so as to interrupt as

large a quantity of water as possible. Sunk wells are built at locations where water
bearing strata of large extent and porosity could be easily found below the ground level.

Driven Well: Is a shallow well constructed by drilling a casing pipe 25mm

200mm in diameter, the lower end of which is closed and pointed, forming a well point.
The pipe is driven by hammer or lowered by water jet. The pipe is either perforated or
strainer attached at the bottom above the well point.

Driven wells are restricted in use to depths upto 12m or so, where the aquifer
happens to be close to the surface or permit suction lift to the pump and for softer,
unconsolidated soils.
 16

Tube wells: It is constructed by taking a boring into the ground, and driving
with auger or bit by hand or by machinery. Tube wells are suitable for both deep and
shallow wells. They may be constructed in soft, unconsolidated soil or in rock
formations and may be termed as bored wells or drilled wells respectively. Their size
ranges widely from 25mm to 900mm diameter.

Methods of drilling

(a) Percussion Drilling: drilling by alternatively raising and dropping a string of tools
consisting of drill bit on auger stem to which bit is screwed, links, rope-cable (Drilling
rig)

(b) Case Drilling: drilling in hard and rocky formations by rotating a hollow pipe fitted
with a drill bit or cutter. The bit consists of a ring set with diamond or steel teeth, the
cut material rises into the hollow rotating pipe as the cutter advances and removed.

(c) Rotary Drilling: suitable for soft and unconsolidated materials Drilling by
direct rotary method or reverse rotary recirculation methods

In the direct rotary method, the well is made by rotating the hollow drill pipe with
toothed steel drilling bit mud laden fluid from a settling tank is pumped through a
flexible hose into the drill pipe and it escapes through apertures set at the base of the
drill. The loosened material is carried to the surface by the mud fluid passing through
the space formed by the drill pipe and the walls of the hole.

In the reverse rotary recirculation method, a stream of water flows down the
annular space formed by the drill and outer bore wall and then up the drill pipe. The
increased velocity in the smaller cross section of the drill pipe is caused by a pump
which sucks water from the centre instead of a high pressure pump which forces water
down it. The water pumped out of the pipe contains the washings and is led into sump
for effective sedimentation of the solid particles before water is put lock to flow into the
bore.
 17

QUALITY OF WATER:

Water that may be considered absolutely pure is not to be found in nature. Even
rainwater which is in fact, distilled water, collect impurities such as dust, gases, bacteria,
etc. during its passage through the atmosphere. The portion of rainwater which flows
over the surface and called run-off picks up organic and suspended matter, whereas the
portion percolating through the ground has got mineralogical, organic and inorganic
matter which it gathers while traversing through the underground strata before reaching
the water table.

Impurities in water may be classified as follows:

(a) Physical impurities

(b) Chemical impurities
(c) Bacteriological impurities

Physical Impurities:

They are due to the presence of inorganic substances like clay, pebbles, sand silt,
algae, fungi, bacteria etc. in water as finely divided compounds. Lighter substances
float, heavier substances settle and of equal specific gravity mix with water. They
impart colour, odour and taste to water. They are not serious and can be easily
detected and removed. They may be in suspended, dissolved and colloidal forms.

Chemical Impurities:

They may be either organic or inorganic. They may be present in either

suspended or dissolved form. The suspended organic chemical impurities are due to the
presence of vegetables or animals in water. The vegetables are in the form of algae,
fungi, decayed leaves, etc. They impart acidity, colour and taste to water. The animals
may be in the form of insects, dead animals etc. They are responsible for the growth of
bacteria in water. The dissolved organic chemical impurities are due to the melting of
vegetables and animals in water.

Vegetable matter produce large albuminoid ammonia

Less free ammonia and chlorides

Animal matter produce large alluminoid NH3

Large free ammonia chlorides
 18

The suspended inorganic chemical impurities are caused by the particles of clay,
silt, sand, pebbles, etc. They impart turbidity to water. The dissolved inorganic chemical
impurities are caused by the melting of minerals and gases in water.

Bacteriological Impurities:

The bacteriological impurities are caused in water by the presence of bacteria.

The bacteria may be harmful or harmless. Harmless bacteria are called non-pathogens.
They are not dangerous. However, their presence in an indication of pathogen which are
otherwise known as disease producing bacteria. Pathogens are dangerous and are
mainly responsible for water borne diseases.
ANALYSIS OF WATER:

The analysis of water is undertaken in order to establish the quality of water.

This involved tests for determining the physical, chemical and bacteriological impurities
present in a water sample. A brief description of these tests as far as their importance
and principles of determination is given as follows.

Physical Analysis:

involves test for turbidity, colour, taste and odour.

Turbidity: This is expressed by the amount of suspended matter in parts per million
ppm or mg/L in water as ascertained by observations. The standard unit is that
produced by 1 part of finely divided silica in million parts of distilled water. Turbidity is
determined in terms of the optical property of the sample. The higher the turbidity, the
greater the absorption of light rays from a source of light on the opposite side of the
sample and less that is transmitted in straight lines through the sample.

Turbidity is determined by an instrument called turbidimeter. Common

turbidimeters in use are,

1) Jackson Turbidimeter

This instrument can measure turbidities above 100 ppm. It consists of a metal
stand, standard candle, metal container and a graduated glass tube.
A small portion of the water sample is taken in the tube and the glowing candle
flame is viewed from top through the water in the tube. More and more water is
gradually added until the flame image disappears. When this happens, the reading in
the tube corresponding to the level of water directly gives the turbidity in ppm.
 19

2) Baylis Turbidimeter

This instrument consists of a galvanized iron box enclosing two glass tubes kept
at one end and a 250 watts bulb with reflection at the other end. The glass tubes are
supported by a white opal glass plate at their feet. They are surrounded all around by
the blue cobalt plates at their feet. They are fitted firmly in position by a small platform
with beveled holes.

One tube is filled with water sample and the other with a standard solution of
known turbidity. The bulb is lighted and the blue light cast in the tubes is observed from
the top and is compared. If it matches, then the turbidity of the standard solution
corresponds to the turbidity of the sample. Otherwise the standard solution of different
turbidity are compared till the colour matches. This instrument is preferable for turbidity
less than 5 ppm.

3) Hellige Turbidimeter.

This instrument consists of a box like container with a graduated knob on the
side and an eyepiece at the top. The tube containing the water sample is placed in the
box. A small circular, central spot, lighter or darker placed below the sample is
observed through the eyepiece. It is balanced with the surrounding field by turning the
calibrated knob till the spot exactly merges with the surrounding field. At this instant,
the turbidity is read directly from the scale on the dial. Turbidity from 0 to 150 ppm can
be determined by this instrument without using any standard solution.

Note: Working principle of Hellige and Baylis turbidimeters is based upon the Tyndall
effect which consists in comparing direct beam of light unaffected by turbidity with
transverse beam that scatters light depending upon the water turbidity.
 20

COLOUR:

The first step in a colour test is to remove the suspended matter from the water
sample. This is done by centrifuging ie, forcing the suspended solids towards the
circumference of a cylindrical container having the water sample, by rotating the
cylinder about its axis. The sample is then compared for colour with standard coloured
solutions or colour discs. The units of colours is that produced by one milligram of
platinum in a litre of water.

The maximum permissible colour for domestic water is 50 mg/l, on platinum

cobalt scale. Colour in water is harmless but objectionable on ground of appearance.
The measurement of colour is the colour can also be carried out in a tintometer. A
tintometer has an eyepiece with two holes. A slide of standard coloured solution is been
through one hole and in the other hole, the slide of the sample is inserted. The standard
coloured solution to which the sample compares gives the intensity of colour on a cobalt
scale.

TASTE AND ODOUR:

The intensities of taste and odour depend upon the sensitivity of the observer.
Their presence in water may be due to the presence of dead or live micro-organisms,
dissolved gases or mineral substances.

Tastes may be sweet, bitter, salty, brackish, irritating hot and cold. Odour may
be fishy, earthy, grassy, mouldy etc. Odour is identified by inhaling through two tubes
of an osmoscope. One tube is kept in a flask containing distilled water and the other is
kept in a flask containing water sample. It is also measured by delution with odour free
water in different ratios. The dilution ratio giving the first detectable odour threshold
number. No. of additions of water in such a mixture is odour intensity or pO value.

PO Value Meaning
0 No perceptible odour
1 Very faint odour
2 Faint odour
3 Distinct odour readily detectable
4 Distinct odour
5 Strong & intense odour
6 Extremely strong odour
 21

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS:

This involves tests for determination of total solids, hardness, pH value,

chlorides, residual chlorine, iron and manganese, fluorides, organic matter etc.

Total solids are considered to be the sum of dissolved and suspended solids. The
amount of total solids upto 500 mg/l in water generally makes it suitable for domestic
use. The determination of total solids is made by evaporation and drying of a measured
sample in an over at 105 0C for a period of 1 hour. Since water for potable use contains
small amounts of the suspended matter, it is usual to filter a sample of water and
determine solids in the filtrate by the foregoing method. The difference between total
solids in unfiltered and filtered samples is taken as a measure of the suspended solids
present.

Hardness: in water that characteristic which prevents the lathering of soap. This is
due to the presence in water of certain salts of calcium and magnesium dissolved in it.
If carbonates and bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium are present, then the
hardness is called carbonate hardness, but if sulphates and chlorides of calcium and
magnesium are present, then it is called non-carbonate hardness. Total hardness is
thus the sum of carbonate hardness and the non-carbonate hardness.

Expressed in mg/l or ppm of CaCO3 in water

Hardness may be determined either by the soap test or by the EDTA method.

In Soap Test,

(1) Sample of water with standard soap solution is vigorously shaken to see the
formation of lather for 5 minutes.
(2) The difference between the total amount of soap solution and the lather
factor ie, amount of standard soap solution required to produce lather when added to
distilled water of zero hardness.

In the EDTA method,

(1) Titration is done against ethylene diamine tetracetic acid (EDTA) or its sodium
salt so as to form stable complex ions with the calcium (Ca ++) or magnesium (mg++) ions
in water according to the equation:

(Ca++ ) + EDTA = (Ca . EDTA ) Complex

mg mg

(2) Indicator used is Erichrome black T to show when all ions causing hardness
have been complexed.

(Ca++ ) + Erichrome black T = (Ca . Erichrome black T) Complex

mg mg

(3) The above complex being unstable is quickly replaced by the (Ca EDTA)
complex according to mg

(Ca. Erichrome black T) complex + EDTA = (Ca . EDTA) complex + Erichrome black T
mg mg
 22

> wine red colour is changed to distinct blue marking the end of titration.

Hardness is calculated as

ml.of EDTA used x 1000 / ml.of sample = mg/l hardness.

Alkalinity & Acidity is due to mineral acids, salts of weak acids Alkalinity has 3 forms.

Hydroxal (OH)
Carbonate (CO3)
Bicarbonate (HCO3)

Carbonates in contact with CO2 and on hydrolysis, form bicarbonates.

CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O Ca(HCO3)2

Carbonate and hydroxal alkalinities are predominant.

Acidity is primarily due to dissolution of CO 2 in water which dorms carbonic
acid as per CO2 + H2O <===> H2CO3

Total alkalinity of water is determined by titrating the sample with a strong acid
to pH 8.3 using phenolphthalein as an indicator and then to pH 4.5 with methyl orange
as indicator.

Acidity is determined by titrating the sample with a strong base such as NaOH
using methyl orange or HPh as indicator.

pH value or H+ ion concentration is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a

substance.

Measurement of pH is based on the principle of colorimeter ie, intensity of colour

produced in the sample solution due to the addition of certain reagents varies with the
concentration of the substances in solution.

The electrometric method is quick and automate. In this, specially prepared

electrodes are dipped in water and connected to a power source. For public water
supplies, pH value should be as close to 7.

Chlorides are usually present in water in the form of sodium chloride. A limit of 250
mg/l of chlorides is usually recommended in water supplies for public use.

The usual method of determining the chlorides is the volumetric procedure called
Mohrs method. This depends on the ppt of Ag Cl by the addition of a standard
solution of Ag NO3 in the presence of Potassium Chromate (K 2Cro4) indicator. Reddish
brown ppt. of silver chromate (Ag2Cro4) indicates precipitation of chloride.

Sulphates determined gravimetrically by precipitating as barium sulphate (BaSO 4) in

HCl medium by addition of (BaCl2) solution

Residual Chlorine determined by two methods starch iodide and the orthotolidine
method.
 23

From the manganese determined colorimetrically. Iron determined by

phenanthroline method. Manganese is determined by the persulphate method.

Organic matter

1 organic nitrogen
2 ammonia nitrogen
3 nitrites and nitrates

Mathemoglobineria water borne disease due to nitrates @ 45 mg/l

Organic nitrogen determined by oxidation by the Kjeldahl method. Ammodia

nitrogen determined by Nesslerigation using Nesslers reagent Nitrate and Nitrate
Nitrogen are measured employing organic compouinds and producing colours in
proportion to the amount of nitrate present in the sample.

Phosphorus - determined using ammonium molybdate and stannous chloride (SnCl 2)

- blue complex formed
- absorption of light by the blue colour measured through use of
spectrophotometer.

Fluorides determined by scot modification of the Sanchis methos

Heavy Metals

Arsenic present in ceramic industry waste, tanneries etc.

Accumulates in body to cause arsenosis affecting liver and heart

Lead fluids entry into water through the discharge of waste water from
pointing, dyeing industries and oil refineries.
Highly toxic to small fish.

Cadmium Source: Chemical, mining industries

Causes painful bone diseases

Chromium Source: waste water of electroplating, dyes painting, chrome tanning etc .
causes painful bone diseases

Mercury Source: Pharmaceuticals & dental preparation

accumulates as methyl mercury, affects central nervous system
and proves fatal.

BACTERIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS

It is done primarily to determine its potability ie, fitness for drinking. As many
diseases of the intestinal origin eg. Typhoid fever, dysentery etc. have transmitted to
humans via polluted water, this analysis indicates the degree of pollution, sewer as a
useful measuring stick to determine the safety of water.

Tests for bacterial contamination:

1) Total count test.

2) E-Coli Test or B-Coli Test.
 24

Total Count Test

* Bacterias are cultivated on specially prepared culture medium of agar containing

nutrients for bacteria for different dilutions of sample of water with sterilized water.
* Sample is incubated at 370C for 24 hours, called hot count or for 48 hours at 200C
called cold count. Bacteria frow and multiply and four colories or clusters.
* The bacteria thus formed are counted and results computed for 1 cc
* Total count not greater than 100 per cc.

E-Coli Test

a) Presumptive Test

* Definite positions of diluted samples inoculated with lactose broth as culture

medium are placed in standard fermentation tubes.
* Incubated for 24 28 hours at 370C
* If gas is seen, test is +ve, bacterias present else ve.

b) Confirmed Test

carried out to confirm the presence of B-Coli

Portion of lactose broth showing +ve presumptive test is carefully transferred
to another fermentation tube containing brilliant green lactose bile as culture
medium.
Inculation for 48 Hrs. @ 370C
1 + gas seen +ve result and presence of B-Coli
c) Completed Test

portion of the brilliant green lactose bile showing +ve confirmed test is
inoculated into lactose broth fermentation tubes and agar tubes.
Inculation at 370C for 24 48 Hrs.
Absence of gas indicates ve completed test and water is safe
Presence of gas indicates +ve result and necessitates further detailed study of
bacilli present in water.

Coliform Index:

It is a measure of the concentration of coliform organisms in a water sample. It is

the reciprocal of the smallest quantity of a sample (ml) which would give a positive E-
Coli Test
E-Coli < 3 & > 10

Most Probable Number (MPN)

It indicates the bacterial density which is most likely to be present in water. It is

obtained by applying the laws of probabilities of statistics to the test results. Hence it is
more accurate.

Membrane Filter Technique

Latest technique
Sample of water is filtered through a sterilized membrane containing
unicroscopic pores to retain bacterias.
 25

The membrane with the retained bacterias is incubated for 20 Hours at 37 0C

with nutrients
Membrane is taken out and colories of bacterias are counted by means of
microscope.

Advantages:

1) Procedure is most precise

2) Requires less time
3) Increased statistical precision
4) Simple and readily performed in the field

Disadvantage:

It can be used only on treated filtered water due to its inability to filter water with
any degree of turbidity in them.

WATER BORNE DISEASE

Causes

(a) These are caused by presence of micro-organisms which originate from the
intestinal disorders of sick or infected persons

(i) Cholera Vibrio Cholera

The vibrios multiply in the human of small intestines producing enterotoxis which
results in the production of disarrhoea

(ii) Typhoid Styphi

The infection for the entevi fever which includes both typhoid and para typhoid
fevers originates primarily from the faces and urine of sick persons / carriers.

(iii) Hepatitis A Hepatitis A virus (HAV)

The disease known as jaundice is faccal-oral and occurs chiefly through

contaminated water, food or milk.

(iv) Poliomyelitis RNA virus

It is infectionj of the human alimentary tract spread directly through

contaminated fingers / indirectly through contaminated water.

(v) Amocliasis E Histolytica

Diarrhoea or acute dysentery

(b) Presence of parasitic ova

The eggs or the developed embryos of the eggs of round worms and tape worms
are generally carried by water and cause entogal diseases like bilharzias, nematodes,
flukes, guinea worm and hook worm infections. Water forms the medium to carry
mosquito eggs leading to malaria & yellow fever.
 26

(c) Presence of inorganic matter

Lead and arsenic two of the most toxic chemicals are not found naturally in
water. Fluorides < 1 mg/l have a beneficial effect on young teeth. Fluorides >1.5 mg/l
cause fluorosis of erupting teeth.

High concentration of nitrates causes mathemoglobinacmia (or) blue babies.

Blood becomes unable to carry oxygen, the infant becomes sick, vomits and in extreme
cases dies. Goiter is caused due to deficiency of iodides in water, manifested by
enlargement in anterior part of the neck.

(d) Presence of organic matter

Excess of veg. matter may lead to diarrhoea and gastric disturbances in the
human body.

Control:

1) Instituting environmental health programme that incorporates personal and

household hygiene
2) Control of fly species and insects.
3) Monitoring of food processing, immunization of populace
4) Scientific waste disposal and water treatment to remove harmful constituents.

SPREAD:

Consumed by well persons

Well Sources (Wells, Excreta of sick persons/

Streams, etc) carriers

STANDARD LAID DOWN BY B.I.S. FOR DRINKING WATER

Different standards are followed by different water works, municipalities,

corporations and public health departments for drinking water. However, the following
standards laid as per B.I.S.I. are given below.

Sl. Constitutions Recommended Permissible WHO Standards

No. Limits
1 Total Solids Less than 500 ppm
2 Hardness Less than 100 ppm
3 Chlorides Less than 250 ppm
4 Iron and manganese Less than 0.3 ppm
5 Arsenic Less than0.05 ppm
6 Lead Less than 0.10 ppm
 27

7 copper Less than 3.0 ppm

8 Flourine Less than 1.5 ppm
9 Chlorine 0.10 to 0.2 ppm
10 Disolved 5.0 to 6.0 ppm
oxygen(D.O.)
11 pH value 6.5 to 8.0 ppm
12 Nitrites NIL
13 Raste No Onjectionable taste
14 Temperature 100C to 15.60C
15 Colour 10 to 20 (on platinum cobalt
scale)
16 Odour 0 to 4 Po Value
17 B-Coli No B-Coli in 100 ml
18 Radiological emitters 1 MMc / litre
emitters 1 MMc / litre
 28

UNIT III

CONVEYANCE AND DISTRIBUTION

Conveyance System

Intakes: Intake or intake work compose a structure placed in a surface water

source to permit the withdrawal of water from this source and then discharge into an
intake conduit through which it will flow into water works system.

Intake consists of

a) Conduit with protective works

b) Screens at open ends
c) Gates and Valves to regulate flow

Design Considerations: General considerations in design of intakes are:

a) Reliability of Operations:
Intake structures should ensure safety of design and reliability of operations.
b) Quality of Water:
Point of intake should be located such that water of test quality is available.
Study of intake should be made before its selection. Incase of large rivers, intake
should always be submerged and above water bed so as to prevent entry of silt.

Incase of large variations intake should be located at certain depths so that

excess of turbidity and micro organisms are prevented from entering conduit.

Part of intake should be for from settlements, sewage plant and other sources of
pollution water supply reservoirs should be located in uninhabited valleys.

c) Structural Strength

Intake structures should be strong enough to resist such forces such as floods,
impact of boats, debris etc.

d) Economy of construction

If intake conduit is short, it may be merely an extension of suction side of pump.

If however too long, it would be more advisable to interpose a wet well or chamber near
pump than to have long suction pipe as it proves costlier and also it involves greater
head loses.

Types of intakes

Common types of intakes are

1) Resvwove intakes.
2) River intakes
3) Canal intakes.
4) Lake intakes
 29

Reservoir intakes:-
These comprise intake towers having no water inside other than in intake pipes.
The interior of tower in thus made available for inspection and operation.

The intake located either along upstream toe of an earthen dam or within body of
masonry dam. There are number of inlets provided at different levels as water table
fluctuates. This enables to drain clear water from near surface.

River Intake

Depending on the lay out and river conditions. River intake may be any of
following type.

(a) Cross Weir intake: the intake with a writ built across river so as to raise
its water level sufficient for water to be drawn off by a suction pipe laid on water bed
leading to pumps.

Method is quite useful when there is no wide fluctuation and constant head is to
be maintained at intake and when river is not too wide.

(b) Side Weir Intake: This is the simplest form consist of a chamber built in river
bank and protected by bar screens to prevent any floating debris entering pumps. This
is simplest in cost and easy to construct but requires steep and stable banks and correct
siting.

(c) Floating pontoon intake: When there is wide fluctuation in river water table, a
cross weir is a costly affair and also having a side weir intake is of little use. A floating
pontoon intake, which is kept floating with help of buoyancy tanks comprises units for
water purification flocculation tank, filter unit and chlorination, clear water storage and
pumping machinery. It can be constructed deep in the water but, it needs to be well
anchored against high floods, impact due to boats etc.

(d) Piled Grid intake: It is useful where water is static. It comprises a suction
pipe extending from pumps to a point in river where firm foundations are available pipes
having an enlarged bell mouthed end is covered with iron mesh grating.

Pipe is surrounded by well made partially or wholly filled with riprap water is led
to suction pipe to wet well where it is pumped to supply.
 30

Canal intake: It is comparatively a simpler arrangement consisting of a brick

masonry chamber built partially in canal bank. It has side opening fitted with coarse
screen which excludes heavier matter from entering conduit. Entry of water into conduit
is controlled by gate valves. As this intake obstructs a portion of water way resulting in
increase in velocity, it is often necessary to pitch both up and down stream in order to
protect it against scouring.

Pipes flow formulae:

Darcy - Weisbachs formulae:

Flow of water through pressure pipes is normally governed by Darcy Weisbachs

formulae

Hf = flv2 / 2gD
where,
hf head loss due to pipe friction in m.
L length of pipe in m.
D diameter of pipe in m.
V Velocity of flor in m/s2
F dimensionless friction factor, calculated by use of colebrooke white formulae

1 / f = -2 log10 (K/3.7D + 2.51 / Ref)

K Roughness projection in mm
Re Reynolds number.

Pipe Materials

General requirements for pipes of different materials and strength resistance to

corrosion effective capacity maintenance availability and ease of transportation to site
with respect to various pipe materials they are discussed below.

(a) Cast Iron Pipes

These pipes were earlier cast vertically but, thus type has been largely
superseded by spun iron pipes which are manufactured by spinning and centrifugal
action. These spun iron pipes are lighter in weight, longer in length and have improved
metal qualities.

(b) Wrought iron and steel pipes: are stronger than cast iron pipes can
withstand higher pressure but are of lighter section are easier to transport. They are
less durable, more liable to corrosion and is also difficulty of availability of pipes specials
viz, joints, bends etc.

(c) Concrete Pipes: are durable, heavier and can be had in sizes 1800mm.
Transportation costs are much reduced if pipes are cast in situ. Concrete pipes have low
maintenance are resistant to corrosion and particularly suitable to soft and acidic waters.
They however can withstand high pressure until reinforced.

(d) Hume Steel Pipes: are made from a then mild steel shell lined and outcoated
with cement concrete or cement mortar through a centrifugal process. They are
available upto 1350mm and are used for trunk and distribution mains. They are heavy
and difficult to handle and concrete coating gets damaged while fixing branch
connection.
 31

(e) Asbestos Cement Pipe: are composed of asbestos fibre and Portland cement
combined under pressure into dense homogenous structure . Available in large variation
from 50 to 600mm

(f) Wood Pipe: are built of staves of wood held together by steel bands. Wood is
less durable for pipe material and pipe must be constantly full of water to prevent
crackdown due to alternate wet and dry conditions.

Pipe Joints: Pipe joints are required to joint together pipes which are available in small
lengths say 3.6 to 6.0M. Requirements of a jointing material.

(i) Imperviousness (ii) Elasticity (iii) Strength

(iv) Durability (v) Adhesiveness (vi) Availability
(vii) Workability (viii) Economy

(a) Poured Joints:

Materials chiefly used are lead, cement grout, Sulphur and sand compounds now
a days, substitutes of lead like leadite, hydrotite, metalite are being increasingly used.
They are light in weight.

(b) Spigot and Socket Joint:

Joint is commonly used in case of cast iron pipe. Spigot of one pipe is centered
into socket of preceding pipe, tared gasket or hemp yarn is then wrapped around spigot
leaving unfilled required depth of socket for lead. The gasket or hemp yarn is caulked
tightly home with a yarning tool. A jointing ring or kneeded clay using is then placed
around barrel and against face of socket molten pig lead is powered into remainder of
socket.

(c) Flanged Joint:

A gasket of rubber canvas or lead is introduced h/w two flanges of cast iron pipes
which are tightened with bolt and nuts. Flanged joints are strong and rigid are easy to
disjoint as such used where pipe joints are occasionally opened for repair pipe.

(d) Mechanical Joint:

When two ends of cast iron, steel or wrought iron pipes are plain, a mechanical
coupling is required to make a water tight joint.

(e) NVictaulic Joint:

It consist of it shaped rubber ring, enclosed by metal housing made in two halves
each half engaging shoulders or grooves on pipes. These are then bolted together or as
to form a ring around pipe clearance h/w keys of housings and grooves allows for any
expansion, construction or deflection. These joints are used where pipes are exposed to
frequent vibrations. Ex. Bridges

Joints for concrete and asbestos cement pipes reinforced or pre-stressed concrete
pipes are jointed by first placing a rubber gasket h/w steel rings and then filling gap
from outer as well as inner sides with cement mortar.
 32

In case of asbestos pipe, two plain rods of pipe butt against each other, two
rubber rings are then slipped over and coupling pushed over rubber rings thus making
tight and flexible joint.

(f) Screwed and Socketed Joint:

Simplest type of joint used for joining screwed wrought iron or galvanized iron
pipes.

(g) Special Joints:

Used for special pipes in case of cast iron pipes. Examples are expansion joints
and flexible joints. Expansion joints are used on pipes exposed to considerable
differences of temperature allowing free expansion or contraction without any thermal
stresses. Flexible joints used in pipes to be laid submerged under water.

Pipe Laying:

Following are operations laid out in laying of pipes.

(i) Preparing detailed map of roads and streets showing position of rocks, other
underground water pipes, gas pipes, telephone cables.
(ii) Locating proposed alignment on ground: Bench line is marked by driving centrally
stakes 30M apart on straight trenches and 7.5 1.5M apart on cover.
(iii) Excavating trenches: with width sufficient to allow pipes to be properly laid and
jointed and with depth sufficient to give adequate protection to pipes against
impact of traffic and other factors.
(iv) Bottoming up of trench excavated: bottom of trench should be carefully prepared
so that barrel of pipe can be bedded true to line and gradient for its entire length
on firm surface.
(v) Lowering of pipes into trench: after transporting to site, pipes are stacked on
either side of trench. These should be gently lowered into trench so as not to
damage their outer protective coating.
(vi) Layout of pipes: Pipes are seldom laid with a flat slope parallel to hydraulic
gradient thus it avoid any lock troubles.
(vii) Joining of pipes
(viii) Anchoring of pipes: at all bends, tees, valves and other branch connections it
would be necessary to provide thrust blocks of concrete to transmit hydraulic
thrust and distribute to wider area.
(ix) Anchor blocks of concrete would be required to be provided at regular intervals
and pipes would be firmly secured to them with steel straps.

Back filling

Refilling of trench with excavated material. The material around pipe should be
soft, free from lumps or rock or large stone and laid preferably in layer of 15 cm or
30cm

Pressure Test

Consist of filling pipe line with water expelling all are from within allowing it to
stand full for some time and then applying atleast double working pressure. Pressure is
applied by means of a manually operated test pump fitted with pressure gauge. In case
large sized mains or longer lengths of mains power driven test pump may be used.
 33

After test pump has registered requisite pressure it is stopped and any fall of pressure is
noticed.

Leakage Test

Carried out after satisfactory completion of pressure test. No matter how will a
pipe line is constructed there may be some leakages at some point, leakage test is used
to determine maximum allowable leakage.

Q = ND P / C
Q Allowable leakage (l / hr)
N Number of joints in length of pipe line
D diameter of pipe in mm
P Average test pressure during leakage test (kg / cm2)
C Constant Value = 3.3

Pipe Corrosion

Pipes are laid to be corroded when iron or other metal constituting them unless
otherwise protected are attacked by water and dissolved out. Corrosion may be internal
water pipe surface as in direct contact of water corrosion has huge loss to water users in
term of repair and getting new pipe.

PUMPS AND PUMPING

Displacement Pumps

Works on principle of machenically enducing vacuum in a chamber thereby

drawing in volume of water which is them mechanically displaced and forced out of
chamber.

Reciprocating Pump

Piston or plunger operates in closed cylinder, its forward stroke producing

vacuum which draws in water through an inlet valve from a suction pipe, the return
stroke pushing water out through outlet valve in delivery valve in delivery pipe. It can
be single or double acting depends on whether it is arranged for water to be discharged
only during return stroke of piston or lock during its forward and return strokes.
 34

Hand operated reciprocating pump

An important application in case of individual and rural water supply systems. In

such a pump, a piston or plunger reciprocates in a closed vertical cylinder upstroke
producing vacuum opening valve V1, thus drawing in water which fills cylinder below
piston while water in cylinder above piston is forced out of spout, down stroke opening
valve V2 at base of piston filling in water in cylinder above piston keeping V 1 closed at
that time.

Rotary pump

Requires no valves are self priming they can be operated at high speeds and thus
large capacity with small size can be obtained.

Disadvantage

Shows excessive slip with increase in rear of pumping parts. Further, because of
close fit of gears or cams in casing water containing grit or other suspended matter is
infurious to them.

Centrifugal Pumps

Based on principle of centrifugal force tampart energy to water. Water entering

into pump casing is revolved by wheel called impeller which discharges item a direction
at right angles to its original direction of flow. In so doing, kinetic energy of water is
converted into static or pressure head.
 35

Advantages:

Low initial cost, simple mechanism stability of flow, safe against high pressure,
adaptability to high heads, small space requirements and good durability.

Disadvantages:

Limited suction lift, absence of self priming adjustment. Necessity of self

employing self regulating gears, low efficiency.

Airlift Pump

Effectiveness is dependent upon factor called percentage, submergenic which is

ratio D x 100 / D + H

D Depth of submergence
H Effective lift of pump

Advantages:

Freedom from submerged moving parts

ease of operation and maintenance
increased yield caused by forcing great air pressure.
Suitability for installation.

Disadvantage:

Greater depth of submergence

Low efficiency
Little frexibility in meeting variation in demand.

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Distribution system is that part of water works which receives water from
pumping station or from conduits by gravity flow and delivers it throughout distruct to
be sewed.

In includes, reservoirs for purpose of storage, equalizing pressures and

subsequent distribution, together with pipes, valves, hydrants and other appartenances
for carrying water, service pipes, meters etc.

Method of Supply:

Water may be supplied to consumers either intermittently ie, for fixed few hours
of day or continuously. A continuous method of supply is always better that intermittent
supply because of following reasons:

* When supply of water is only for a few fixed hours of day, consumers are
compelled to store water for use during non supply hours. Domestic storage tanks built
for purpose may suffer for want of proper attention and maintenance results in
contamination.
 36

* Unused water of storage tanks is most likely to be thrown out to be replaced

during supply hours by fresh supply of water. Also where supply is not metered there is
a tendency for part of consumers to leave taps open for 24 hours resulting in additional
wastage of water.
* In case of fire breaks out during non supply hours, considerable damage would
have resulted before supply could be turned on and fire extinguished.
* During non supply hours, pressure in distribution mains may fall below
atmospheric pressure results in sucking in air or other harmful gases from sewers
running close by resulting in contamination of water.

STORAGE AND DISTRIBUTION RESERVOIRS:

Function:

Storage and distribution reservoirs are used for following reasons.

to store water for emergencies

to equalize rate of flow due to variation h/w rate of demand and rate of
supply.
to equalize or distribute pressures, since pressure fluctuates with rate of
demand.
to equalize rate of daily pumping.

CLASSIFICATION

a) according to their position as surface or elevated.

b) According to material to which they are built such as masonry, mass
concrete, reinforced concrete and steel.

Balancing or equalizing tank:

this is provided so that a relatively constant rate or supply can provide a

fluctuating rate of demand. The method which involves operating and arrangement
having elevated tank, pipes and valves.

When demand exceeds rate of supply, water flows into distribution system both
from elevated tank as well as through direct pumping by means of bypass loop. When
on other hand, rate of supply is more than demand, then required, demand is met by
water pumped through by pass loop while balancing pumping fills up tank.

Capacity:

capacity depends on number of factor

variation h/w maximum and minimum demands
the reserve required for fire protection
this demand may be assumed to last for 2 6 hours.
this reserve may be calculated with use of formula.

F=Qxt
F Fire reserve in litres
Q Fire demand in litres / mtr.
t fire demand in hours.

the standby pumping capacity

interconnecting in distribution mains
 37

ELEVATED RESERVOIRS

These are used principally as distribution reservoirs where a tank on ground will
not supply required pressure. The use of these reservoirs makes design of pumps very
economical as there is a considerable reduction in pump capacity, pump cost, pumping
head and peak load on pumps.

Two types of reservoirs are commonly used. (1) Stand Pipe (2) Elevated
Reservoir.

Elevated Tank

where lower portion of storage in stand pipe is too lower than elevation for useful
pressure, it only then to furnish support to its smell useful storage above. If useless
zone is of great depth, support may be more cheaply furnished by an elevated tank
having columnar supports elevated tank is thus useful for locations where pressure head
required for distribution have to be at great elevation above ground surface.

An elevated tank may be built of steel or reinforced concrete. Latter is more

cheaper, requires less maintenance and therefore largely preferred for use in modern
practice. However former is quiet suitable for smaller capacity tank units.

Tank is equipped with usual piping consisting of inlet, outlet, overflow or drain
pipe. A depth level indication with a float arrangement is provided to measure depth of
water of tank. For large tanks, cantilevered balconies fitted with steel railings project
0.6 0.9M. Step iron steel ladders are also fixed in inner walls of tank enabling access
inside for inspection.

Stand Pipe

It is a vertical cylindrical tank made of steel or reinforced concrete and is used to

hold water from ground level to top of tank. Its function as to increase pressure on
distribution system by creating extra storage in tank above elevation required to give
necessary pressure on distribution below this elevation water and tank serve as a
support for useful water which acts as an additional low pressure storage available for
use with booster pumps for fire protection.

Stand pipes are provided with single inlet and outlet pipes terminating at lower
elevation of useful capacity of tank, scour or drain pipe to drain out and flush the tank
and overflow pipe to discharge surplus water.

Analysis of Distribution System:

Equivalent Pipe Method:

This method is useful in rendering a complex network of pipes into an equivalent

pipe system giving same discharge and loss of head as in complex system.

Pipes in Scours:

Pipes carry chosen valves of discharge (Q1) flowing through branches AB

and BD and Q2 flowing through AC and CD. It is assumed that loss of head for pipe is
additive.
 38

Pipes in Parallel:

In this case, it is assumed that loss of head through pipes in parallel ie, ABD and
ACD same. If a certain loss of head (H1) is now assumed to occur in either arm ABD
and ACD flows through arm can be worked out and corresponds to give total flow
corresponds to flow Q. Size and length of single pipe line can be calculated to give same
discharge and loss of head.

Hardy Gross Method:

details of inflows and out flows at various nodes flows in each of pipe of network
are distributed so as to meet continuity constraints at all nodes when inflows and out
flows are explicity known this will involve assigning as many flows as there are primary
loops in system. Requirements that sum of head of loses around all primary loops
should equal to zero gives rise to a system to as many equations solution of system of
non linear equation is evaluated by Hardy Gross method.

Q = H / n(H/Q)

Q quantity of flow
H head loss
n constant

In hardy gross method of balancing heads which is a trial and error process,
assuming +ve sign to clockwise flows and ve to anti-clockwise flows.

Sequential steps are as follows:

(i) Assume suitable values of flow Q in each pipe line such that flows coming into
each junction of loop are equal to flow leaving junction.

(ii) Assume +ve sign to clockwise flows and anti-clockwise flows -ve sign.

(iii) Compute head loss QH in each pipe by use of function formula giving same sign
as for flows.

(iv) Compute H around each loop and if equal to zero in all loops, assumed flows are
correct.

(v) Otherwise, if H, is not equal to zero for any loop. Compute flow correction
factor, Q. Add correction factor to assumed flows in each pipe with due regard to sign
of flows.

(vi) Pipes operating in more than one loop draw corrections from each loop.
However, second correction is of opposite sign as applied to first loop.

(vii) Repeat cycle till H is nearly equal to zero or within allowable limits. Then final
values of flows are actual flows in pipe lines.
 39

UNIT IV
SANITATION

Sanitation:

Prevention of sporadic outbreak of diseases dangerous for the general health

of the public.
Achieved by either controlling or eliminating such environmental factors as
contribute in some form or the other to the transmission of the diseases.
These factors include

a) water supply
b) carriage of disposal of human excreta and other wastes from communities,
industries and trades.
c) menace of insects mosquitoes, flies and indents with regards to food and other
services.
d) Ventilation and air-conditioning.
e) Atmospheric pollution and methods of purification.
f) Plumbing in the case of buildings.
g) other hygienic factors.

Sewage:

-> Used water or liquid waste of a community, which includes human and house old
wastes together with street washings, industrial wastes and such ground and storm
water as may be mixed with it.

Constituents of Sewage:

(i) Domestic sewage - > includes human excreta as well as discharges from
kitchens, baths, lavatories etc. from public and private buildings.
(ii) Industrial Sewage - > industrial and trade wastes from manufacturing
processes such as tanneries, slaughter houses, distilleries, mills, laundries,
chemical plants, etc.

Sum of Domestic + Industrial sewage

Sanitary sewage / sewage

(iii) Ground water entering sewer through leaks.

(iv) Storm Sewage - > Storm water which is rain water from houses, roads, along
with surface water etc.

Sewer: Under ground conduit used for the removal of sewage and sewerage.

Sewerage: general process of removing sewage.

Sewerage system / Sewer system: entire system of conduits and appurtenances

involved.
 40

Sewage Characteristics

Physical Chemical Bacterialogical

Physical Characteristics: includes turbidity, colour, odour, temperature.

a) Turbidity -> Normally turbid

-> resembling dirty dish water or waste water

from bath having other floating matter like fecel
matter, paper pieces, cigarette ends, match
sticks, greases, vigitable debris, fruit skins, soaps
etc.

-> turbidity increases as the sewage becomes

stronger.

-> can be measured and tested by turbidity rods

or turbidimeters.

b) Colour -> can normally be directed by naked eye.

-> indicates the freshness of sewage

-> yellowish, grey or light brown fresh sewage

-> black or dark brown septic wastage

c) Odour -> Fresh sewage is practically odourless

-> But, it becomes slab in 3-4 hours with all
oxygen present in sewage being practically
exhausted.
-> It then starts omitting offensive odours,
especially that of H2S gas (formed due to
decomposition of sewage)

d) Temperature -> has an effect on biological acticity of bacteria

present in sewage
-> and also affects the solubility of gases in
sewage
-> also affects the viscosity of sewage, which in
turn affects the sedimentation process in its
treatment.
-> normal temperature is slightly higher than the
termperature of water, because of additional head
added during the utilization of water average
temperature of sewage in India is 200C
-> when temperature is more, the dissolved
oxygen content of sewage gets reduced.
 41

CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Chemical characteristics helps in determining the stage of sewage decomposition,

its strength and extent and type of treatment required for making it safe to the point of
disposal.
(a) Total solids, suspended solids and settleable solids

-> Sewage normally contains very small amount of solids in relation to huge
quantity of water.
-> Only contains about 0.05 0.10% of total solids.
-> Solids present in sewage may be in any of the four forms.
Suspended
Dissolved
Colloidal
Settleable
-> About 1000 Kg of sewage contains about 0.45 Kg of total solids, out of which
0.225 Kg is in its solution, 0.112 Kg. is in suspension and 0.112 Kg. is
settleable.
-> Solids in sewage comprise of both (1) Organic (2) Inorganic
-> Organic matter works out to be about 45% of total solids and the remaining
about 55% is in inorganic matter.

Solid Type Sewage Strength

Weak Medium Strong
Total Solids 400 800 1200
Suspended Solids
Total 100 200 350
Volatile 75 135 210
Settleable solids 2.5 5 7
Soluble matter like 6 14 20
fate, oils & grease

pH Value
-> pH < 7 : acidic sewage
pH > 7 : alkaline sewage
-> Its determination is important because efficiency of certain treatment methods
depends upon the availability of a suitable pH value.
-> Can be measured quickly and automatically with the help of a potentiometer.
Chloride Content
-> Generally found in municipal sewage
-> Normal content : 120 mg/lit
-> Permissible content : 250 mg/lit
-> When the chloride content of a given sewage is found to be high, it indicates
the presence of industrial waste on infiltration of sea water, thereby indicating
its strength.
Nitrogen Contents
-> Indicates the presence of organic matter.
-> Many occur as free ammonia, albuminoid, nitrogen, nitrites or nitrates.
-> Free ammonia:> indicates very first stage of decomposition of organic matter.
-> Albuminoid Nitrogen:> indicates quantity of nitrogen present in sewage before
the decomposition of organic matter.
 42

Presence of fats, oil and greases:

-> are derived in sewage from the discharges of animals and vegetable matter or
from the industries like garages, kitchens etc.
-> Interfere with the normal treatment of sewage and hence need proper
detection and removal.
-> Their amount is determined by the help of ether as oil and grease are soluble in
ether.
Sulphides, sulphates and Hydrogen Sulphide Gas
-> Decomposition of various sulphur containing substances present in sewage.
-> This decomposition leads to evolution H2S gas, causing bad smells.
Dissolved Oxygen
-> Its determination is important.
-> While discharging the treated sewage into some river stream, it is necessary to
ensure atleast 4 ppm of D.O. in it or else fishes are likely to be killed.
-> If the temperature of sewage is more, the D.O. content will be less.
-> The solubility of oxygen in sewage is 95% of that in distilled water.
-> The D.O. content of sewage is generally determined by the Winklers method.

BACTERIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS

-> The bacteriological characteristics of sewage are due to the presence of

bacteria and other living micro-organism such as algae, fungi, protozoa etc.

METHOD OF COLLECTION

Dry / Conservancy System Water Carriage System

Older / primitive method relatively new method

Dry / Conservancy System:

-> Consists of accumulation of right soil or human excreta in latrines or privies,

cesspools etc., and its subsequent removal manually and transportation in
vehicles to points of ultimate disposal.
-> The waste water from kitchens, baths, etc. called sullage and the storm water
are collected separately in gutters and led off into neighbouring channels etc.
for disposal.

Water Carriage System:

-> The right soil gets mixed up with sufficient quantity of waste water forming
sewage and is collected in a system of pipes and transported for subsequent
treatment and disposal in a harmless manner without any nuisance.
-> As the direction of solid matter in water to form sewage is normally very great,
sewage easily flows in accordance with the laws of hydraulics as applied to the
flow of water.

Relative advantages and disadvantages:

-> The dry system has a number of disadvantages.

The following are worthy of mention:
-> Unhygienic aspect involved in the manual removal of human excreta.
 43

-> Nuisance due to bad smell resulting from decomposition of the accumulated
right soil in privies and carpools.
-> Insanitation caused by the transportation of right soil through streets or other
crowded localities.
-> Risk of epidemics due to improper or earlier disposal of the right soil .
-> Insanitation due to carriage of sullage through open drain laid in the streets.
-> Uneconomical from financial point of view being very slow and dependent upon
manual labour at various stages.

The waterborne system has following advantages to offer:

1> The removal of sewage in covered conduits is an efficient method without any
nuisance value of ensures hygienic conditions, better health and well being of
the sewered community.
2> Risk of outbreak of epidemics is reduced to the minimum because of the
treatment given to the sewage prior to its final disposal.
3> The properly treatment sewage results in an economical saving because of the
manifold waste to dispose of the final products.

The principal disadvantages of the water-borne system is its high outlay

on the cost of pipes and other sewer appurtenances required. The
maintenance of the system is also costly.

CLASSIFICATION OF SEWERAGE SYSTEMS

The sewerage systems are classified according to the purpose for which they are
put in use as:

(i) Combined System

The same sewer is intended to carry both the domestic sewage industrial waste
as well as the surface and the storm water flow.

In a separate system, the domestic sewage and industrial wastes are carried in
one set of sewers whereas the storm and surface waters are carried in another set of
sewers.

In partially separate system is a modification of the separate system in which the

separate sewer discharging domestic sewage and industrial wastes also contains a
portion of the surface water drained from back-paved yards and roofs of houses.

Relative Advantages and Disadvantages

(i) Separate System

The advantages of a separate system of sewerage are:

-> Being smaller in size, the sewers are economical. The surface water may be
taken in open or closed conduits or drains at or near the surfaces and
discharged at suitable outlets, thus greatly simplifying the design of sewers.
-> No risk of stream pollution as no storm overflows are to be provided.
-> The quantity of sewage to be treated being small, the disposal or the treatment
works can be economically designed.
-> If the pumping of sewage at the treatment works is necessary, pumping costs
 44

would be much less as there is no need to pump the storm water.

The disadvantages are

-> Unless laid at a step gradient, self cleaning velocity in the sewers cannot be
assured and flushly shall have to be done. This may prove unsatisfactory and
expensive.
-> Risk of encroachment by unauthorized rain water collection and consequent
overflow of sewage may be there.
-> Double house plumbing is another disadvantage. Two sewers or drains in a
street lead to greater obstruction of traffic while repairs to any one of them are
being carried out.
-> Maintenance costs of two system are greater than that for one.

(ii) Combined System:

The relative advantages of a combined system are:

a> Rain water keeps sewage fresh making it earlier and more economical for
treatment purposes.
b> Dilution also helps, this being in itself a method of treatment.
c> Automatic flushing is provided by water.
d> Because of the trigger size of the sewer, cleaning becomes earlier.
e> This is a simpler method of collection and house plumbing is economical.

The relative disadvantages of a combined system are:

i) The trigger size of the sewer would involve larger excavation.
ii) The dry-weather flow being a small amount of the total flow, the large size of
the sewer would often result in causing sitting up due to low velocity of flow
during the dry part of the year.
iii) Costs of pumping and treatment would increase due to large quantity of
sewage to be handled.
iv) Overflow: under worst conditions may endanger public health.

Quantity of Sanitary Sewage:

Sanitary sewage which includes both the domestic and the industrial wastes
along with any infiltration due to ground water flow depends upon the population and
the per capita contribution of sewage. Quantity of sewage should be visualized for
future conditions over the design period and should accordingly be provided for.

The dry-weather flow (DWF) is the total average discharge of sanitary sewage
and is the normal flow in a sewer during the dry weather. It is generally expressed in
litres per capita per day.

It depends upon the following four factors.

1) Population
2) Type of area served
3) Rate of water supply
4) Ground water infiltration
 45

Population:

Due to reasons of the high dilution of the solid waste matter if may be informed
that the dry-weather flow would be treated in an alike matter ie, the DWF increases with
the increase in population served.

While the estimate of population is difficult to be precisely and easily determined

the following densities are generally found suitable for adoption in the country.

Table Population Density

Population of Town / City Density

(Population per Hectare)
Upto 5000 75 150
5000 20000 150 250
20000 50000 250 300
50000 100000 300 350
Above 100000 350 1000

Sewer pipelines are generally designed to carry peak flows for the maximum
population for the local area to be served.

Types of area served

A town or city is generally classified into difference areas as

a) residential or domestic
b) industrial
c) commercial

The residential areas may be further sub-classified, depending upon the

population to be served as thinly populated, moderately populated and heavily
populated or crowded areas. The quantity of sewage is generally expressed as litres per
capita per day.

Industrial areas contain large as well as small factories. Commercial areas have
wholesale and detail stores, offices and other public buildings, hotels etc. The rate of
flow of sewage in such cases is expressed in litres per day per square meter or per
hectare of area.

Water Supply :

The quantity of used water discharged into a river system should, truly speaking,
be a little less than the amount of water originally supplied to the community. This is
because of the fact that all the water supplied does not reach sewers owing to such
losses as leakage from pipes or such deductions as lawn-sprinkling, manufacturing
processes etc. On an average under Indian Conditions, 80% of per capita water
consumption may be considered in the design for reaching the sewers. While the per-
capita consumption for water supply is kept at a minimum of 135 litres per capita per
day (lpcd), the sewers should be designed for a minimum flow of lpcd.
 46

Ground water infiltration:

This depends upon the following:

i> Nature of the soil Infiltration of water is more in case of a pervious soil than
in an impervious soil.
ii) Material of sewers namely stoneware, concrete, cast iron etc. A stoneware pipe
sewer shall permit more infiltration being less water tight than a cast iron pipe
sewer.
iii) Pipe Joints: Since the ground water enters the pipe mainly at the joints,
greater the length of the joints more will be the infiltration of water. A
defective or less water-tight joint shall be also admit more of ground water.
iv) Depth at which sewer is laid-
If the depth at places goes below the ground water table, infiltration will be
more.
Since sewers are designed for peak flows, allowance for ground water
infiltration should be made for the worst condition in the area. In general, for
sewers laid below ground water table, the permissible infiltration rate is 5,000-
50,000 liters per day per hectare (1ph/ha) of the area served or 500-5000
liters per day per kilometer (lpd/km) length of the sewer draining the water.

FLUCTUATION OF SEWAGE:

The sewage flow, like the water supply flow, is not constant in practice but varies.
The fluctuation may, in a similar way, be seasonal or monthly, daily and hourly.

The seasonal fluctuations are due to climatic effect, more water being used in
summer than in winter. The daily fluctuations are the outcome of certain local conditions
involving habits and customs of people. This, in USA, and in other European countries,
Monday is the washing day, as such amount of sewage flow woule be much greater than
on any other day. In India, however, Sundays or other holidays would involve activities
which permit greater use of water. Hourly variations are because of varying rates of
consumption in different hours of the day. A typical graph showing the hourly variations
in the sewage flow is shown below

The maximum flow which occurs during the day at about non-time is usually
about percent of the average flow which the minimum flow occurring during the night
after twelve or early hours of the morning is generally about half of the average flow.
 47

Design of Sewers:

General considerations in the design of sewers are as follows:

Sewers are designed either in the separate system or the combined system
depending upon their respective conditions met with. The separate system is more
common and better suited to Indian conditions than the combined system due to
following reasons.

Separate Systems:
Advantages:

Being smaller in size, the sewers are economical. The surface water may be
taken in open or closed conduits or drdains at or near the surface and discharged at
suitable outlets, thus greatly simplifying the design of sewers of storm water drain.

There is no risk of stream pollution as no storm overflows are to be provided.

The latter are necessary only in the case of the combined system.

The quantity of sewerage to be treated being small, the disposal or the treatment
works can be economically designed.

If the pumping of sewage at the treatment works is necessary, pumping costs

would be much less as there is no need to pump the storm water.

Combined System
Advantages:

i) Rain water keeps sewage fresh making it easier and more economical for
treatment purposes.
ii) Dilution also helps, this being in itself a method of treatment.
iii) Automatic flushing is provided by water.
iv) Because of the bigger size of the sewer, cleaning becomes easier.

Separate System
Disadvantages:

i) Maintenance costs of two systems are greater than that for one.
ii) Double house plumbing is disadvantage.

Combined System
Disadvantage:

i) The bigger size of the sewer would involve large excavation.

ii) Overflowing under workst conditions may endanger public health.
iii) The design of a sewerage system like the water supply, is based on the
prospective population at the end of the design period which is taken as 30
years. The increase in capacity of sewers may accordingly be kept as 25%.
iv) Sewers in the separate system are designed to have a carrying capacity equal
to 2 to 3.5 times the dry weather flow depending upon population. The peak
factor of 2 is taken when sewer is to be designed to serve large population of
about 500000 or above and 3.5 for smaller population upto 20000. In general
 48

peak factor of 3 is commonly used for design.

v) Sewers in the combined system should be capable of carrying at least 2 times
the DWF in addition to the storm water.
vi) Sewers are normally designed to flow 0.8 running full when discharging the
peak or maximum flow.
vii) Sewers should be designed to ensure self-cleansing velocity of flow ie, 0.75
m/s in case of the combined sewers and 0.6 to 0.9 m/s in case of the separate
sewers self-cleansing. Velocity is the velocity of flow at which the floating
matter in the sewage is carried away and not allowed to settle in the sewer.

Type of Cross-Section :

In the design of a circular section, the quantities involved are: discharge Q,

velocity V, hydraulic mean depth m and gradient i. In any problem any two of these
quantities would be known and remaining two shall be have to be calculated. Q will be
determined from continuity equation : Q = A x V

It can be determined by the use of hydraulic formula such as

a) The Chezys Formula

V = C mi

V Velocity of flow in m/s

M Hydraulic mean depth in m
i Hydraulic gradient

b) Mannings Formula

V = 1/n m2/3 i1/2

c) Kutter Formula

C= 23 + 1/n + 0.00155 / i
--------------------------- (metric units)
1 + (23 + 0.00155/i) n/m

n = Co-efficient of regosity for the material of the channel.

Design Period:

It is the duration of time for which sewers have to be designed in order to

adequately discharge the sewage flows.

It depends upon no.of factors like the projected growth of population, increase in
industrial and commercial development, useful like of structures etc.

Considering all the factors, a design period of 30 years is normally employed for
all types of sewers.
 49

Design Flow:

The design flow based on the concept of tributary areas is computed through the
following steps.

a> On the map showing the proposed sewer layout, the total areas which would
contribute sewage to the segments of the system are outlined.
-> A segment or sewer reach for design purposes is taken as the length of the
sewer line between successive man holes.
-> The reach of sewer line is of constant slope and diameter.
b> The boundary of the tributary area is marked on the map for each sewer
reach of the system.
-> The boundary is determined from the topographic map of the area showing
contour elevation and the assumed direction of sewage flow into the
sewerlines.
c> The tributary areas are measured with the help of a planimeter tracing the
boundary of the enclosed area.
-> For a given sewer reach, the design flow is computed from the following
relationship:
Q = A x Pd x qm
where Q Design flow, litres per day
A = Tributory Area
Pd Population density, persons / ha
Qm maximum daily sewage flow, litres per capita per day (lpcd)

Ex: A main sewer is to be designed to receive a flow from 1 KM 2 area of a community

where the population density is 200 persons / ha. The average sewage flow is 150 litres
per capita per day. What is the design flow for the main sewer?

Solution:

DWF = 150 lpcd

Assuming peak factor of 3,

Maximum flor, qm = 3 x 150 = 450 lpcd

Tributory Area, A = 1 KM2 = 100 ha

Population density, Pd = 200 persons / ha

Therefore,

Q = A x Pa x qm
= 100 x 200 x 450
= 9,00,00,000 litres per day
= 9 million litres per day.
 50

UNIT V
SEWER MATERIALS, CONSTRUCTION AND APPURTENANCES

Materials for Pipe Sewers:

Various materials are used for construction of sewer pipe lines provided the
following factors are considered.

1. Strength and Durability: It should have strength to bear external loads and
not give way quickly to normal wear and tear.

2. Resistance to Corrosion: It should not corrode because of sewer gases, due to

the presence of acids and impurities.

3. Resistance to Abrasion: It should resist abrasion or inner wear and tear due
to lop of grit and sand particles moving at high velocity.

4. Light Weight: It should be light weight, easily handled and transported and non-
brittle.

5. Imperviousness: It should not allow any seepage of the sewage.

6. Economy and Cost: It should be cheap so as to cause overall economy in

construction.

7. Hydraulically efficient: hydraulic property ie, smooth interior surfaces and

Mannings constant as low as possible.

The following materials are found suitable for sewer pipe lines.

1. Asbestos cement pipes / sewers

2. Cement concrete pipes / sewers
3. Brick sewers
4. Vitrified clay or stoneware sewers
5. Cast iron sewers
6. Lead sewers
7. Plastic sewers
8. Steel pipes / sewers

These materials are further described below:

1. Asbestos Cement Pipes / Sewers:

They are made from a mixture of asbestos fibre, silica and cement. They are
converted under pressure into required material.

Asbestos fibre mixed with cement act as reinforcements, resulting in strong

materials.
Size: 0.10 cm to 90 cm in dia and 4.0M in length
Advantages: 1. Light weight and easy to transport. 2. Easily cut and
assembled without skilled labour. 3. Internal surfaces are smooth thus
hydraulically efficient. Mannings N = 0.022
 51

Disadvantages: 1. They are structurally not strong to bear large

compressive stresses induced by external loads. 2. They are susceptible to
corrosion by sulphuric acid from hydrogen sulphide gas generated in waste
water and industrial wastes.
Uses: 1. They are used as vertical rain water pipe. 2. They can be used
for comparatively less foul sullage from kitchens and bathrooms.

2. Cement Concrete Sewers:

Cement Concrete pipes are classified primarily into (a) plain cement
concrete pipes: small size pipe upto 0.45M diameter. (b) Reinforced
Cement Concrete Pipes: pipes for larger diameters (upto 4.50M)

Cement concrete pipes can also be classified into (a) Cast-in-situ pipes:
Cast-in-situ pipes are prepared at site by transporting ingredients (ie,
cement, steel, aggregates, water). They are useful when site condition are
difficult and handling and transportation is tough. But, since casted on site,
less supervision or checks possible leading to decrease in quality.

Precast Pipes: These are manufactured in factories and then transported to

the site. These pipes are casted in factories being subjected to greater
quality control and supervision.

Mix Ratio: 1 Cement : 1.5 Fire Aggregate : 3 Coarse Aggregate

Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) Pipes: They are provided with

circumferential reinforcements for internal and external stresses and
longitudinal reinforcements (0.25% of cross-section). They are provided in
three ways:

(a) Single-Cage Reinforced Pipes: The reinforcement is provided near

inner surface to withstand internal forces (Hoops Tension). This is provided in pipes
with dia less than 0.80M having internal pressures only.

(b) Double-Cage Reinforced Pipes: Two sets of reinforcements, one at

inner and other at outer surface is provided for internal and external pressures.
They are used for pipes having dia larger or equal to 0.80M.

(c) Elliptical Cage Reinforced Pipes: For larger diameter pipe subjected
only to external pressures, elliptical cage reinforcement is provided.

Non-pressure RCC Pipes are classified as per IS 458-1988 as follows

Class Description Condition when used

NP1 Unreinforced Concrete non- For drainage or irrigation use, above
pressure pipes ground or in shallow trenches.
NP2 Reinforced Concrete Light-duty For drainage or irrigation use for
non-pressure pipes culverts carry light traffic.
NP3 Reinforced Concrete medium For drainage or irrigation use for
duty non-pressure pipes culverts carrying heavy traffic.
NP4 . Reinforced Concrete heavy-duty For drainage or irrigation use for
non-pressure pipes culverts carry very heacy traffic such
as railway loadings.
 52

RCC Pipes Manufacture: RCC pipes are manufactured in three ways / types

(a) Ordinary type: ordinary methods of pouring and tamping is used. Pipe has bar
and mess reinforcements.
(b) Centrifugal type: They are made by rotating the mould about the pipe axis.
They result in high density water tight surface.
(c) Cylinder type: They are made by lining thin cylindrical sheets, both internal and
external with rich cement concrete. They are stronger and more water tight.
Advantages: (1) They are strong in tension (internal pressure) and
compression (external loads) (2) They are resistant to erosion and abrasion.
(3) They are easily moulded and manufactured. (4) They are made for any
required strength. (5) In ground water or running sand conditions, cast-in-
situ forms can be easily used. (6) They are economical for medium and large
sizes.
Disadvantages: (1) They are corroded and pitted by sulphuric acid from H 2S
gas or other chemicals. (2) They get eroded by silt and grit.
Protection of Concrete Sewers: (1) Use of vitrified clay linings in the
interior. (2) Prohibiting entry of wastes containing sulphides. (3) Allowing pre-
treated sewage. (4) Aerating and chlorinating the sewage. (5) Ventilating the
sewers and making them run full.

3. Brick Sewers:

Brick sewers are mostly replaced by cement sewers. They are built where
materials for cement sewers are not available. They are plastered from outside,
especially brick joints to prevent entry of roots and ground water. They are also lined
inside with stoneware to render them smooth and hydraulically efficient.

Advantages: (1) Cheap and locally available. (2) Provides moderate smooth
surface. (3) Cast-in-situ sewer sections such as circular, void, basket, handle
type can be built. (4) Durability is quite high. (5) Combined large sewers or
storm water drains can be built.
Disadvantages: (1) Cement joints in brick sewers lead to corrosion. (2)
Progress of construction is very slow. (3) Construction and labour cost is high.

4. Vitrified Clay or stoneware sewers:

They are used in house connections as well as lateral sewers. Sizes available are
from 10cm to 90cmc dia.

They are made from clay and shales, which is first pulverized and mixed
thoroughly with water. Than it is used for casting pipes in a press under
pressure. Than they are dried and burnt in hot kiln under controlled
temperature. At the end, sodium chloride is added, which reacts in heat
resulting in a smooth hard water proof glazed layer.
Joints are socket and spigot types.

Advantage: (1) Highly resistant to sulphide corrosion suitable for polluted

sewage and wastes. (2) Very smooth interiors and hydraulically efficient. (3)
Highly impervious, no seepage. (4) Strong in compression, withstand super
imposed loads. (5) Cheap, durable, easily available, easily laid. (6) Non-
absorbent.
 53

Disadvantages: (1) Heavy, bulky and brittle (2) Difficult to transport. (3)
Weak in tension cannot be used as pressure pipes (4) Smaller sizes and
lengths available.

5. Cast Iron Sewers:

They are structurally strong and can withstand large tensile, compressive and
bending stresses. They are used in following cases:

(a) Pipes under pressure: ie, outfall sewers, rising mains in pumping stations etc.
(b) Sewers laid below heavy traffic: ie, under highways and railways.
(c) Sewers carried over piers or trestles.
(d) For 100% leak proof sewers to avoid contamination.

Cast iron pipes are manufactured by two processes: (a) Sand Moulding
method (b) Centrifugal process.

They are connected by bell and spigot joints.

Advantages: (1) Structurally strong. (2) Smooth, durable. (3) can withstand
tensile, compressive and bending stresses.
Disadvantages: (1) Prone to corrosion. (2) Costly. (3) Heavy and Bulky.
Indian Specification of Cast Iron Pipes: IS 1536:1967

6. Lead Sewers:

They are used in smaller sizes, 3 to 4 cm dia.

Advantages: (1) Smooth and soft. (2) Easily bent to take odd shapes. (3)
Not affected by acid or alkaline discharges. (4) They can resist sulphide
corrosion.
Disadvantages: (1) They are costly.
Uses: (1) Down take pipes of flushing cisterns. (2) waste pipes from stall
urinals and basins (3) Geyser connections.

7. Plastic Sewers:

They are used in various countries and is being introduced in India for internal
water supply and drainage.

Advantages: (1) Durable, strong against internal pressures. (2) Easy to

handle, light. (3) Rigid and flexible.
Disadvantages: (1) Deformation occurs overtime. More improvements are
expected from plastic pipe. Research work is in progress.

8. Steel Pipes / Sewers:

Steel pipes are used where following properties are required: (1) Lightness. (2)
Imperviousness (3) Resistance to pressure.
 54

Advantages: (1) Flexibility. (2) Resists effects of shock movements and

external pressures by deflecting, bulking, flattering without failure.

Shapes of Sewer Pipes:

Sewer pipes are normally circular in section. But, other sections such as basket
handle shape, egg shape, horse shoe shape, parabolic shape, semi-circular shape, semi-
elliptical shape, rectangular shape etc. Eff shaped sewers are used for combined sewers
whereas rectangular ones are used independent storm water surface drains. All other
forms are out dated.

The different shapes with construction circumstances are given below:

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56
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Construction of Sewers:

The construction of sewers included the following steps:

1. Setting out 5. Timbering of trenches

2. Alignment and Gradient 6. Dewatering of trenches
3. Excavation of Trenches 7. Testing of Trenches
4. Laying and jointing 8. Back filling.

1. Setting Out:

This is the first step of construction work.

It is started from the tail-end and proceeds upwards marking sewer lines on
the ground, fixing pegs and establishing temporary Bench Marks with
reference to GTS Bench Marks.
Advantage of starting from tail end is to use the sewers even before
completion of entire construction.
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2. Alignment and Gradient:

They are laid in correct alignment to ensure smooth gravity flow.

This is done with boring rods and sight rails and with accurate dumpy levels.
Sight rails are horizontal wooden boards fixed to two vertical posts by steel
clamps. A boning rod is a vertical wooden post with a cross head. This is
movable to give the invert line of the sewer.
Three to four sight rails are always used to maintain gradient along line of
sewer.

3. Excavation of Trenches:

Excavation is carried out in open cuttings.

Tunnelling is done in case of large size sewers to be laid at considerable
depth.
Length: Not more than 18M is to be left open at any point of time.
Width: It is choosen based on (1) space for running back fill material (2)
enable construction of tight joints. Minimum clear width should be external
dia of pipe plus 40 cm
Depth: It is based such that sewer is laid at proper grades on the bed of
trenches.
Unless soil is firm, bed of concrete is provided.
Excavation is carried out mainly by pick axes and shovels. The broken soil is
stacked out for reinstatement. Stacking is done away from side of trenches,
forming spoil banks.

4. Laying and Jointing:

After setting sight rails over trenches, the uprights are adjusted to level the
boning rod with the invert-line of the sewer.
After transferring the centre-line of the sewer to the bottom, the latex is
trimmed to enable the inside of the pipe barrel to conform to the invert.
Pipes are laid uphill with sockets facing direction of flow. Thus, spigot of the
pipe can be easily inserted in the socket of the pipe already laid.

As per the above figure, the length between sight rail 1 and 2 is measured,
say 15M and gradient of sewer 1 in 60.

Therefore, Fall = 15 / 60 = 0.250 M

Reading at dumpy level for sight rail 1 is 0.950M. Thus, reading at dumpy level
for sight rail 2 is 0.950 0.250M ie, 0.700M

This 0.700M is adjusted in sight rail 2. Thus, inverted-line of the sewer is

adjusted.
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Jointing:

After bedding the first pipe, when the second pipe is laid, a ring of yarn
soaked in cement slurry is passed around the spigot of the second pipe, so
that while driven in, the joint is supported by the socket of the first pipe.
The joint is caulked tightly so that it becomes water tight. Lead caulking is
used.
Care must be taken such that alignment and level is not altered.

5. Timbering of Trenches:

When depth of sewers exceeds 2.0M, it becomes necessary to adopt

timbering of trenches.
It prevents the sides of trenches from caving in avoiding possible damage to
adjoining properties foundation.
Type of timbering generally depends upon type of soil. Timbering shown in
figure is for good dry soil which consists of vertical poling boards and
whalings. In case of loose soil, closed timbering with help of vertical boards
called runners is used.
In case of bad soil or scarcity of timber, sheet piling can be used. They are
water tight, stronger and durable but costlier.
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6. Dewatering in Trenches:

Due to subsoil water being near ground level, sewer construction becomes a
problem. Methods to dewater trenches include (i) Direct drainage (ii)
Drainage by under-drain (iii) sump pumping (iv) well-point drainage.

(i) Director Drainage: It consists of uniform slope to the bottom of the trenches and
remove the accumulated water. This method is not satisfactory.

(ii) Drainage by under-drain: Here, a open drain is laid in a small trench, constructed
below a usual trench grade. The water is discharged into a sump used when trench is
not very deep and under-drain can withstand the load.

(iii) Sump pumping: water is collected in a sump made out in the trench from where
water is pumped. The pump should work continuously to avoid overflowing of water into
the trench. Used for small jobs.

(iv) Well-point Discharge: when sub soil strata met with consists of quick sand or
running sand, incase of large jobs well point discharge is used. It consists of well points
fitted in a pipe network with a pump which lowers the ground water level below bottom
of the trench. The well points are fitted along the trench to a common header pipe,
which in turn is fitted to the pump.

7. Testing of Trenches:

The following tests are conducted in sewers: (1) Water Test. (2) Test for
straightness and obstruction (3) Smoke test.

(1) Water Test:

After the joints are set, check for leakage is done.

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Pipe between two man holes is subjected to a test pressure of 1.5M of water
in case of stoneware and concrete pipes and 9.0M of water in case of cast iron
pipes.
The test is carried out by plugging lower end of the pipe by rubber bag with
canvas and filling the section with water. The upper ending is equipped such
that required head is maintained. Defects such as leakage, defective length,
absorption and sweating of pipes should be rectified.

(2) Test for straightness and Obstruction:

(a) By inserting at higher end of sewer, a ball of diameter 13mm lesser than
pipe bore. In case of absence of projections such as yarn or mortar, the ball
shall roll down the invert of the pipe and emerge at the lower end.

(b) By placing a mirror in one end and a lamp in the other end of the pipe. If the
pipe line is straight, the full light circle will be visible or else not. It also
indicates obstructions in the pipe.

(3) Smoke Test:

This is carried out for drainage pipes. All soil pipes, waste pipes, vent pipes when
above ground is approved by smoke test for gas-tightness conducted under a high
pressure. The smoke is produced by burning oil waste or tar paper.

8. Back Filling:

After constructed and tested, the trenches are to be refilled. The work should be
carried out with care, especially the selection of soil used for backfilling around the pipe,
for safety. The filling in the haunches and upto about 0.75M above the crown of the
sewer should be filled with the finest soil available in layers of 15cm depth watered and
rammed. After this, the excavated soil is used as filling material, rammed and
maintained till restoration.
 62

SEWER APPURTENANCES:

Sewer Appurtenances are structures constructed at intervals along a sewage

system, which helps in efficient operations and maintenance. These include

1. Manholes
2. Drop manholes
3. Lamp holes
4. clean-outs
5. Street inlets called gullies
6. catch basins
7. flushing tanks
8. grease and oil traps
9. inverted siphons
10. storm regulators or storm relief works

1. Manholes: They are RCC chambers constructed at suitable intervals along the
sewer lines for providing access. They help in joining sewer lengths, perforated covers
in manholes also helps in ventilation.

Location and Spacing:

Manholes are provided at every bend, junction, change of gradient or sewer
dia.
Unless there are practical limitations, the sewer line between two manholes is
straight with even gradient.
Maximum distance between manholes varies from 45 to 90M.
Sewer length between two manholes is known as sewer reaches.
Depending upon their depths, manholes are classified as (1) Shallow
manholes. (2) Normal manholes. (3) Deep manholes.

(1) Shallow Manhole:

Depth 0.70 to 0.90M

Build at places having light traffic
Provided with light cover at top

(2) Normal Manholes:

Depth 1.50M
Cross Section normally square or rectangular
Provided with heavy cover at top

(3) Deep Manholes:

Depth more than 1.50M

Size is reduced by providing offsets.
Provided with heavy cover at the top
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Components of manhole: They includes

I. Access Shaft: The upper portion of the manhole is called access shaft. This
portion expands to the lower portion know as working chamber with the help of an
offset, ie, RCC slab or by stone / wooden support corbelling.

II. Working Chamber: The lower portion of the manhole which provides space for
inspection and cleaning operations is known as working chamber.

III. The Benching: The bottom or inverted portion of manhole made up of

concrete, which facilitates the entry of sewage into the main channel sewer.

IV. Side Walls: They are made up of masonry or RCC. The RCC walls are thicker
than brick walls.

V. Steps or Ladders: Steps are provided for descending into the manhole. They
are made up of cast iron and are fully embedded in wall.

VI. Cover and Frame: The manhole is provided with cast iron cover and cast iron
frames. The frame is firmly embedded in the pavement and the cover rests in the
groove inside the frame.

2. Drop Manholes:

When a branch sewers enters a manhole by more than 0.50 to 0.60M above the
main sewer, the sewage is not allowed to fall into the manhole. But, is brought into it
through a down pipe taken from the branch sewer to the bottom of the manhole.

If the drop is only a few metres, it is called ramp as a inclined sloping pipe is
used.
Otherwise, if the drop is large, a vertical pipe is used and is known as a drop
manhole.
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3. Lamp Holes:

They are small openings on sewers for insertion of lamps. The lamp-light is than
viewed from adjacent upstream and downstream manholes. Any obstructed light
confirms the obstruction in the sewers.

Lamp holes are adoptable when (a) a bend in sewer is necessary. (b)
construction of manhole is difficult. (c) Spacing of manhole is more than
usual.
Although lamp holes has become obsolete, they were used as inspection,
flushing and ventilating device.
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4. Clean Outs:

Clean outs are inclined pipes extending from the ground and connected to the
under ground sewer as shown in figure. They are provided at upper ends of
lateral sewers instead of manholes.
Their function is primarily used for cleaning sewer pipes. This is done by
forcing water through it, and some times flexible rods in case of larger
obstacles.

5. Street Inlets, called Gullies:

Inlets or gullies are openings on road surface at the lowest point for drawing
rain water from roads to storm-water sewers.
Gullies are located along road sides in straight roads or intersections at
intervals of 30M to 60M. Slope of streets are made such that cross-walks are
not flood.
The inlets are connected to nearby manholes as shown in figure.
An inlet is a simple concrete box having gratings or openings in vertical ro
horizontal direction.
Types of gullies or inlets: (1) Vertical inlet or curb inlet. (2) Horizontal inlet or
gutter inlet.
 66

6. Catch Basins:

Catch basins are street inlets with additional small settling basin. Grit, sand,
debries settle in these basins preventing their entry into the sewers.
Flood is also provided as in figure to prevent escaping of foul gases.
Catch basins need periodical cleaning, otherwise the settled matter may
decompose, producing foul odours and end up as a breeding place for
mosquitoes.

7. Flushing Tanks:

In case of blockages in sewers, flat gradients or deed end points of sewers,

flushing devices are required. These devices store water temporarily and
discharge it at regular intervals for flushing and cleaning the sewers.
Flushing operation consists of two types: (1) Automatic flushing tank
operation. (2) Hand operated flushing operation.
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8. Grease and Oil Traps:

Grease and oil traps are chambers constructed in sewerage system to remove
oil and grease from the sewage before it enters into the sewer line. They are
located near sources contributing grease and oil such as garages, kitchens
etc.
Necessity of grease and oil traps: (1) If allowed with sewage, they will stick to
sewer sides reducing capacity of sewers. (2) Suspended particles also tend to
stick to sticky sewer sides, further reducing the capacity. (3) Presence of oil
and grease leads to possibility of explosion. (4) Oil and grease also makes
sewer treatment tough.
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9. Inverted Siphons:

Whenever a sewer pipe is dropped below the hydraulic gradient line for passing
below a valley, road, railway etc. or any depression or obstruction in its path, it is known
as a inverted siphon or a sag sewer pipe.

An inverted siphon is thus a sewer section constructed lower than the

adjacent sewer sections and it runs full under gravity with pressure greater
than atmosphere.
Thus sewage flows under pressure rather than gravity.
Demerits of inverted siphons: (1) It gets silted and very difficult to clean up.
(2) If not properly designed, floating matter in sewage gets accumulated in
inlet chamber, affecting operations. (3) It is not possible to give side
connections to the inverted siphons.

10. Storm Water Regulators Or Storm Relief Works:

Storm water regulators are constructed in the combined sewerages to permit the
diversion of excess storm water into nearby river / stream or other water bodies. Storm
water regulators are of following types: (1) Leaping weir (2) Over flow weir (3) Siphon
spill way.

1. Leaping Weir: It consists of an opening in the invert of the storm drain through
which the normal storm flow is diverted into the intercepting sewer and excess flow
leaps over the combined sewer to flow into nearby stream.

For small sewage discharge, sewage will fall directly into intercepting sewer
but, for larger discharge, excess sewage leaps / jumps across the weir and is
carried to a natural stream.
Demerit of leaping weir: In heavy storms, most of the discharge leaps over
the combined sewer, resulting in low velocity in sewers and in turn silting.

2. Overflow weir:

In this case, the excess sewage is allowed to overflow the combined sewer in
the manhole and henceforth it enters into a storm water drain or directly into
a stream.
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To prevent the escape of floating matter from the combined sewer, adjustable
plates are used.
In another type of arrangement, openings at suitable height above the invert
of the sewer are provided at regular intervals. The excess sewage flowing
above this height gets diverted to the natural stream or river.

3. Siphon Spillway:
It is the most effective arrangement and being a automatic process, it works
on principle of siphonic action. Thus starts when the sewage in the sewers
rises above the crest level of the siphon.
When the sewage level goes beyond the crest level, the mouth of the air pipe
gets sealed and the air in the siphon is suddenly removed, resulting in a
suction. The action starts with flow of the excess storm water through the
siphon pipe. When this sewage is discharged, the mouth of the air pipe gets
exposed resulting in breaking of the siphonic action. This process goes on
repeating.

TRAPS:

Traps are fittings placed in drainage pipes, which prevent the passage of foul
air / gas, thus restricting their entry into houses through drains etc.
This is possible as traps have water seals, minimum depth of which is 25mm,
the depth representing the strength of seal.
This varies from 25mm 75mm
They should be non-absorbent having adequate water seals at all times.
They should retain minimum quantity of water for deep water seal with large
surface areas.
Although self-cleansing. They should have suitable access for cleansing.
Classifications:

a) According to their shape

1) P Trap
2) Q Trap
3) S Trap
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b) According to their particular use:

1) Floor traps: They are used for admitting surface water from floors of
baths and kitchen. They are provided with cast iron grating at top to exclude solid
matter flowing into the drain along with waste water.
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2) Gully Traps: Also called gullies, they are used to collect sullage from
baths, sinks, wash basins or rain water from house-tops. The upper section is covered
with a CI grating.

3) Intercepting Traps:

They are used at junctions of house drain / sewer to prevent the foul gases in
the public sewer from entering house drainage system. The gases are led off
through ventilating columns.
The trap has an opening at the top called the cleaning-eye or rodding arm
with a tight-fitting plug, used for periodical cleaning.
 72

PLUMBING SYSTEM OF DRAINAGE:

The three principle systems of plumbing through which discharges from sanitary
fixtures can be conveyed are (1) single stack system (2) one pipe system (3) Two pipe
system.

1) Single Stack System:

In this system waste water from bath, kitchen and sink and foul matter from
water closets are discharged into a single pipe called as soil pipe. This pipe
also acts as a ventilating pipe.
Gully traps and waste pipes are dispensing and water seal is used to
prevent entry of foul gases from the sewers.
Advantages: (1) Simplicity in layout, design and plumbing (2) Improved
external appearance of building. (3) Compact plumbing system. (4)
Economical due to absence of gully and waste pipes.
Disadvantages: (1) Air or waste may be forced up through traps by back
pressure due to blockage or bad design. (2) Water seal may get evaporated
in dry weather. (3) Self-siphonage due to sudden discharge, sucking away its
own-trap seal.

2) One-pipe system:
In the system, a separate vent pipe is added. This has a cage dome at top
which acts as an outlet to foul gases.
All traps of water-closets, basins, baths are ventilated to preserve water seal
by connecting to the vent pipe.
This system is costlier with difficult pipe work.
Modified one-pipe system is known as partially ventilated one-pipe system.
Hence, the vent pipe ventilates only the traps of water closets. This system is
more economical and has simple arrangement of plumbing.
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3) Two-pipe system:
In this system, all soil appliances ie, water closets and urinals are connected
to a vertical soil pipe whereas all waste appliances, ie, baths, wash-basins,
sinks etc. are connected to a separate waste pipe which is disconnected from
the drain by means of a gully trap.
Thus, there are two types of vertical pipes soil pipe and waste pipe each
having separate vent pipe. As such, we have four stacks in a two-pipe
system.

SANITARY FITTINGS:

Sanitary fittings used in drainage system include the following:

1) Water closets
2) Flushing cisterns
3) Wash basins
4) Sinks
5) Urinals
6) Baths

1) Water Closets:

They are water flushed plumbing fixtures designed to receive human excreta
directly from the user.
This term is also used to denote the room of the fixture.
Water closets are of two types: (1) Squatting or Indian type (2) Pedestal or
European type.
(1) Squatting or Indian type : Here the pan is fitted with P or S trap, and
than connected to soil pipe. Squatting plates of vitreous china are fitted both sides
on floor finished with cement mortar.
(2) Pedestal or European type: It is a wash down water closet provided with
seat and cover and P or S trap.

Both the types have flushing arrangements provided through flushing cisterns
and flushing pipes.
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2) Flushing Cistern:

Flushing cistern is used for flushing out water closets urinals etc.
There are two types: (1) Valveless siphonic type (2) Valve-fitted siphonic
type.

The former one is preferred and largely used in practice.

1. Valveless siphonic type:

The bell-type flushing cistern is example of valveless siphonic type. It consists of

cistern made up of cast iron with cover and a sump formed in the centre through which
the flush pipe passes.

The flush pipe has its upper level / end projecting little over the maximum water
level in the cistern, while its lower end discharges into the WC pan. The flush pipe is
covered up in the cistern by a CI bell to the top of which a lever arm with a chain is
attached on pulling the chain, the bell is lifted and vice-versa. Due to this, the water
enclosed is spilled over the top of the flushing pipe, causing siphonic action and thereby
emptying the entire contents of cistern water now enters in the cistern, the flow being
controlled by a ball valve arrangement. A over flow pipe is also provided.
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3) Wash Basin or Lavatory:

It is normally made up of white-glazed earthware. They are either flat back

or angle back. They are fixed either on brackets or on pedestal.
The waste opening is protected by metallic strainer.
The overflow may be of an open weir type or a slot type. There are two inlets
one for cold water and other for warm water.

4) Sink:

It is a rectangular receptacle used in kitchen or laboratory for draining off

water. It is made up of glazed earthenware.
The sink is provided with draining board. It should be located so as to
directly receive light.

5) Urinals:

They are usually of two types: (a) Bowl type. (b) Slab or stall type.

(a) Bowl type: It has a lipped basin with flushing rim.

(b) Slab or stall type: It comprises of a flat wall slab with partitions on sides and
floor channel to drain off a discharge through a trapped outlet.