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1. Brief Historical Introduction O. The velocity of light is the same in all privileged systems.
(II). The properties of space and time:
During the last hundred years, the discussion about the concepts
a. space and time are homogeneous,
of space and time and their interrelation has been very intense in
b. space is isotropic,
physics, and the literature is enormous. After the establishment of
c. space is symmetric with respect to velocities.
Maxwell's equations in 1873 and the introduction of the concept of Again the starting point is the negalive outcome of the Michelson-
the ether, the question of the motion of the earth with respect to the Morley experiment, and the derivation is hence closely associated
ether became of frrndamental importance. The negative outcome of
with the phenomenon of light. There iue many other derivations [9],
the Michelson-Morley [] experiment was a great surprise, which
and practically all of them are based on similar assumptions. For
indicated that the velocity of light may be the same in all moving more references, the reader is referred to the standard textbooks on
systems independent of the velocity of the light source. In order to
the Special Theory of Relativity.
explain this peculiar phenomenon, several physicists inhoduced the It is remarkable that Einstein in the same volume of Annalen der
idea of "contractions" of moving bodies later leading to linear Plrysik in 1905 published not only his paper about the special theory
couplings between space and time: FitzGerald [2], Lorentz [3], of relativity, but also his papers about the photoelectric effect and the
Larmor [4], and Poincar6 [5], and these relations are now known as Brownian motion, which was a tremendous achievement. However,
the Lorentz transformations. In studying systems moving with many scientist working in other parts of physics were in the following
respect to each other, the old Galilei transformations were then
decades greatly disturbed by the fact that their basic concepts were
replaced by the Lorentz-transformations for all systems of inertia.
modified to meet the requirements of electrodynamics, and it is
Poincard seems also to have been one of the first to postulate the perhaps significant that, when Einstein obtained the Nobel prize in
principle of relativity that the laws of physics should be the same in
physics in the beginning of the 1920's-it was the 1921 reserved
all these moving systems. When Einstein [6] established his special
prize awarded in 1922-4e got it 'for his services to theoretical
theory of relativity in 1905, one of the main purposes was to show
physics, and particularly for his discovery of the law of the
that the laws of electrodynamics as expressed by Marwell's equations
photoelectric effect " and not for his theory of relativity. In the study
were invariant under these transformations as a consequence of the
assumption that the velocity of light is the same in all systems
of the photoelectric effect, Einstein had assumed that the
electromagnetic radiation was quantized and occurred in wave
independent of the velocity of the light source. The theory was given
packets with the energy E = hv .
an elegant and forceful geometrical interpretation by Minkowski [7]
in 1909. Since the new concepts meant a revolution not only in Quantum theory had been introduced by Planck in 1900, and the
electrodynamics but in the entire physics, it was important to first Nobel prize in this area was awarded to him in 1918, the second
investigate the fundamental assumptions for the new theory in great
prize was granted to Einstein in 1921, whereas the third prize was
given to Bohr in 1922, which seems to establish some form of logical
detail. One of the first straightforward derivations of the Lorentz-
transformations was given by Pauli [8] in l92l in his famous order for these recognitions. Otherwise, it is difficult to speculate
encyclopedia paper, and it was based on the principle of relativity and about the motivation for the choice of the photoelectric effect for the
the following four assumptions: Einstein award, since no official records are taken about the
4 Some Comments on the Foundations of Physics Origin of Lorentz Transformations
discussions leading to the selection of the main candidates and the Sweden, was not very fond of Einstein's new concepts of space and
final prize winner(s). The Physics Committee Reports, containing time, and in 1922 he wrote a book [12] explaining how a physicist
also the scientific evaluations of the various candidates, which form should measure these quantities properly: in fact, even later in 1969
the background for these discussions and the recommendations by the he refused to accept the validity of the Lorentz transformations.
Committee, the Physics Class, and the final decision by the Royal In a long series of papers
Swedish Academy in plenum are further confidential for 50 years.
[3] in the United States, another
eminent scholar, Ives, critically scrutinized the basis for the
The Physics Reports for the years up through 1922 and their contents revolution in physics caused by the Lorentz transformations and the
related to the Einstein nominations and award have recently been special theory of relativity, and the many historical aspects in these
critically reviewed by Pais [10], and for details the reader is referred papers are of particular value. Of interest are also the remarks given
to his excellent book. by Zapffe [a]. Today the special theory of relativity is an essential
As to the question of the arguments used in the discussions about part of modern physics, and most of the discussion is now devoted to
the candidates for the Nobel prizes in the Committee, the Physics the question of the validity of Einstein's general theory of relativity,
Class, or the Academy itself, one has to remember that anything particularly in view of some recent remarkable discoveries in
which goes outside the official Commiuee Report is pure guesswork, astronomy [5].
but many scientists have still wondered why Einstein did not get his In concluding this section, we note that it would probably have
prize for the special theory of relativity. It has been said that the rules been easier to introduce the special theory of relativity and its new
for the Nobel prizes clearly forbids the prize to be shared by more concepts of space and time into physics, if
it would have been
than three persons, and perhaps it was simply so that there were too possible to derive the Lorentz-transformations without reference to
many qualified candidates for a pize associated with the Lorentz electrodynamics and the properties of light. It was early observed
transformations and relativity--5ee references [2]-[7]. Lorentz had [16] that one can get the correct form of the Lorentz transformations
already got a Nobel pize in 1902 for his contributions to the theory by means of group theory starting from some assumptions of purely
of the Zeeman effect, and Pais's survey reveals that the only other group theoretical character. During the last two decades, there has
serious competitor would be Poincar6. A stronger reason might be been a series of papers about the derivation of the Lorcntz
that the physics prize, according to the opinion of the leading transformations in the American Journal of Pltysics [17], some of
Swedish physicists, should be awarded for discoveries in Physics, and which do not refer to the velocity of light. A purely kinematic
not for discoveries in mathematical or theoretical physics-in derivation has also recently been given by L6vy [18]. Since the
agreement with Alfred Nobel's will that there should be no prize in literature in this field is enonnous, it goes without saying that the list
the field of mathematics-nd that a theoretical pize should be of references is necessarily very incomplete.
considered only if it had important experimental consequences or The author got interested in the problem of the derivation of the
applications. A decisive factor in the discussions about relativity was Lorentz transformation without reference to the velocity of light or
probably that the final evaluation was written by Gullstrand, a group theoretical assumptions more than 50 years ago [17], and the
prominent member of the Physics Committee, who was highly purpose of this paper is to try to bring up this problem to renewed
critical of relativity [11], whereas oseen wrote a brilliant report about consideration particularly in discussing the combination of modern
the photoelectric effect. As a curiosity one should perhaps also quntum theory with the special theory of relativity. In a seoond
mention that Nordenson, a woll established exporimontal physicist in papcr, mmo of th3 paramctrs ocouring in tho fianrformationg
6 So me Comrnents onthe Foundations of Physics Origin of Lorentz Transformations 7
Let us next recall the fact that in classical physics as well as in the
Some Properties of Deductive Theories
special theory of relativity, all the laws of dynamics are formulated in
Letusstartbyobservingthatthecharacterofalldeductive a family of privileged systems, which itself has to be properly
change due to the characterized. For our derivation, it would be suffrcient to observe
tneories in physics has undergone a dramatic
a"r"rop*.ni oi matrrematic. uia logic during the last
century. A if
that, a system is privileged, all systems moving with uniform
assumptions- rectilinear motions with respect to it, are also privileged. The
deductive theory is built on some fundamental
purpose of our study is to investigate the relations between the space
-b"t
axioms-fromwhichonederivestheresultsbymeansoflogic-the
and time coordinates of all the systems within this family as seen by
u.t lip*. ,.uroriig. to the pioneering work by Gauss around
geometries: on:.huq observers with identical clocks moving with the systems. In this
1g00 and the develo"pment of the non-Euclidean
theorems valid without connection, one could hence consider at privileged system as a
learnt that the ar.ioirs are not self-evident
urt uoitair,; ;";:bv choice for a deductive theory' which fundamental quantity.
;;;;i Out of nothing' If one wants to relate the privileged systems in classical physics
only had to be nonicontruai.io.y and non-redundant.
to something else, it is convenient to start from Newton's dynamics.
onecouldderivenothing!Alltheresultsofadeductivetheoryare
usually contain a This is a typical deductive theory built on the following fundamental
i";;ffiy ;;"ir"d in ihe axioms. The axioms by the axioms-so-called assumptions:
number of quantitie;,;hi;h are not defined
can be given
undefined quantities in the abstract theory-whi9llater
;il; ,yp", of- realizations leading to different deJining or
.models the
(1) A body not acted upon by any forces will be at rest or
,ppfft"f*i of the abstract theory'toHowever' \n in uniform linear motion.
a
q"*ii i* one has also realize that one needs a (2) A body acted upon by a force K will undergo an
fundamental
quantities which one has acceleration a which is proportional to the force, so
definite starting poini-to*e fundamental
which other quantities may that K - ttl; where the proportionality factor rn is the
to accept without definition, by means of
nothing! body's "inertial mass".
be defined. Out of nothing, one can define
An excellent ;;;f;f a modern deductive theory is provided (3) The forces acting between two bodies will obey the
in mathematics lawof actionand reaction: Krz = -Krr.
by abstract gtorp"iffi *d iT various applications
;fiirt;i;r.- rt'rrr""rJ irrtt., be observediho*.r.r, that theoretical (4) Two bodies with the masses m, and m, will interact
i, diff...nt from mathematics in one important aspect: a by a gravitational force which is proportional to
;dri;; the /rl,
;ili;A tt.ory trt t.il'tific value' if and only if it can explain
-ia mrrry
experimental .d;ri;;;; p'iai't new experimental results'
a value of its own. For a
whereas . *rttrrmrticaittoory usually has
Origin of Larentz Transformations 9
Some Comments on the Foun'dations of Physics
fixed points on the heaven of the fixed stars. In a strict deductive
there are a
The reader will immediately notice that, in these axioms, theory, this type of reasoning may not seem satisfactory, and the
number of "undefined quantities" as e.g. the concepts
of force, mass, attempts to improve the theory has led e.g. Einstein to the
have still served as a basis for
etc. T.he laws outlined in these axioms formulation of the general theory of relativity in which the laws of
to predict
classical physics and made it possible for modern science physics are valid in all systems.
certain astronomical events, to put a man on the moon,
to send It is obvious that the first ariom is redundant, since it may be
time they
exploratory rockets to most of the planets, etc. At the same
derived from the second one, but in the days of Newton it was
have left many fundamental questions unanswered' pedagogically important, since it was generally believed that a force
It should be observeo ihat these axioms are valid The only in was necessary to keep a body in motion. We note further that
general' first
privileged reference systems, and not in systems in Newton' s laws are valid only in the privileged systems, but also that
rest in a
kiom"indicates that a body not acted upon by forces is at this implieHs shown abovrthat the privileged systems are to a
privileged system or in uniform linear motion in such a system, and
certain extent defined by these laws. The most genial part of
irr. problem is then to find a body which ,l n9t acted upon
Newton's dynamics is, of course, axiom 4 which expresses the
all other
[V gru"itutional forces, since it has to be infinitely far from
"rr""r,iai
grovitational law which regulates an essential part of our universe. It
;;dt"". At this point, axioms 2 and 3 come to our salvation. should be observed that it is perhaps easier to understand the meaning
Considertwobodieswiththemassesmlandln2,tespectively, of Newton's laws today-in view of the new understanding of the
and which act on each other by the forces K,,
and Kzt : -Ktz'
character of deductive theories-than it was a century ago. The
According to axiom 2, one has then quantities za, and m, which enter into the gravitational law are
known as the "gravitational masses". By pendulum experiments,
Kr, = t\il1, Kzr = m2a2, (r.2.1)
Newton proved that the gravitational masses arc proportional to the
inertial masses, and these experiments have later been refined by
tr12r2:
and, adding these two relations, one obtains m1L1*
0'
Edtv0s, Dicke, and Braginsky, and it is usually assumed that these
Introducingthecenterofmass(,fotthetwobodiesthroughthe masses are identical to each other. The proportionality between the
(mt + re2) one gets gravitational and inertial masses forms the basis for the so-called
conventional definition 6 = (mra, + m2a2) I '
equivalence principle, which is the basis for e.g. the general theory
of relativity.
*=0,
dt"
(r.2.2)
The Axiom (IIa) about the homogeneity of space and time implies
that the first transformation in (I.2.3) should be independent of the
choice of origin, which gives the relation
f (x + a,t + b,v) = f(x,t,v) + ar, for arbitrary values of the constants
aandb. Putting x=0 and /= 0 andobservingthat /(0,0,y)=0,
one gets further ar = .f(qb,v), which gives
"f
(* + a,t + b,v) = f(x,t,v) + f(a,b,v). (t.2.4)
Origtn of Lorentz Transformations ll
x'r=hx*H, (r.2.s)
v+u
,,=0{;-,,}=(+X; - h(x- rr)) W =-.
I +vb(u)
(r.2.13)
='{'-(r(' #)} = h{'l - bxt, (r.2.8) Hence one has the symmetry law ub(v) = vb(u),i.e.
In the special case, when a=@ , one obtains lv = tt+v, and the In a family of privileged system satis$ing the four orioms
relations (1.2.17) go over into the Galilei transformations with tr = t . (IIa), (IIb), (IIc), and lIId), the relative velocity between two
However, here there is no reason for a to be infinite from the very systems and their observers must always be smaller than the
beginning. limit velocity.
Since the transformations (I.2.17) must necessarily be real, one
gets immediately the condition On the other hand, if one combines an observer velocity v satisffing
(I.2.18) with a limit velocity u'= ta, one obtains again a limit velocity
-o<v 1lo, (r.2.18) w =!a, which is also seen by direct substitution into (.2.19).
Phenomena moving with limit velocity a in one privileged system are
for the relative velocities of observers associated with privileged hence going to move with limit velocity a in all privileged systems. lt
systems, and the structure constant a has hence a character of a limit is evident that, in our approach based on the four axioms II, this
velocity. From the superposition law (I.2.15) or theorem is going to replace axiom I mentioned in the introduction.
u+v
W= (r.2.1e)
]puvlai' Signal Velocities
one gets directly the two identities A signal in a system S is a message sent from a point P to another
point P' with a specific signal velocity s. For the sake of simplicity,
w (l+ula)(l+vla) we will put both points on the x-anis at a distance Ax from each
1+-=
o l+uv la2 ) other. If the signal is emitted in P at a time ,, it will be received in P'
(r.2.20) atalater time / and if their distance is Ax, then the signal is received
1
w
__
(l-ula)(l-vla) in the point P' at a later time /=/*Arls, where A,t=f -/ is
l+uv laz
l-
a ' positive expressing a certain property of the signal relating to the
concepts of"order ofevents". Ifthese events are instead observed in
and the combined relation tlre. system 51 moving with the velocity v with respect to S, one
obtains by using the last relation (1.2.17) for the time interval
1
w'
__
(l-r'ta211t*v'la'1 Lt, : tr' -rr,
l- ) -
a- (l+uv I o')' (t.2.21)
: l-svla2 (r.2.22)
which shows that the superposition of two observer velocities u and, ' Jl -v2 la2
v satisfling (I.2.18) gives again an observer velocity w satisffing
(I.2.18). Hence one has the theorem: If one wants the "order of events" to be the same as seen from all
privileged systems in the family, then the quantities Arrand A/must
16 Some Comrnents on the Found,ations of physics
-a<s1+a. (r.2.23)
Nodal velocities
(t.2.24)
2 2 2 22 2 2 2 2.2
\+!t+4 C\=X +y +z -Ct (r.3.1)
as the existence of an
The nodal velocity of the system Srmoving in S,
is given by the and Minkowski interpreted this relation
real space given by
expression wu = a2 I u. For the nodal velocity
w* of S' moving in invariant length ,q;;;t in a-four-dimensional
S, one obtains similarlY: i
rh;;;;;;;ffi ,' = *? + + x| - witrt x4and* = ct'
fo1 our purpose it is
Here we will proceea,rigutiv differently,
which consists of all column
a'+uY v+a'lu =G;J
a' :-;; v+wu converient to introduce vector spaces,
wn=
w
=1*u, d' G'2'25)
vectors t={a) J"tA* ' *itt' "itt"r
real or pure imaginary
in
we will denote vectors and matrices
elementsa*. In the following'
symbols' and we will introduce
the
which implies that even the nodal velocities satisfu
the general Roman fonts by iti't"i
convention that, if A an"d B are
two arbitrary^rect^anqulSr matrices of
superposition law. is a matrix of
order m x p wrd ;;;',-'h";*reir ryoJyct'C
=
The axioms II are all in agreement with "common-sense",
and this 1'B
formula
*.*, that there should be no conflict between the
transformations il;; , ,i wittr itre elements given by the