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b) Cruise control
Sensing mechanism-whatever measures the speed in a car.
Actuation mechanism-solenoid driven throttle and brake?
Control computation-
c) Elevator
Sensing mechanism-sensors at each floor level.
Actuation mechanism-Sensors stop the elevator?
Control computation-
d) Climate control
Sensing mechanismthermometer
Actuation mechanism-on/off of compressor.
Control computation-
e) Toaster
One of the simplest and most common control systems you will find in any
kitchen is the simple toaster. One question that you may have asked yourself
at some point in your life is this: how does the toaster know when to pop
the bread and turn off the heating element? Well, it turns out there are at
least three methods. One method is simply to use a timer and pop the
bread after a predefined interval. One might consider this to be open-loop
control, as there really is no feedback involved. Another method is to
actually measure the surface temperature of the bread using a
thermocouple: two strips of different metals bonded together, so that when
they are heated or chilled they strain at differing rates and thus cause a
bending motion that can be used to trigger a physical mechanism to turn
off the toaster. Yet another method is to use a photovoltaic cell to sense the
intensity of the reflected light from the toast surface. Assuming the bread is
initially light color, one would expect a large amount of reflected radiation
from the heating elements. As the bread becomes darker and more well-
toasted, more of the visible light will be absorbed into the test and less will
be reflected. The toaster then shuts off at some threshold. In each of these
cases, the amount of power used by the toaster is assumed to be constant;
so this type of controller can be referred to as a bang-bang controller:
that is, it is either on or off depending on the system state. Each of these
mechanisms are pretty crude: in the case of the timer, the length of time
needed to achieve the proper level of doneness is dependent entirely on
the operator; in the case of the thermocouple, the heating elements
themselves will have a substantial impact on the sensed temperature and
the porosity and thickness of the toast will greatly impact the surface
measurement; in the case of the photocell, the surfaces natural color
could impact the quality of toastedness: i.e., one might expect cinnamon
raisin wheat bread to be less toasted than bleached white bread.
g) Thermostat
Another simple system is a basic forced-air heating system. A central
thermostat measures the room temperature: this is the sensing mechanism.
The controller then compares that value to the reference temperature (set
point), and then if the difference is larger than a threshold value the
furnace and blower are turned on. This is another example of a bang-bang
(on/off) controller. These systems often have a fair amount of oscillation,
due in large part to not simply the on/off nature of the controller, but the
relatively high thermal inertia of both air and objects in the rooms being
heated.
Lying along the approach vector to South Bend airport, few days go by when
an aircraft will not be heard above Notre Dames campus. While most
aircraft are designed to be open-loop stable with good handling qualities,
many configurations benefit from stability augmentation. One extremely
common device used for stability augmentation is the yaw damper. Consider
the following aircraft with coordinate definitions as follows (from:
www.nuclearprojects.com):
Figure 1: Aircraft coordinate axes definitions
The black part of the vertical tail is referred to as the rudder, and primarily
controls the yaw of the aircraft (i.e. rotation about the Z-axis) with minor
coupling to the roll axis as well. A typical performance problem on large
aircraft is poor damping of the so-called Dutch-roll mode: coupling between
rolling and yawing of the aircraft that can be excited by gust disturbances
or normal control motions, resulting in an elliptical motion of the aircraft
C.G. in the Y-Z plane. While this mode is typically not considered unsafe
in cruise conditions, it is extremely uncomfortable to passengers and can
contribute to motion sickness. The low natural damping of this mode is
due to a high moment of inertia about the Z-axis relative to natural
weathercock stability provided by the vertical stabilizer. The damping of this
mode can be increased by active rudder control. This is accomplished by
attempting to drive the yaw rate of the aircraft to zero by using the
rudder (again, the black piece of the vertical stabilizer at the rear of the
aircraft), while maintaining a constant heading angle. The yaw rate
measurement is usually provided by either a mechanical gyroscope or MEMS
device that uses differential accelerometers. The control is usually provided
by a servo attached to the rudder (for large aircraft, it is usually
hydraulically driven; for small aircraft, it might be a conventional electric
servo). A PID control law is often used here. The uncertainty comes
primarily from various aircraft load outs, as was the case with cruise control
on a car. However, there may be more complex dynamics present such as
aero elasticity: the coupling of deformation with aerodynamic loads. Aero
elasticity can have a substantial affection Dutch roll performance, since
large deformations (on the order of a foot!) can be present in the wingtips
of large aircraft during typical loads and some torsion about the fuselage is
also typical (although it should be noted that positive wing deflections
typically will increase Dutch roll damping). Fuel slosh is also a bit of a
problem on large aircraft, since the fuel weight can easily be 30-40% of the
total takeoff weight of an aircraft and is distributed throughout the wings
and fuselage. Fuel slosh thus contributes to uncertainty in the Z-axis
moment of inertia that varies with time.
2.
The ANDRITZ quality control system delivers reliable and precise measurements
(profiles) of pulp sheet parameters.
The QCS is a smart processing center for processing information and delivering
reliable and precise measurements of sheet parameters, for example basis weight,
moisture, temperature or brightness out of the dryer. Data from the scanner is
processed and used for the cross and machine direction control. (ANDRITZ, 2016)
The QCS consists of several measuring sensors, namely a basis weight sensor, a
microwave moisture sensor, a precision color sensor and a sheet temperature sensor.
Basis weight sensor
Following the principle of the radioactive transmission, more precisely the beta
absorption (prometium/krypton/strontium), to measure the mass per unit area
of moving web
A beta radiation source emits a stream of beta particles and as the particles
pass through the sheet, the fibers absorb some of them. The receiver collects
those particles that pass through the sheet and the amount of collected
particles gives information about the basis weight value
Extremely high signal to noise resolution ratio
Excellent streak resolution
Complete compensation for environmental sources of error
High speed of response
ANDRITZ. (2016, November 4). Retrieved November 4, 2016, from ANDRITZ GROUP:
http://www.andritz.com