SURVEY ON DURABILITY
OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
STRUCTURES IN THE
UNITED STATES, CANADA,
AND PACIFIC AND
FAR EASTERN COUNTRIES
Rudolph Szilard, Dr.-Ing.
University of Hawaii
Honolulu, Hawaii
Upon the request of Professor
Franco Levi, President of the Fed-
eration Internationale de la Precon-
trainte, it was decided at the meet-
ing of the FIP Commission on
Durability, held in Milan in Febru-
ary 1968, to form a subcommittee to
investigate the actual performance
of prestressed concrete structures.
The main objectives of this world-
wide survey on the durability of pre-
stressed concrete structures were:
1. To obtain an estimate on the
total number of prestressed
.concrete structures built.
2. To determine the prevailing
practice in each country re-
garding the materials and con-
struction techniques used for
various types of prestressed
concrete structures.
3. To assess the number of pre-
stressed concrete structures
which have shown signs of seri-
ous deteriorations or failures.
4. To investigate, if possible, the
causes of the damage and to
recommend preventive mea-
sures.
62
The survey used two types of
questionnaires obtained from the
Commission on Durability. The pri-
mary purpose of the "short form"
was to compare the number of pre-
stressed concrete structures actually
built with the number of prestressed
concrete structures which have
shown signs of distress. The "long
form" detailed the materials and
techniques used in the construction
of these structures, including their
age, environmental conditions, etc.;
this form obtained more information
on the causes of serious damage or
failure than was obtained in the
short form.
The survey presented herein cov-
ers the performance of prestressed
concrete structures in the United
States, Canada, Japan, Australia,
New Zealand, India, Ceylon, and
other Pacific and Far Eastern coun-
tries.
RESULTS OF SURVEY
United States. The use of prestressed
concrete is relatively new in the
United States, since the oldest pre-
PCI Journal
The durability of prestressed concrete structures and the prevailing
practice used in their construction were surveyed for the United
States, Canada, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, India, and other
Pacific and Far Eastern countries. It was found that the cases of
distress or failures were exceedingly small, considering the vast
number of prestressed concrete structures actually built. The
analysis of the reported cases of failures indicates that the failures
were caused mostly by improper construction techniques and,
to a lesser degree, by improper design.

stressed concrete structure is ap- ies from 0.106 in. to 0.50 in.; the av-
proximately 18 years old. Although erage diameter is % in. The maxi-
the total number of prestressed con- mum diameter of the tendons varies
crete bridges reported in this survey from 7/ 6 in. to 0.60 in. Seventy-nine
was 6280, the author's previous sur- percent of the fabricators use -in.
vey^ l> indicates that there are ap- diameter tendons. The question on
proximately 13,000 prestressed con- heat-treatment in the questionnaire
crete highway bridges in service.
The same survey has shown more
than 90 percent of the prestressed
concrete bridges in the United States
are pretensioned, based on the num-
ber of bridges built. It is believed
that this percentage is misleading,
since precast, pretensioned bridges
are used mostly for small spans. A
comparison on the dollar value of
bridges estimates the volume of pre-
tensioned bridges in the neighbor-
hood of 75 percent.
In fabricating bridge girders using
pretensioning techniques, the most
commonly used tendon material is
the uncoated, cold-drawn, stress-re-
lieved single wire conforming to
ASTM Designation A421 (Fig. 1),
followed by seven-wire, stress-re-
lieved strand. The minimum nominal Fig. 1. Tendon material for preten-
diameter used in pretensioning var- sioning (USA)
October 1969 63
 Posttensioning Number of
System Firms Using
(1) Freyssinet 15
(2) Stressteel 10
(3) CCL 3
(s)
2.6 (4) Anderson 2
(5) BBRV 2
(6) PI 2
(7) Prescon 2
(8) Atlas 2
(9) VSL 1

Fig. 2. Use of post-tensioning systems in the United States

was apparently misinterpreted since, lized high-strength alloy bars, V2 in.

as far as could be determined, steel
companies in the United States sup-
ply only cold-drawn prestressing
steel.
The Freyssinet system is the most
widely used for post-tensioning
bridge girders in the United States,
followed closely by the Stressteel
system. The "new" Freyssinet sys-
tem used 6 to 12 strands, % in. in
diameter. The Stressteel system uti-
to 1 3/s in. in diameter. The popular-
ity of the various post-tensioning
systems is shown in Fig. 2.
The survey indicates that the use
of portland cement (ASTM C150) is
predominant (Fig. 3) ; gravel mixed
with sand is the most commonly
used aggregate (Fig. 4). The water-
cement ratio is approximately 0.35 to
0.45 by weight (Fig. 5), which can
be considered quite favorable re-

Dfl,.^a rg ment ASTM C150

)ther

C. ASTM C175

Fig. 3. Use of various types of cement (USA)

64 PCI Journal
 corrosion protection.
Although the above results have
been obtained for prestressed con-
crete bridges', in the author's opin-
ion they can be considered charac-
teristic for the prevailing practice of
the prestressed concrete, industry in
the United States since, in the major-
ity of cases, the very same firms are
engaged in producing other ` types of
prestressed concrete structures. The
fished stone
only notable exceptions are the con-
Fig. 4. Aggregates for pretensioned struction of prestressed concrete
girders (USA) tanks and pipes which, require cir-
cular rather than linear prestressing'
The most serious case of corrosion
-damage of the tendons in prestressed
garding the durability of prestressed concrete bridges was reported by the
concrete structures (2) Most construc- State of Washington( 3 >. The damage,
tion firms (55 percent) use some type occurred in a floating bridge over
of admixture, such as ryater reducers
and retarders. Vibrating the concrete
mix and curing the concrete are uni-
versal practices. The 28-day concrete
strength is always above the r<e-
qured 5000 psi. The author's previ-
ous survey' > ' indicates that the qual-
ity of concrete used in the United
States for pretensioned and post-ten-
sioned bridge structures is high.
Portland cement conforming to
ASTM Designation C150 is used al-
mbst exclusively for grouting. The
average water-cement ratio of the
grout is 0.35 to 0.45 by weight. In
the majority of cases, no aggregate is
used. The grouting technique varies Code No. Water-Cement
with the post-tensioning system.
While the ; survey shows that the ( 1 ), W < 0.3
C
quality of the grout materials is ex-
cellent, the author believes that cer- (2) 0.3 W < 0.35
C
tain improvements in the grouting (3) 0.35 < W < 0.4
techniques would be highly desir- C

abfe. In less than 4 percent of the (4) 0.4 W < 0.45

C
bridges, unbonded prestressing steel
is used. All major post-tensioning (5) 0.45 5 W < 0.5
C
systems used in the United States
(6) 0.5 5 W
have provisions for' unbonded post- C

tensioning techniques, utilizing vari-

ous types of coatings or grease for Fig. 5. Water-cement ratios (USA)
October 1969 65
CD Table 1. Condition survey of prestressed concrete structures
o)

Wharves, Number of distressed

Industrial piers, Airport conditions not identified
Country Bridges Buildings Tanks structures quays runway Roads Other with type of structures
13,000 13,533 2,700 2,559 71 1 0 114 129*
U.S.A. 23* 3* 27* 1* 4t
it it 2t
3,100 358 5 106 1 0 0 35
Canada 42* 11
1t 2*
15,000 420 288 Combined
Japan 4* with 0 0 0 0 small*
buildings
Australia 1,380 30 80 50 10 0 0 3 small*
3*
New 250 50 50 150 20 0 0 20 0
Zealand
Republic 3,000 No report 0 0 0 0 0 0
of China 1*
(Taiwan)
116 8 1 6 0 0 1 6 small*
India 3*
2t
Ceylon 300 5 0 0 0 0 0 0

Guam 0 25 0 0 0 0 0 0
v 1*
C,

0
* Indicates number of damaged structures including local failures
t Indicates number of major failures (collapse)
seawater. Both Michigan and New
York States reported spalling of the
concrete over prestressing wires as a
result of pitting type of corrosion.
Three other statesCalifornia, Penn-
sylvania, and Marylandreported
rust stains on prestressed concrete
girders but no serious deterioration.
Of the approximately 2700 pre-
stressed concrete tanks in service in
the United States, two have failed.
The collapse of a ten-year old tank is
attributed to an abnormally corro-
sive environment( 4 ) which produced
stress corrosion in the prestressing
wires. Poor concrete mix, insufficient
depth of cover, unsuitable prestress-
ing wires, improper design, and se-
vere environmental conditions were
the principle causes of severe deteri-
oration. The long delay between
prestressing and grouting, coupled
with corrosive environmental fac-
tors, produced failures in the wires
of the post-tensioned cables in the
Richmond Reservoir in California(5).
The late Mr. Lyman, Executive
Director of the Prestressed Concrete
Institute, estimated the total number
of incidents of deterioration (varying
from minor problems to failure con-
ditions) to be less than 10 percent of
the prestressed concrete structures
used for buildings. According to Mr.
Lyman's estimate, the total number
of serious deterioration is less than
1 percent.
If we assume that the number of
distress conditions not identified
with a specific type of structure,
given in the last column of Table 1,
refers to buildings, and all distress
conditions are failures, then the sur-
vey tends to verify the above esti-
mate. Since these assumptions are
quite severe, it is safe to say that
the total number of serious deteriora-
tions is less than I percent of the
total number of structures built.
October 1969
The total number of reporting
agencies in the United States was
slightly more than 100. Approxi-
mately 90 percent of the distress
conditions reported (most of which
are repairable) can be grouped as
follows:
1. Local failures during the con-
struction stage resulting from
improper connections
shear failures of ledger beams.
2. Damage during service life
caused by
improper details of connec-
tions restraining, volume
change movements due to
creep, shrinkage and temper-
ature
loss of camber resulting from
errors in the design or design
assumptions.
Because of the more favorable en-
vironmental conditions, corrosion of
the prestressing steel is rarely a
problem in prestressed concrete
building construction.
Canada. This survey received excel-
lent cooperation from Canadian gov-
ernment agencies and private firms
engaged in design and construction
of prestressed concrete structures.
Twenty-five agencies replied to the
FIP questionnaires. The results of
the replies to the short form ques-
tionnaires are given in Table 1.
As the responses to the long form
questionnaires indicate, the prevail-
ing Canadian practices in design
and construction of prestressed con-
crete structures are similar to those
used in the United States. Probably
the most notable exception is in the
configuration of bridges. In the
United States, the use of simply-
supported, standard AASHO girders
with span lengths 40 to 100 ft. pre-
vails; in Canada, the geometrical
configurations, coupled with the
structural systems, show considerably
67
 Fig. 6. Structural systems used for bridges in Canada
more variation (Fig. 6). Most of the
prestressed concrete structures were
built during the last ten years. The
age of the oldest reported bridge is
approximately 14 years. As Table 1
indicates, prestressed concrete struc-
tures are used more for bridges than
for all other types of structures com-
bined.
The environmental conditions of
the cold winters in Canada are more
severe than in most parts of the
United States, especially in the case
of bridges, where excessive applica-
tion of de-icer salts (e.g. calcium
chloride) on the roadway creates a
highly corrosive environment. This
is most probably responsible for the
more than 1 percent distress condi-
tion reported.
68
In such a highly corrosive en-
vironment, the deterioration of pre-
stressed concrete bridges can be
sub-divided into three different pro-
cesses:
1. Alterations in the physical
properties of the concrete.
2. Increased permeability.
3. Chemical alteration of the con-
crete which destroys its anti-
corrosive mechanism.
It has been found that prefabri-
cated, pretensioned concrete struc-
tures are predominant in Canada,
but the use of the various post-ten-
sioning systems is considerably
higher than in the United States.
The Freyssinet system is the most
popular followed by the BBR,
Stressteel, and Magnel-Blaton sys-
PCI Journal
tems. More than 90 percent of the
post-tensioned systems use grout for
the protection of the tendons. Where
no grout is used, protective coatings
(e.g. asphalt) are applied to prevent
corrosion.
For pretensioned and post-ten-
sioned systems alike, an almost ex-
clusive use of portland cement has
been reported. The favorite aggre-
gate is gravel and sand. The average
water-cement ratio is in the vicinity
of 0.4 by weight. The reported 28-
day cylinder strengths is always
above 5000 psi. Pneumatically
placed concrete containing non-hy-
droscopic retarding admixtures is
used for prestressed concrete tanks.
The survey shows that, in spite of
the apparent lack of strict field in-
spections, the concrete used for pre-
stressed concrete structures in Can-
ada is of high quality.
Two collapse conditions of pre-
stressed concrete structures built in
Canada could be analyzed closely.
In the first case, failures in the wires
of a dome roof of a sprinkling filter
900
800
700
CC
600
0 w 500 Bridges
gc 400
300
f" 200
100
52 53 54 55 56 57 58
Fig. 7. Growth of the prestressing industry in Japan
October 1969
unit were attributed to the calcium
chloride used in the pneumatically
placed concrete( 6 >. In the second
case, serious failure occurred duri-,g
the line tests of prestressed concrete
pipes( 7 ). This failure has been at-
tributed partially to the manufac-
turing process which caused stress
corrosion in the prestressing wires.
Other fairly serious distress con-
ditions are attributed to production
problems such as:
1. Use of unwashed aggregates.
2. Inadequate storing and han-
dling of tendons.
3. Improper curing techniques.
Faulty design of connections and
inadequate allowance for volumetric
changes (creep, shrinkage and tem-
perature) caused more than 50 per-
cent of the minor failures.
Japan. Detailed information on the
status of the prestressed concrete in-
dustry in Japan has been obtained
from the Prestressed Concrete En-
gineering Association, Tokyo.
The first prestressed concrete
bridge in Japan was built in 1952.
900
800
Buildings
\ 700 ,,,
/ \ / 600 " +
H
I Pa 6
500
o0
400 ai
300
1'
200 F'
100
59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67
Years
69
Table 2. Total production of prestressed concrete structures in Japan up to 1968
Type of structure
Highway bridges Length:
Railroad bridges Length:
254.0 x 103 ft.
Buildings Area:
Tanks Number:
Thus, the use of prestressed concrete
is also relatively new in this highly
industrialized country. During the
last years, however, the use of pre-
stressed concrete structures has
gained a considerable momentum.
This impressive growth is shown in
Fig. 7. Based on the total number of
prestressed concrete structures, Ja-
pan is currently second after the
United States in the countries sur-
veyed by the author (Table 1). As
Table 2 indicates, more than 60 per-
cent of the prestressed concrete
bridges are post-tensioned, while in
all other countries surveyed the pre-
tensioning technique is prevailing.
The average length of prestressed
concrete bridges is 160 ft. A highway
bridge has been built with an im-
pressive span length of 530 ft.
The Freyssinet system is the most
popular post-tensioning system in
Japan, as in the other countries sur-
veyed. The second place is occupied
by the BBRV, followed by Dywidag.
Unbonded tendons are not used for
any structure of importance. In pre-
tensioning the most commonly used
tendon is the uncoated, cold-drawn,
stress-relieved wire, followed by the
seven-wire strand. It should be
noted that heat-treated wires were
also fabricated and used before
70
Total Prestressing
technique
1.53 x 10 6 ft. Pretensioned
2.02 x 10 6 ft. Post-tensioned
2.08 x 10 3 ft. Pretensioned
Post-tensioned
3.6 x 106 sq. ft. Not reported
288 Not reported
the year 1959.
The use of portland cement is pre-
dominant for prestressed concrete
structures as well as for the grout.
The average water-cement ratio is
0.35 to 0.45 by weight, and the 28-
day cylinder strength of the concrete
is always above 5500 psi. Conse-
quently, the concrete used in Japan
for prestressed concrete structures
is of high quality. Generally, no
aggregate is used in the grout. Water
reducing, retarding, and other type
admixtures are frequently added to
the grout.
In 1959, the fractures of heat-
treated prestressing wires were ob-
served at two construction sites. In
both cases the wires failed during
storage before prestressing had been
applied. These prestressing wires
had been delivered in coils of 5 ft.
diameter, producing high initial
bending stresses. Prestressing wires
were exposed to excessive salt water
spray at one construction site during
a typhoon. Approximately 20 per-
cent of the wires failed shortly after
the coils were exposed to this highly
corrosive environment. The author
believes that these failures were
caused by stress corrosion (3 ). About
3 percent of the same type of pre-
stressing wires failed at another con-
PC] Journal
struction site, although they were
not exposed to any known corrosion
environment. In both cases the 7-mm
wires failed transaxially. After these
failures, heat-treated wires were not
used in Japan for prestressed con-
crete structures of importance.
Some failures of cold-drawn wires
during the prestressing operation
were also reported. Investigations
indicated that defects acquired dur-
ing the manufacturing process
caused these conditions.
No actual collapse of structures in
service have been reported. The
relatively small number of distress
conditions can be attributed to:
1. Improper details of connec-
tions.
2. Cracking of grout due to freez-
ing.
3. Inadequate placing of tendons.
4. Inadequate reinforcement of
the concrete at the anchorage.
Of considerable interest is the re-
port obtained on the performance of
prestressed concrete structures dur-
ing severe earthquakes. The typical
distress conditions produced by
large seismic motions were:
1. Spalling of the ends of girders
produced by "hammering".
2. Development of cracks (verti-
cal and horizontal) at the top of
concrete abutments or piers
supporting girders when the
motion of the girders was pre-
vented by shear dowels.
3. "Hammering" of rocker bear-
ings against the neighboring
concrete surfaces.
4. Settlement of supports due to
liquidation of the foundation
materials, such as sand and silt.
Australia and New Zealand. Infor-
mation pertinent to Australia has
been obtained from the Australian
Prestressed Concrete Institute, the
Main Roads Department, and two
other agencies. The reports indicate
October 1969
that prestressed concrete structures
are used mostly for bridges. The
average span lengths are 30 ft. to 140
ft. In Australia, prestressed concrete
has almost superceded other forms
of construction for highway bridges
and is extensively used for railroad
bridges. No failure or severe dam-
ages have been reported. The minor
distress conditions are mainly due to
inadequate construction techniques.
In New Zealand, the conditions
are similar in many respects to those
in Australia, as reported by the N. Z.
Portland Cement Association. The
construction techniques in both
countries generally follow the
British and American practices
rather than the European construc-
tion methods.
Republic of China (Taiwan). During
the last ten years, a considerable
number of prestressed concrete
highway bridges have been con-
structed in Taiwan. The average
span length used in multispan
bridges is approximately 120 ft. No
major failures have been reported.
One detailed report by the Taiwan
Highway Bureau on a distress con-
dition indicates extensive cracks in
the 126 ft. girders before prestress-
ing has been applied. The cracks
have been caused by excessive set-
tlement of the formwork. The use of
portland cement is predominant.
The leading post-tensioning system
is the Freyssinet system. The 28-day
cylinder strength of the concrete is
always over 5000 psi. No report has
been obtained on the use of pre-
stressed concrete structures for
buildings and other types of struc-
tures.
India. Although the number of pre-
stressed concrete structures built in
India is comparatively small, the
data obtained from the Concrete
Association of India are quite de-
71
 tailed. The details of prestressed
concrete structures were also re-
ceived from five major contracting
firms.
Table 1 indicates that, in India
also, most of the prestressed con-
crete structures actuall y built are
bridges. The prevailing tendency in
India is the utilization of prestressed
concrete for major bridge structures
with quite respectable span lengths
up to 257 ft. This partially explains
the almost exclusive use of the
Freyssinet system for precast and
cast-in-place girders. The average
diameter of the wires is 7 mm with a
smooth surface. All reported struc-
tures were built during the last ten
years. The climatic conditions to
which the structures are exposed
vary from a tropical climate with
high humidity and temperatures to a
coldclimate. Other environmental
conditions show similar extremes
such as partially-immersed and
open-air conditions.
The exclusive use of portland ce-
ment is reported. The average water-
cement ratio of the concrete is in the
vicinity of 0.40 by weight. Crushed
stone (granite) was reported as the
primary choice for aggregate, fol-
lowed by gravel plus sand. The 28-
day cylinder strength of the concrete
was always above 5000 psi. All post-
tensioned structures are grouted.
The analyses of the two maior re-
ported failures show that one was
caused by flood and, consequently,
no inadequate design or construction
method could be blamed for it. The
other major failure was due to the
inadequate design provisions of all
standard codes which do not have
provisions to eliminate torsional in-
stability during the launching of the
prestressed concrete girder. The ro-
tational movement of the girder
created vertical cracks along the
72
web, resulting in complete collapse.
Minor failures are attributed to;
1. Faulty placement of tendons.
2. Settlement of temporary sup-
ports.
3. Cement used was subjected to
weathering during transport
and/or storage.
Other countries. The Office of the
Chief Bridge Engineer in Ceylon re-
ports no failures. Prestressed con-
crete structures in Ceylon are used
predominantly for bridges. Guam
reports minor damages due to pre-
mature detensioning. In American
Samoa and the Philippines, no pre-
stressed concrete structures have
been built to date. No reports have
been obtained from Korea, Vietnam,
Pakistan, Thailand, and mainland
China. Although all Latin American
countries have been contacted, no
reply has been obtained to date.
Mr. Ben C. Lerwick, Tr., FIP rep-
resentative of PCI, called the au-
thor's attention to a serious distress
condition "at San Nicolas Bay, Peru,
where prestressed concrete piles
made and driven about 1959 or 1960
are disintegrating. These were made
on the site, which is a coastal desert,
using local aggregates and standard
Types I and II cement, and were
pretensioned. About one year ago
extensivecracking was discovered
along the corners. This has been
found to extend from mean tide to
sea bottom. Attempts to coat the
piles with epoxy mortar have been
unsuccessful. The problem is be-
lieved due to a combination of un-
sound aggregates and alkali-aggre-
gate reactivity."
CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
In all of the countries surveyed,
the use of prestressed concrete struc-
PCI Journal
tures is relatively new. Prestressed
concrete is used largely for bridge
structures, followed closely by
buildings. In most countries sur-
veyed, with the notable exception
of Japan, pretensioning dominates.
The large number of prestressed
concrete tanks is surprising, since
these require a special prestressing
technique and an exceptionally high
quality, impervious concrete. Con-
sidering the large number of pre-
stressed concrete structures actually
built, the total number of distress
conditions, varying from minor
damages to complete collapse, is
exceedingly small. Distressed con-
ditions are caused mostly by im-
proper construction techniques and,
to a lesser degree, by improper de-
sign and use of faulty materials.
Noteworthy are the recommenda-
tions of the Prestressed Concrete
Engineering Association of Japan
for proper aseismic design which in-
cludes the exclusive use of bonded
tendons. Furthermore, it is recom-
mended that seismic forces should
be transmitted by the most direct
path. For this reason the use of
rubber buffers or other devices be-
tween the individual simply sup-
ported girders of adjacent spans is
encouraged in bridge construction.
For buildings, the monolithic con-
struction should be emphasized;
consequently, special attention
should be paid to connection de-
tails.
The author finds a pronounced
need for detailed international speci-
fications covering all phases of de-
sign and construction, including ex-
tensive specifications for all materials
used in prestressed concrete struc-
tures. Furthermore, the introduction
of strict field inspection and quality
control tests could have virtually
eliminated the small number of fail-
ures that do exist at the present time.
October 1969
The use of heat-treated prestressing
steel is not recommended.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author wishes to express his
gratitude to his numerous colleagues
in the United States and abroad for
their active cooperation in the sur-
vey. Special appreciation is due to
Mr. K. G. Tamberg, Bridge Re-
search Engineer, Department of
Highways, Ontario, Canada, to the
late Mr. R. J. Lyman, Executive Di-
rector of the Prestressed Concrete
Institute (U.S.A.), and to Dr. Shuji
Inomata, Prestressed Concrete As-
sociation (Japan), for their vigorous
support of this work.
REFERENCES
1. Szilard, R., "Present Practice Regarding
Corrosion Protection of Tendons in Pre-
stressed Concrete Bridges in the
U.S.A.," University of Denver, DRI In-
terim Report No. 952-6705-I, May 1967.
2. Szilard, R. and Wallevik, 0., "Effec-
tiveness of Concrete Cover in Corrosion
Protection of Prestressing Steel," paper
presented at the meeting of the Com-
mission on Durability of Prestressed
Concrete Structures (F.LP.) held Feb.
22-23, 1968, in Milan, Italy.
3. Szilard, R., "Corrosion and Corrosion
Protection of Tendons in Prestressed
Concrete Bridges," Journal of American
Concrete Institute, January 1969, pp.
42-59.
4. "Corrosion Destroys Prestressed Tank,"
Engineering News-Record, January 25,
1962, p. 6.
5. "Wires Break in Prestressed Reservoir,"
Engineering News-Record, June 2, 1955.
6. Bouvy, J. J., "Some Problems Concern-
ing High Tensile Steel from the User's
Point of View," Proceedings of the Sec-
ond F.I.P. Congress, Amsterdam, 1953,
Cement and Concrete Association, Lon-
don. 1955, pp. 164-177.
7. Legget, R. F., "Failure of Prestressed
Concrete Pipe in Regina, Saskatche-
wan," Paper No. 6587, Proceedings of
Institute of Civil Engineers, Canada,
1962, pp. 11-20.
73