$59.

00

DEFENSE &
AEROSPACE
ELECTRONICS
101
The 7 Key Technology Areas
of Defense Electronics
JACK BROWNE, Contributing Editor

Sponsored by

Copyright 2017 by Penton Media,Inc.

All rights reserved.
MICROWAVES & RF LIBRARY
TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE

Defense electronics is a broad theme, one for

which an e-book such as this can only scratch the
surface. For many, defense electronics is about the
sophisticated surveillance and radar systems that
are used to keep track of an enemys position, or the
advanced electronic-warfare (EW) systems that can
use electronic signal detection and generation to
JACK BROWNE
keep an adversary off-balance and prevent casualties.
Technical Contributor
But defense electronics includes many different
electronic technologies, from audio through light
waves, and each of these different technologies
contributes to ultimate battlefield success. This
e-book attempts to provide a basic understanding of
seven key technology areas, describing how each fits
within modern defense electronics systems.

CHAPTER 1: ELECTRONIC WARFARE..............................2

CHAPTER 2: RADAR.................................................... 5
CHAPTER 3: GNSS, GPS, AND NAVIGATION.................8
CHAPTER 4: UAVS AND DRONES...... 11
CHAPTER 5: IR TECHNOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS...... 14
CHAPTER 6: TACTICAL RADIO COMMUNICATIONS...... 17
CHAPTER 7: ANTENNAS AND PHASED ARRAYS.......... 20

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 MICROWAVES & RF LIBRARY

Chapter 1: ELECTRONIC WARFARE

Recruiting EM Energy for Battle:

EW Provides Offense and Defense
Electronic warfare covers a large part of military electronics, including defense strategies such as
jamming and sending false radar returns, to offensive actions, such as the use of directed-energy
weapons.

D
efense electronics technologies
perform many functions for the
modern military, with electronic
warfare (EW) providing means
of attack as well as protection. EW is a
somewhat broad term referring to the use
of electromagnetic (EM) energy for war-
farespecifically, it involves the control
of the EM spectrum. Offensive actions
include radiating high-power EM energy
in the form of directed-energy weapons
while defensive actions include jamming
an adversarys communications or radar
systems to prevent their use of the EM
spectrum.
EW systems can operate from land,
sea, air, or even from space, and may
be manned or unmanned, such as in
remotely controlled unmanned aerial
vehicles (UAVs) and unmanned ground
vehicles (UGVs). EW systems are not
limited to the any particular frequencies
but may be deployed in any portion
of the EM spectrum, including the
visible spectrum IR frequencies, and
UV radiation. The operating realm of
EW systems is often referred to as the
electromagnetic environment (EME),
with systems enabling EM compatibility
and deception and performing such
functions as communications and
radar jamming, reconnaissance and
intelligence, and electronic security.
1. The AN/ALR-56 is the radar warning system used on board the Super Hercules
aircraft and many U.S. Air Force aircraft, with the AN/ALR-56C on board the F-15
fighter and the AN/ALR-56M used on the F-16 fighter. (Courtesy of BAE Systems.)
Development of effective EM systems (and signals and signal a warning or trigger
responses to an adversarys EW systems) a response to the intercepted threat
requires measurement tools capable of signals, such as transmission of jamming
comprehensive spectrum monitoring and signals. An RWR must be designed with
signal identification in a congested and a broadband receiver capable of covering
complex global EME. A subset of EW is many different standard radar frequency
signals intelligence (SIGINT), which has bands and modulation formats and many
to do with measuring and identifying different pulsed-signal characteristics.
signals of interest as part of a process of Modern RWR systems such as the AN/
identify friend or foe (IFF) to determine ALR-56M system supplied by BAE
if intercepted signals refer to possible Systems (www.baesystems.com) to the U.S.
threats, such as an enemy radar, or are Air Force provides frequency coverage
signals from coalition troops. from C through J bands but features
a modular architecture that allows for
Sending a Warning extension to other frequencies, even
For defense, one of the most critical though millimeter-wave frequencies. It can
EW systems is the radar warning receiver be adapted to many different aircraft and
(RWR), a system designed to provide avionics systems.
reliable detection of an adversarys radar As with many avionic RWR systems,

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 MICROWAVES & RF LIBRARY
the AN/ALR-56M (Fig. 1) operates
with forward and aft antennas as
well as numerous low-band antennas
mounted on the underside of the aircraft
fuselage. Input signals from the multiple
antennas are fed to a frequency-agile,
superheterodyne receiver under RISC
computer control and with adaptive
digital-signal-processing (DSP)
technology. The highly programmable
RWR system automatically adapts
selectivity and sensitivity to a particular
EME, detecting all signals within range
and quickly analyzing, identifying, and
separating friendly signals from threat
signals. Through the use of digital
preprocessing, nonthreat signals can
quickly and accurately be eliminated.
In addition, the RWR features adaptive
real-time filtering for protection against
jammers based on continuous-wave (CW)
and high-pulse-rate emitters.
The AN/ALR-56M advanced
RWR system is designed with high-
performance components to achieve
long mean-time to failure (MTTF). It
consists of a well-constructed modular
architecture with multiple receiver
blocks, a superheterodyne receiver
controller, and an analysis processor
with real-time preprocessor, avionics
interface, and cockpit interfaces. In fact,
the system performs continuous self-
testing diagnostic routines and calibration
with automatic reporting to the cockpit.
The RWR is capable of detecting and
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identifying all modern search, acquisition,
and tracking radars that are part of
ground-based and aircraft-based weapons
systems.
Another advanced RWR system, the
ALR-69A(V) developed by Raytheon
Co. (www.raytheon.com), achieves
enhanced performance through a highly
digital architecture. It is designed for
high-sensitivity radar signal detection
in dense signal environments (Fig. 2). It
is compatible with almost all airborne
avionics systems and is currently installed
on U.S. Air Force C-130H, KC-46A, and
ALR-69A aircraft and being tested on F-16
fighter jets.
The ALR-69A(V) RWR system is the
result of extensive reliance on commercial
off-the-shelf (COTS) components and
digital circuitry for high functionality at
reduced costs. It employs a 16-channel
receiver configuration with a flexible
modular architecture that allows
performance upgrades by replacing digital
circuit cards. The modular format also
simplifies interfaces and integration
with an aircrafts radar and electronic-
countermeasure (ECM) systems to enable
high-speed responses to detected threats.
A total of four wideband channelized
receivers, each covering on quadrant
of the aircraft, and multiple antennas
provide full 360-deg. signal coverage
while achieving high sensitivity and
relative immunity from interference.
The RWR recently demonstrated single-
CHAPTER 1: ELECTRONIC WARFARE
ship geolocation direction-finding
(DF) capabilities, without any hardware
modifications, during testing earlier in
the year. Such capabilities enable signal-
ship geolocation of intercepted signals
for precise information on ground-based
threat locations and accurate DF data on
airborne sources of threat signals.
As a defensive EW counterpart to an
RWR system, a fiber-optic towed decoy
(FOTD) such as the AN/ALE-55 from
BAE Systems is deployed behind an
aircraft to serve as a secondary source of
radar signals to an enemy tracker (Fig. 3).
Using a fiber-optic electrical connection
to the main avionics system, a towed
decoy transmits jamming signals or false
radar returns to an enemy tracking radar
to disrupt their effectiveness. If an enemy
missile is launched, the towed decoy
can provide transmissions that cause
mistracking of the missiles guidance
system or, failing that, it will send
transmissions that make the enemy missile
track the decoy as the actual target. In
contrast to disposable towed decoys, this
unit features a reel-out/reel-in feature that
permits reuse after a mission.
A digital RF memory (DRFM) plays
an essential role in sending false radar
returns to enemy radar systems as part of
ECM efforts. A DRFM has a wideband
RF/microwave front end capable of
capturing and digitizing enemy radar
systems through a high-bit-resolution
analog-to-digital converter (ADC) and
2. The ALR-69A(V) is
an advanced RWR that
relies heavily on digital
circuitry for enhanced
performance. (Courtesy of
Raytheon Co.)
 MICROWAVES & RF LIBRARY
3. Directed-energy weapons include high-energy lasers (HELs). (Courtesy of General
Atomics Aeronautical Systems.)
then generating false radar returns
with Doppler shifts and modified pulse
characteristics by means of a high-
resolution digital-to-analog converter
(DAC). The outputs from the DAC are
frequency upconvertered to the frequency
band of the enemy radar and transmitted,
often through a towed decoy.
Taking Offense
In addition to using radiated EM
energy to jam an opponents radar or
communications system, EW involves the
use of various forms of EM as weapons,
including high-power microwave sources
and high-energy lasers. A number of
U.S. defense agencies, including DARPA
and the Air Force Research Laboratory
(AFRL), have invested in high-energy
lasers (HELs) with the expectations
that such EW systems could disrupt an
adversarys radar and communications
systems but also serve as a primary
missile-defense system, for protection
against fast-moving missiles, such as
ballistic missiles and hypersonic cruise
missiles, as well as a weapon against
enemy vehicles. DARPA and AFRL have
invested in the High-Energy Liquid Laser
Area Defense System (HELLADS) which
has been undergoing testing at the White
Sands Missile Range, N.M.
The compact and light-weight solid-
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state laser technology (Fig. 3), developed
by General Atomics Aeronautical Systems
(GA-ASI, www.ga-asi.com), has shown
sufficient power to merit field testing,
with the expectation of being eventually
compact and efficient enough for
installation on smaller aircraft, such as
F-22 and F-35 fighter jets. GA-ASI is also
working with the Office of Naval Research
(ONR) on a third-generation HEL with
150-kW power suitable for DDG-51-class
destroyers as a weapon against smaller
boats and unmanned aircraft. As part
of ONRs Solid-State Laser Technology
Maturation program, the laser weapon
will be tested on one of the U.S. Navys
ship-defense test vessels in 2018. The
third-generation HEL builds upon the
electrically pumped laser technology
developed for the HELLADS program.
Adapting to Change
As defense electronics technologies
continue to evolve, relying more on
machines such as UAVs and UGVs to
replace humans for some machines,
machines such as computers are also
playing larger roles in many aspects
of EW. In what is generally known
as cognitive EW, machine-learning
algorithms are being developed to detect
and recognize new threats and provide
rapid responses to dynamic threats
CHAPTER 1: ELECTRONIC WARFARE
by means of adaptive EW techniques.
Several years ago, DARPA created the
Adaptive Radar Countermeasures (ARC)
program to encourage the development of
effective means of countering the threats
represented by digitally programmable
radar systems. On the communications
side, DARPAs Behavioral Learning for
Adaptive Electronic Warfare (BLADE)
program is attempting to apply machine
learning and artificial intelligence (AI) to
counter new, dynamic threats to wireless
communications systems in tactical
environments.
Cognitive EW is still in its formative
stages, but already a number of major
defense contractors are developing
systems based on the technology,
including BAE Systems (www.baesystems.
com), Boeing Co. (www.boeing.com),
Lockheed Martin (www.lockheedmartin.
com), and Raytheon Co. (www.raytheon.
com). The number of electronic devices
employed in battle is only expected to
grow with time, and the use of cognitive
EW techniques can lead to the most
effective and efficient use of those
electronic tactical resources. n
BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS
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 MICROWAVES & RF LIBRARY

Chapter 2: RADAR

Tracking the Basics of

Military Radar Systems
Radar is one of the fundamental technologies of electronic warfare, enabling the detection of
unseen threats on the ground, in the air, and at sea.

R
adar is one of the longest run-
1. The Aegis weapons ning of electronic defense tech-
system incorporates nologies, conceptualized by such
many defense electronics luminaries as Heinrich Hertz and
subsystems, including an James Clerk Maxwell more than a century
AN/SPY-1 radar system ago. The technology wasnt employed in
for surveillance and early battle until World War II, however, when
warning. (Courtesy of it was also given the name radaran
Lockheed Martin) acronym for radio detection and ranging.
The concept is simple: transmit electro-
magnetic (EM) signals until they reflect
off a metal object, and then measure the
returning reflected signals to learn more
about the metal object.
Obviously, electronic technology has
changed a great deal since World War II,
when almost all electronic devices had
tubes. Modern radars are smaller, faster,
and pack enormous computing power
that makes it possible to determine great
details about the object sending back
the EM waves, also known in tactical
terms as the illuminated target. Radar
systems are no longer just for warfare,
but are used in airports around the
world, for law enforcement, for tracking
weather patterns, for homeland security
surveillance, and even for enhancing the
safety of modern motor vehicles.
That being said, a majority of key radar
applications are still for military use, either
as standalone systems or as part of larger
electromagnetic-warfare platforms that
can use radars intelligence to counter or

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 MICROWAVES & RF LIBRARY
2. This advanced 3D surveillance radar system provides efficient, low power
operating in a compact footprint for smaller vessels. (Courtesy of BAE Systems)
respond to a threat. There are many types
of radar used in military systems, each
with its own benefits and performance
limitations.
Radars use many different types of
signals in military applications; the goal is
to locate a target with maximum detection
range and detection accuracy, and often
to avoid detection by an adversarys
radar systems. The type of signal will
also determine the type of information
that can be discovered about a target, in
addition to how well a target of interest
can be detected when surrounded by other
objects (known as clutter).
In a basic pulse Doppler radar, pulse-
modulated signals are used to determine
the distance to a target by measuring
the time in which pulses are transmitted
and then reflected back to the radar
antenna. One variation on a pulse, a
chirp signal, is constantly changing with
frequency; unlike a pulse, all of its spectral
components have different phases. Since
pulses are comprised of fundamental-
frequency sinewave signals and their
harmonic signal components mixed
together, they occupy wide bandwidths
of the frequency spectrum. They also
require test equipment with wide-enough
bandwidths to show all features of the
pulsed signals during evaluation.
Directional antennas are used with
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this type of radar to get a reading on the
bearing/location of the target, using a
narrow horizontal beam of EM energy for
directional transmission and reception.
A radar antennas three-dimensional
(3D) beam of directed EM energy is
characterized by the power level of the
beam along a measured beam axis. The
radiation pattern is defined by the radar
beams horizontal and vertical beamwidths.
They are usually characterized at field
strength or power levels that is 3 or 6 dB
less than the maximum value of the radar
beam; radar systems and their antennas are
typically characterized by their half-power
(3-dB) beamwidths.
The travel time for the pulses to reach
a target is based on the speed of the
propagating EM pulsestypically about
the speed of light, or about 3000,000 km/s,
barring delays from different atmospheric
effects such as clouds. The travel time
is approximately one-half of the total
pulse signal travel time; the process of
calibrating a radar by measuring a target
at a known distance can be used to correct
for processing delays in the radar receiver.
These systems usually have a short
pulse transmit on time followed by a
long-enough transmit off time so that
reflected pulses can be received without
being masked by the next transmitted
pulse. If the timing of the transmissions
CHAPTER 2: RADAR
(the pulse repetition frequency) and
reception is properly orchestrated, a single
antenna can be used for transmit and
receive functions. To efficiently transmit
a directed beam of energy, a radar
system often relies on highly directional
antennas. When scanning across a large
target area is necessary, the focus of the
antenna must be altered to achieve a wider
coverage area than a simple stationary
antenna with fixed beam. This is typically
done in maritime radar systems by
mechanically moving the antenna under
motor controlbut it can also be done
electronically, by shifting the phases of
multiple array elements in a phased-array
antenna to achieve changes in beamwidth
and beam direction.
By comparing the frequencies of
reflected pulses to the frequencies of
transmitted pulses in a pulse Doppler
radar, any changes in the Doppler
frequency can be used to determine any
motion on the part of the target. Precise
timing and synchronization are needed
between radar transmitter and receiver
for accurate Doppler measurements, with
high resolution possible through the use of
a low-phase-noise, high-stability reference
oscillator for the radar system. Measured
results are shown on a radar system
display, which can use the processed
radar return information to generate a
visual depiction of an adversarys location
relative to the location of the radar
transmitter.
Signal Types
Radar transmitters or emitters can
operate with pulsed or continuous-
wave (CW) signals and with a variety of
modulation formats, including amplitude,
modulation (AM), frequency modulation
(FM), phase modulation (PM), and
combinations of these modulation
formats. In addition, frequency-diversity
techniques are often used with modern
radar systems, such as those using
chirp techniques. In these systems, the
frequency may change every few pulses
as a way to make detection and jamming
 MICROWAVES & RF LIBRARY
Modern radar technology is widely employed in
commercial airports and vehicle safety systems,
as well as in law enforcement, but it is first and
foremost an important electronic system for
military applications.
from an adversary more difficult.
The frequency changes may occur in a
linear fashion, or else in a less-predictable
manner (i.e., in a radar system with
nonlinear chirped pulses). In addition,
techniques such as frequency-hopping
radar signals are also used to randomly
move radar frequencies around a wide
total spectrum, making it harder for an
adversary to tune an intercept receiver at
the proper frequency.
For the sake of laboratory measurements
or for a radar-warning receiver (RWR)
attempting to measure a suspect radars
characteristics, the basic performance
parameters for a radar system emitter
or transmitter include signal frequency,
amplitude, angle of arrival (AOA), time
of arrival (TOA), pulse width, pulse
repetition frequency (PRF), and scan
rate (both for motorized or phased-
array radars). Some emitter parameters,
which can be measured with a single
pulsesuch as frequency, amplitude, and
pulse widthcan be measured with a
monopulse tracking radar.
Other radar emitter parameters, such
as PRI and PRF, can be determined
only by analyzing a group of pulses. All
these parameters are useful for emitter
identification; unfortunately, they require
time for data collection and analysis, and
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call for sophisticated signal processing
algorithms.
Modern radar technology is widely
employed in commercial airports and
vehicle safety systems, as well as in law
enforcement, but it is first and foremost an
important electronic system for military
applications. Many different types of radar
systems are used globally for combat or to
prevent military issues, with military radar
systems of different sizes and frequencies
supporting defense electronic systems
on land, at sea, and in the air. Some of
the radar frequencies in use include at
L-band (1,215 to 1,400 MHz), S-band (2
to 4 GHz), C-band (4 to 8 GHz), X-band
(8 to 12 GHz), Ku-band (12 to 18 GHz),
K-band (18 to 27 GHz), Ka-band (27 to
40 GHz), and V-band (75 to 110 GHz)
frequencies.
Some Prime Examples
Military radar systems perform
a number of functions, including
surveillance, tracking, moving target
indication (MTI), direction finding (DF),
missile guidance radar, over-the-horizon
(OTH) radar, space-based radar (SBR)
systems, and synthetic aperture radar
(SAR) systems. One of the largest and
better known military radar systems
is part of the Aegis Weapon System
CHAPTER 2: RADAR
(AWS), a global missile defense system
manufactured by Lockheed Martin (www.
lockheedmartin.com) for the U.S. Navy
(Fig. 1). Among its missiles and control
systems, the AWS relies on an AN/
SPY-1 radar system for surveillance and
early warning. The high-power radar
transmitter uses pulsed power levels to 6
MW to illuminate more than 100 targets
at one time at more than 100 nautical
miles away.
When smaller targets, such as
UAVs are a concern, a smaller, lower-
power radar system will provide the
necessary performance. One such
example is the Advanced Radar Target
Indication Situation Awareness and
Navigation (Artisan) three-dimensional
(3D) surveillance radar system (Fig.
2) developed by BAE Systems (www.
baesystems.com) for the United Kingdoms
Royal Navy It is considerably lower
power than the Aegis system, for shorter
detection range, but benefits from
advantages in size, weight, and power
consumption compared to Aegis. n
BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS
Understanding VNA Guide
This 62 page guide will introduce
the basic fundamentals of the
Vector Network Analyzer (VNA).
 MICROWAVES & RF LIBRARY

Chapter 3: GNSS, GPS, AND NAVIGATION TECHNOLOGY

Looking to the Sky for

Guidance and Direction
Using signals from multiple orbiting satellites, navigation systems provide global positioning and
timing information.

S
atellite navigation and
guidance have become almost
afterthoughts for the many users
of the Global Positioning System
(GPS) and its orbiting satellites. The space-
based radionavigation system is used for
positioning and directions almost on a
daily basis for some commercial users, and
is also a valuable tool for military forces in
precisely defining locations and positions
as well as providing reference-standard
timing.
GPS signals are fairly ubiquitous
around the world, but the system is not
unique: A number of other satellite-based
navigation systems are in operation,
including Russias GLONASS system. All
of these satellite systems provide varying
degrees of precision and accuracy, and
all are subject to degraded or interrupted
performance as a result of jamming.
These concerns have motivated U.S.
government agencies such as the Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA) to invest
in enhanced versions of GPS.
GPS is operated and maintained by
the U.S. Air Force (USAF). It consists
of three different types of components:
the satellites, ground control network
equipment, and end-user equipment for
receiving transmissions from the satellites
(Fig. 1). It was originally designed to
operate with a total of 24 low-Earth-orbit
(LEO) satellites positioned in six Earth-
centered orbital planes, with each orbital
plane equipped with four operational
satellites and one spare. The satellites
orbit 22,000 km (14,000 miles) above
the surface of the Earth, and circle the
Earth twice each day in precise orbits that
are spaced 60 deg. about the equator in
55-deg. inclination relative to the equator.
Each satellite transmits two signals: the
L1 signal at 1,575.42 MHz, and the L2
signal at 1,227.60 MHz. The GPS ground
station (Fig. 2) monitors signals from the
satellites in terms of precision and signal
integrity (SI), all the while maintaining a
1. This GPS III satellite
is one of at least 24
satellites in orbit that
provide codes signals
for positioning and
navigation. (Courtesy
of www.gps.gov)
precise satellite orbital configuration. The
ground station also monitors the timing
of the system and makes reference clock
corrections as needed for the satellites to
transmit signals that provide precise user
position, velocity, and time (PVT). At
least four satellites are always in view to
a users receiver, no matter the location.
Users then receive these signals from
multiple satellites to determine PVT data
rapidly from most locations while in a
passive listen-only mode without need
of interacting with the user equipment or
the GPS ground station.

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 MICROWAVES & RF LIBRARY
The GPS Ground Control Networks
Master Control Station (MCS) is the
heart of the systems operator ground
equipment, maintained by the U.S.
Air Force and located at Schriever Air
Force Base (formerly Falcon AFB) near
Colorado Springs, Co.). GPS satellite
orbits are continuously tracked by six
Air Force monitoring stations around
the world in different longitudes. These
monitoring stations perform the satellite
networks data collection. Two cesium
atomic clocks referenced to GPS system
time are located at each monitoring station
for precise timing.
GPS operation is based on satellite
ranging. The satellites serve as precise
reference locations in space, and a user
measures their position by measuring the
distance from the multiple satellite signal
sources within range of the receiver. Each
satellite transmits an accurate position and
2. The GPS Master Control Station (MCS) is located at Schriever AFB near Colorado Springs, Co). (Courtesy of www.gps.gov)
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CHAPTER 3: GNSS, GPS, AND NAVIGATION TECHNOLOGY
time signal using code-division-multiple-
access (CDMA) modulation techniques.
By measuring the time delay for a signal
to reach a receiver from a satellite, the
apparent range or pseudo range can be
determined.
Measurements performed
simultaneously based on four signals
from four satellites make it possible
to solve for precise location regarding
latitude, longitude, and altitude, as well
as for time. Position measurements are
in the worldwide WGS-84 geodetic
reference system, and time is with respect
to a worldwide common U.S. Naval
Observatory Time (USNO) reference.
Other Orbits
By way of comparison, the Russian
GLONASS system, which is operated
by the Russian Aerospace Defense
Forces, has 24 satellites and three
spares, with each using 12 frequencies.
The frequencies consist of L1 and L2
signals: The L1 range from 1598.0625
to 1609.3125 MHz, and are modulated
by high precision (HP) and standard
precision (SP) codes. The L2 range from
1,242.9375 to 1,251.6875 MHz, with
HP and SP modulation, using the same
SP modulation as for the L1 signals.
The satellites transmit the same codes at
different frequencies, using frequency-
division-multiple-access (FDMA)
modulation. As the number of satellites
in the GLONASS constellation increases
further, the number of signals used per
receiver will increase to three.
The orbits of the GLOSNASS satellites
occur every 8/17 daysi.e., the satellite
constellation repeats every eight days after
having completed 17 orbital revolutions.
Each orbital plane contains eight
equallyspaced satellites, with one of the
 MICROWAVES & RF LIBRARY
The GPS Ground Control Networks Master Control
Station (MCS) is the heart of the systems operator
ground equipment, maintained by the U.S. Air
Force and located at Schriever Air Force Base.
satellites in the same spot in the sky at the
same sidereal time each day. The satellites
orbit about 19,410 km from the Earths
surface, or about 1,060 km lower than
GPS satellites.
Yet another national satellite navigation
system, the BeiDou Navigation Satellite
System, is operated by the China National
Space Administration. This system
employs both global and regional satellites
in space, with global satellites orbiting
the Earth much like global satellites in the
other global satellite navigation systems;
the regional satellites are visible only
over the Eastern hemisphere. The BeiDou
system, or COMPASS as it is sometimes
known, is a work in progress, as is the
European Space Agencys Galileo satellite
navigation system. The latter is being
planned for a total of 30 orbiting satellites.
The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD)
is responsible for the GPS system, which
has two levels of precision: the standard
3. GPS satellites are placed in precise orbits by means of rocket launches, such
as this Delta II rocket launching the fifth GPS IIR(M) satellite in December 2007.
(Courtesy of www.gps.gov)
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CHAPTER 3: GNSS, GPS, AND NAVIGATION TECHNOLOGY
positioning service (SPS) for the general
public and the precision positioning
service (PPS), for members of the military
and allies. There is roughly a 5-to-1
improvement in positioning resolution
with PPS compared to SPS (positioning to
within 20 m, compared to within 100 m).
At one time, the DoD intentionally limited
the accuracy of the satellite navigation
system to civilian users by means of a
tactic known as selective availability
(SA). The DoD achieved the increased
errors by dithering satellite reference
clocks. The practice was discontinued in
2000.
An enhanced version of GPS is
differential GPS (DGPS), which involves
the use of a second receiver for improved
positioning accuracy by removing errors
that are common to the second, reference
receiver and to the users receiver. Ideally,
a users receiver is within a few hundred
miles of the reference receiver, since the
accuracy degrades with distance from the
reference receiver.
The DoD is currently pursuing
alternative means of achieving
positioning, navigation, and timing
(PNT) functions, arguing that GPS is
not always reliable, and signals from
the satellite are not always available in
locations where military forces require
full functionality. In addition, the
effectiveness of the GPS system can be
limited by an adversary through jamming
or signal spoofing. Alternative methods
of timing and location involve the use
of precision atomic clocks and inertial
navigation systems. At the same time,
the FAA is developing the Wide Area
Augmentation System (WAAS) and the
Ground Based Augmentation System
(GBAS) as alternatives to GPS for safe
operation of flights when GPS availability
is questionable. The two systems are
designed to work together to enhance
navigation capabilities during flights. n
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Chapter 4: UAVS AND DRONES (UGVS)

Unmanned Vehicles
Provide Remote Access
Whether used to provide surveillance, perform exploration, or carry weapons, UAVs have become
essential to many fighting forces around the world.

R
emote-controlled vehicles were
once considered a novelty
among troops in the field
more akin to the gas-powered
planes that hobbyists flew on weekends.
But as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs)
become more established tools in warfare,
and as major defense contractors focus
on designing UAVs with enhanced
capabilities, they are no longer considered
toys. In fact, larger drones are capable
of flying in the same airspace as piloted
aircraft and carrying considerable
weaponry for offensive missions. 1. The RQ-4 Block 30 Global Hawk is one of the best known of military UAVs,
UAVs come in all shapes and sizes. in service for the U.S. Air Force since 2001 with more than 200,000 flight hours.
Insect-sized drones with wireless cameras (Courtesy of Northrop Grumman)
have been developed for quick surveillance
missions. Meanwhile, larger aircraft (4.7 m). It has a range of 12,300 nautical and situational awareness over large areas.
capable of carrying several passengers can miles (22,780 km) and a maximum That sensor suite includes an electro-
climb to altitudes of thousands of feet. The altitude of 60,000 ft. (18.3 km), and can optical/infrared (EO/IR) camera for
Global Hawk from Northrop Grumman handle a payload of 3,000 lb. (1360 kg). 360-deg. imaging during day and night
(www.northropgrumman.com)or, more The Global Hawk can stay in the air for as missions, and a synthetic-aperture-radar
accurately, the RQ-4 Block 30 Global long as 32 h and achieve a true air speed (SAR) system for long-range imaging in
Hawk (Fig. 1)is perhaps the best known (TAS) of 310 knots by means of a Rolls- all weather conditions. A Global Hawk
UAV for military applications. In service Royce 3007 turbofan engine with 8,500 also carries a moving-target-indication
for more than 15 years, the long-range lb. of thrust. It can be well equipped with (MTI) radar system.
unmanned aircraft system (UAS) has electronic subsystems, including multiple The imaging quality of these sensors
logged more than 200,000 flight hours satellite-communications (satcom) and makes it possible to distinguish various
since starting active service with the U.S. line-of-sight (LOS) communications types of vehicles, aircraft, people, and
Air Force. systems. missiles at day or night and even under
The Global Hawk is meant for long- This large UAV employs an enhanced adverse weather conditions. All sensor
distance flights at high altitudes, with a integrated sensor suite (EISS) and an systems are controlled by a common
length of 47.6 ft. (14.5 m), a wingspan of airborne signals intelligence payload microprocessor; consequently, a UAV
130.9 ft. (39.9 m), and height of 15.4 ft. (ASIP) for enhanced intelligence gathering commander has ready access to the

VISIT: mwrf.com for more Defense & Aerospace content | 11

 MICROWAVES & RF LIBRARY
2. The Indago UAV uses a modular payload design for flexibility and a quad-rotor
drive system. It is used in military applications as well as by civil authorities for
police work. (Courtesy of Lockheed Martin)
intelligence provided by the Global Hawk
and can transfer this intelligence in near
real time to warfighters in the region.
Northrop Grumman began flight testing
an MS-177 sensor payload aboard the
Global Hawk with a successful inaugural
flight earlier in 2017. The MS-177 sensor
package enables the aircraft not only
to detect and identify targets, but also
to track and assess the threat potential
of a target by means of multiple sensor
modalities and fast switching between
sensors. The testing, which is expected
to continue throughout 2017, features
3. The Unmanned Little Bird H-6U is one of the larger rotary-wing UAVs, with
endurance of 6 hr. and ceiling of about 20,000 ft. (Courtesy of Boeing Co.)
VISIT: mwrf.com for more Defense & Aerospace content | 12
demonstrations of two sensors previously
unavailable on the Global Hawk, which
are high-performance optical sensors
designed for imaging intelligence,
surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR)
applications.
Although the Global Hawk has a design
based on a conventional manned aircraft,
not all UAVs follow this formula. Some
smaller UAVs, such as the Indago from
Lockheed Martin (www.lockheedmartin.
com), are based on rotary-wing
configurations and helicopters and are
designed more for vertical landing and
CHAPTER 4: UAVS AND DRONES(UGVS)
takeoff in limited areas. The small size of
many UAVs, such as the Indago, makes
them conveniently portable for transport
to a location in need of surveillance or
further study. In addition to the Indago,
the company has developed an extensive
portfolio of UAVs for military, civil, and
commercial use, including the Desert
Hawk, the Stalker, and the Vector Hawk.
The Indago UAV (Fig. 2) features a
quad-rotor configuration with a modular
payload design that allows different
electronic function modules to be quickly
connected and disconnected to best serve
the requirements of a particular mission.
Modules are available in support of
agriculture, various forms of inspection,
mapping, reconnaissance, surveillance,
and surveying. The modular format and
agility of the Indago have made the UAV
a popular choice of civil authorities for
police work in locating missing persons,
and even for Homeland Security for
border patrols. It can be folded for ease
of storage in a backpack, and its hand
controller works with other types of
(fixed-wing) UAVs for versatility.
The Indago UAV has a running time
or endurance of about 50 minutes,
which translates into a range of 2 to 10
km depending upon such factors as the
radio, antenna, and terrain. The Indago
measures 12 9 7 in. folded and 32
32 7 in. unfolded with a weight of about
5 lb. (2.3 kg), depending upon payload. It
has a typical operating altitude to 500 ft.
and provides on-board recording of high-
definition (HD) video and still images.
Some larger rotary-wing UAVs, such
as the Unmanned Little Bird H-6U from
Boeing (www.boeing.com), can achieve
impressive altitudes for multitask missions,
such as mapping and surveillance, and
can even take along a passenger. The
Unmanned Little Bird H-6U (Fig. 3) has
a rotor diameter of 27.5 ft. (8.38 m) and
achieves a ceiling of 20,000 ft. (6,100
m). It can stay aloft for about 6 hr., with
a useful payload of 1,200 lb. (544 kg)
when manned and 1,400 lb. (635 kg)
when unmanned. The UAV uses Ku-band
 MICROWAVES & RF LIBRARY
frequencies for its tactical common data
link (TCDL).
Along with extremely quiet drive
systems, such as that on the Indago
UAV, some drones are designed to be so
small that they are almost unnoticeable.
One notable example of this is the Black
Hornet Nano UAV (Fig. 4). This tiny
drone is produced by Prox Dynamics
(www.proxdynamics.com), which was
recently acquired by Flir Unmanned Aerial
Systems (www.flir.com) for the United
Kingdoms Ministry of Defence. Intended
for surveillance missions, the UAV is only
about 100 mm long with a rotor span of
120 mm. It weighs only about 16 g, even
factoring in three surveillance cameras
concealed within its nose.
The Black Hornet Nano features an
aerodynamic shape with a rugged plastic-
molded shell, and has been deployed in
Afghanistan for surveillance. The pocket-
sized UAV flies about 10 m/s and has a
range of about 1.6 km. In fact, a soldier
has no problem carrying a complete
PD-100 Black Hornet system into the
field. It consists of two UAVs and a
controller in its own backpack for portable
use.
Counter-Drone Solutions
DARPA has funded UAVs from small to
large over the past decade, with a current
interest in how swarms of UAVs can be
optimized for battle as part of the ongoing
5. The Silent Archer system uses radar, cameras, and jammers to detect and defeat
enemy drones. (Courtesy of SRC, Inc.)
VISIT: mwrf.com for more Defense & Aerospace content | 13
4. The Black Hornet Nano UAV is among
the smallest of military drones, at about
100 mm long with a rotor span of 120
mm. (Courtesy of Prox Dynamics)
Gremlins program. Of course, as the
number of UAVs grows in all applications,
it becomes necessary to develop methods
for neutralizing an adversarys use of
UAVs through counter-drone techniques.
The U.S. Defense Intelligence Agency
has been well aware for some time of the
potential threat posed by an armed drone
evading detection. In response, it began
hosting the annual Black Dart exercise
for companies interested in developing
technologies that could detect, track, and
defeat enemy drones.
One of the participants, and eventually
a contract winner, was SRC, Inc. (www.
srcinc.com), which had been operating as a
CHAPTER 4: UAVS AND DRONES(UGVS)
nonprofit research offshoot of New Yorks
Syracuse University. SRC had developed
extensive technology for different types of
radar, including moving-target-indication
(MTI) and synthetic-aperture-radar (SAR)
systems. SRC would develop several
counter-drone systems, including their
Silent Archer system (Fig. 5). It uses a
combination of methods, including radar,
cameras, and jammers to detect, track and
defeat small, low-flying drones. n
BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS
Understanding Cable
& Antenna Analysis
This guide provides an overview of
the fundamentals of cable analysis
including the basic measurements
and techniques before moving on
to more advanced measurements
for the experienced user.
 MICROWAVES & RF LIBRARY

Chapter 5: IR TECHNOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS

IR Technology Helps
to See in the Dark
Infrared detectors are still being improved in terms of price and performance, but they have shown
to be important tools in night missions and for firefighters needing to see through smoke.

V
ision is an important part of an
electronic defense systems and,
for tactical applications, vision
involves numerous parts of the
electromagnetic (EM) spectrum. These
include radio waves in radar, visible light,
andour focus for this chapterinfrared
(IR) light in various night-vision systems.
IR technology is a significant tool for most
night-time missions, for identification
friend or foe (IFF) systems. given its utility
fordifferentiatingsfromswhenis limited As
with other EM technologies, DARPA is
seeking advances in terms of performance
and affordability to make IR technology 1. Images detected by IR sensors tend to be monochromatic. (Courtesy of the U.S.
more available to all warfighters. Army Research Laboratory; www.arl.mil)
DARPAs Low Cost Thermal Imager -
Manufacturing (LCTI-M) program is goggles is usually at 1.550 m, which is combinations of visible and IR light
part of a strategy to make IR imaging considered eye-safe since it doesnt cause to make an object more visible in the
technology available to every warfighter. damage to the cornea. dark of under conditions that otherwise
The IR spectrum is adjacent to the IR sensors are one of the components obscure vision, such as heavy fog. Both
visible spectrum, with wavelengths of in modern military night-vision goggles, DARPA and individual branches of the
about 400 to 700 nm. The IR spectrum is which combine visible light enhancement military, such as the U.S. Armys Night
divided into four segments: near infrared with IR imaging. Suppliers such as FLIR Vision and Electronic Sensors Directorate,
(NIR), with wavelengths of about 900 to Systems (www.flir.com) employ compound have been seeking more effective and
1,770 nm; short-wave infrared (SWIR), semiconductor materials (e.g., cadmium affordable night-vision solutions. Their
with wavelengths of about 1.7 to 3.0 telluride and indium antimonide) typical approach to this has been to study
m; medium-wave infrared (MWIR), in producing the detectors. The IR the photonic characteristics of various
with wavelengths of about 3.0 to 8.0 m; detectors are fabricated as focal plane materials and determine how they might
and long-wave infrared (LWIR), with arrays and employ cooling for enhanced be applied to developing passive IR
wavelengths of about 7.5 to 11.0 m. performance. sensors capable of high sensitivity.
This corresponds to a frequency range of Tactical IR-based tools include In fact, the U.S. Armys Night Vision
about 300 GHz to 430 THz. The use of weapon sites, cameras, thermal imagers, and Electronic Sensors Directorate has
IR imaging technology for night vision and night-vision goggles, often using a laboratory at Fort Belvoir, Va. that

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 MICROWAVES & RF LIBRARY
Work on night-vision solutions has been ongoing
since World War II, with early night-vision systems
requiring that a target was illuminated in order to
be detected.
focuses on IR sensors, where part of
the research involves the development
of usable information from detected
images. Because IR sensor images are
monochromatic, the Army is always trying
to improve the resolution of the sensors so
that force is applied in the proper places.
The researchers are also trying to find
ways to make the sensors smaller, less
expensive, and less power-hungry, as with
much of the defense electronics equipment
carried into battle.
Work on night-vision solutions has been
ongoing since World War II, with early
night-vision systems requiring that a target
was illuminated in order to be detected. IR
illumination was provided by large, truck-
mounted sources. As with all electronics
used by the military, the current trend is
to reduce size, weight, and power where
possible. Night- or enhanced-vision
systems work in one of two ways: image
intensification or IR detection. In the first
approach, available ambient light (such as
moonlight) is amplified to create an image
of a target.
The second approach relies on thermal
imaging, detection of the IR energy
that is emitted by living things and the
objects around them. This technique
works effectively when no ambient light is
present, as is the case when underground
or in a tunnel. In turn, IR lasers of
sufficient power and directivity can be
used to illuminate an intended target with
nonvisible light energy, detectable only
by IR sensors. Forward-looking infrared
(FLIR) technology is often used in aircraft
with a thermographic camera to detect IR
radiation. IR sensors are often mounted
on the underside of an aircraft in order to
detect thermal IR images during a night-
time flyover.
The principle of IR detection is fairly
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CHAPTER 5: IR TECHNOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS
simple: As the temperature of a target
increases, the amount of IR radiation
emitted by the target also increases.
One key to the practical use of IR image
detection in the battlefieldor for
any other application where it might
make sense, such as for firefighters in
seeing through smoke in a fireis the
development of IR detectors with adequate
sensitivity to create images from a
sufficient distance from the target, without
need of liquid nitrogen (LN2) to lower
noise and increase detection sensitivity.
Modern night-vision goggles typically
combine several detection methods
to enable imaging under low-light
conditions.
IR detectors have traditionally been
2. IR patches help to identify different
personnel to protect troops from friendly
fire under conditions of low visible light.
(Courtesy of IR.Tools; www.ir.tools/
military)
sensitive within just one part of the IR
spectra, such as only with SWIR or LWIR
radiation, although device and material
researchers have been pursuing more
wideband detectors with sensitivity to the
full IR spectrum. Work at the University
of Michigan, for example, has led to a
room-temperature sensor capable of
detecting the full IR spectrum when
fabricated as a thin film. One of the goals
of the research is to incorporate thermal-
detection capabilities into a contact lens
and further extend the use of IR/thermal
detection in tactical applications. Based on
graphene, or material formed of a single
layer of carbon items, the researchers have
developed sensors capable of detecting the
full spectrum of IR light, although with
limited sensitivity.
IR detectors do not distinguish among
the different wavelengths emitted by a
target; as a result, reconstructed images
tend to be monochromatic (Fig. 1). A
number of organizations within the
military are pursuing improvements
in IT technology, notably for higher-
resolution, higher-sensitivity room-
temperature sensors. For example, the U.S.
ARL is interested in a number of novel
sensor technologies, and IR detectors in
particular. The goal of work related to
its sensor research is 100% situational
awareness for its troops, day or night,
under all environmental conditions.
One current issue being addressed is
the difference in detection capabilities
between cooled and uncooled IR
sensors, with a goal to close the gap in
performance between the two types of IR
sensors. Research opportunities exist for
the development of photonic components
based on quantum-confined devices and
semiconductor materials suitable for use
in the 1-to-24-m-wavelength IR region.
ARL is also interested in the development
of devices with somewhat larger EM
wavelengths for the UV spectral region.
Many IR detectors consist of focal
plane arrays, configured for efficient
collection of IR energy. Studies have
focused not only on how to ultimately
 MICROWAVES & RF LIBRARY
develop room-temperature materials
capable of detecting IR energy, but also a
single IR detector capable of doing what
focal plane arrays currently do in terms of
IR detection effectiveness. A number of
different materials have been investigated,
including barium titanium oxide (BaTiO3)
and barium strontium titanium oxide
(BaTiSrO3) films.
IR sensors can be fabricated as
photovoltaic or photoconductive detectors.
Photovoltaic detectors are formed of
P- and N-type semiconductor materials,
such as GaAs, with a P-N junction and
a depletion region. When the depletion
region absorbs IR photons with enough
energy to exceed the bandgap, a current
results. A selected semiconductor material
is typically sensitive to IR photons in a
very narrow wavelength range, resulting
in what has traditionally been different IR
sensors used for different IR wavelengths.
In contrast, a photoconductive IR
detector is formed of either P- or N-type
semiconductor material and must be
biased for sensitivity to IR photons.
VISIT: mwrf.com for more Defense & Aerospace content | 16
CHAPTER 5: IR TECHNOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS
When it absorbs enough IR energy to
exceed the bandgap, the resistance of
the semiconductor material changes
and, consequently, the output voltage.
Both types of IR detectors are limited
to different wavelengths by the type of
semiconductor material.
As a complement to tactical IR
photodetectors, patches are often worn
for night missions for IFF purposes.
Suppliers such as IR.Tools (www.ir.tools/
military) have supplied millions of
identifying patches (Fig. 2) that provide
a means of identifying different troops
when illuminated by IR radiation, such as
by night-vision goggles. The patches are
available for use with both IR imaging and
thermal imaging detection systems for
protection from friendly fire.
To meet military requirements for
lower size, weight, power, and cost,
future work on IR detectors will focus on
identifying viable semiconductor materials
and getting them to operate with single
devices rather than the complexity of
focal plane arrays. Research also continues
on remaining unseen by an adversarys
IR detectors through the use of textile
materials capable of suppressing both EMI
and thermal emissions. As IR technology
becomes more commercialized in such
products as night-vision cameras, the
costs of the technology decrease closer to
having some form of night-vision sensors
or vision aide available for all members of
the troops. n
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 MICROWAVES & RF LIBRARY

Chapter 6: TACTICAL RADIO COMMUNICATIONS

Tactical Radios Battle

Interference, Threats
Portable tactical radio systems have evolved from simple single-channel transceivers into software-
dominated programmable tools, ever trending toward smaller sizes and higher power efficiencies.

Modern infantry carry full
sets of tools, including
robust portable two-way
radios. (Courtesy of DARPA)
T
actical radio communications
function to keep troops informed,
often under less-than-ideal
conditions. Two-way radios have
been designed into various mechanical
configurations, whether for airborne,
vehicular, or backpack transport. Military
radios must deal with rough terrain,
interference, and hostile jammers. They
have long been based on superheterodyne
front-ends, although newer technologies
are helping to improve performance and
increase flexibility.
The quest for a universal radio
platform that could serve allies as well
as different branches of the U.S. military,
fostered by such efforts as the Joint
Tactical Radio System (JTRS) program
and the single-channel ground and
airborne radio systems (SINCGARS)
program, has fueled the development
of such technologies as frequency-agile
synthesizers and software-defined-radio
(SDR) architectures. These efforts have
enhanced performance, albeit without
real reductions in size and/or power
consumption, which remain current
design goal targets.
The use of SDR technology in tactical
radios permits the use of specific
communications waveforms, such as
the soldier radio waveform (SRW), for
enhanced security. Still, SDR has its
limitations. It relies on power-hungry

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 MICROWAVES & RF LIBRARY
1. The TRC3700 is a portable back-pack tactical radio with a range of 600 km at HF.
(Courtesy of Thales Group)
digital-signal-processing (DSP) circuitry,
and power is limited in the field where
radio operating time is equal to the power
contained in a rechargeable battery pack.
SDR-based radio systems also require
software upgrades from time to time,
and such upgrades present opportunities
for cyber-threats to the radio operating-
system software.
The use of SDR technology
nonetheless continues to grow in
tactical radio systems, even while the
same technology is also widely adopted
in commercial wireless networks, in
base stations, and small cell sites. With
their programmability, modern SDR-
based radios can be adapted to different
operating modes to function as AM, FM,
2. The TRC3730 is a vehicular version of the TRC3700 HF radio with higher transmit
power and greater communications range (1500 km). (Courtesy of Thales Group)
VISIT: mwrf.com for more Defense & Aerospace content | 18
CHAPTER 6: TACTICAL RADIO COMMUNICATIONS
or SSB radios at HP, VHF, or UHF.
And while SDR technology is often
considered synonymous with cognitive
radio technology, the technologies
are not the same. SDR allows a user to
program a radios operating parameters. A
cognitive radio shifts control of a radios
frequencies, channels, and other operating
parameters from the operator to the radios
microprocessor. In theory, a cognitive
radio can detect available channels in a
wireless network and configure a radio
automatically for the most efficient use of
available bandwidth in a region.
Traditional manpack portable tactical
radios are ruggedly built and occupy a
somewhat large portion of a soldiers
backpack, although the size and weight are
less problematic in the vehicular versions
of manpack radios. Typically, with larger
size and weight come higher transmit
power and range when comparing
manpack and vehicular radios designed
for the same frequency band.
For example, Thales Group (www.
thalesgroup.com) is a long-time supplier of
HF, VHF, and UHF military radios, with
both backpack and vehicular versions of
similarly featured radios. The TRC3700
is a manpack radio (Fig. 1) based on
SDR technology and designed for use
at HF. It weighs less than 4 kg without
the rechargeable battery and achieves a
communications range to 600 km using
20-W transmit power. The TRC3730
HF radio (Fig. 2) uses the same SDR
architecture but with a much larger
transmit power amplifier for greater range.
It has a maximum radio range of 1,500
km by means of 125-W transmit power,
although it is no longer a manpack radio
and is designed into several units for
vehicular use.
As detailed in the final chapter of this
e-book, the best tactical radio will fall
short without a properly matched antenna.
Single-channel military radios usually
work with a single antenna for transmit
and receive, although they can operate
in duplex mode with separate transmit
and receive antennas. Wavelengths are
large at HF so antennas are also large at
3. The Whetstone vehicular tactical
radio is a multiple-band system capable
of working at VHF, UHF, and satcom
frequency bands. (Courtesy of Lockheed
Martin)
 MICROWAVES & RF LIBRARY
those frequencies. That being said, some
antennas, such as whip or loop antennas,
can be configured with movable segments.
This facilitates portability while also
helping an HF radio achieve maximum
communications range using ground-wave
EM propagation.
Reaching Higher
Of course, for all of its flexibility and
versatility, SDR technology will not
overcome the normal limitations of single-
channel tactical radio communications
systems, such as limited radio-wave
propagation distance as a function of
transmit power and limited data rate as
a function of channel bandwidth. But
designers of tactical communications
radios have learned how to leverage SDR
architectures to achieve enhancements of
traditional battlefield radios.
As an example, the Whetstone vehicular
radio (Fig. 3) developed several years
ago by Lockheed Martin is nominally
a terrestrial tactical radio that is
compatible with VHF and UHF ground-
based and airborne radios, including
VISIT: mwrf.com for more Defense & Aerospace content | 19
CHAPTER 6: TACTICAL RADIO COMMUNICATIONS
4. Portable test (Fig. 4). It is essentially a test system
sets such as this built around the core of a tactical radio,
provide the means battery operated for use in the field. Like
for testing and the radios it tests, the 3515 is the result
maintaining portable of steady evolution of the features and
tactical radios in the functions needed to test avionics radios,
field. (Courtesy of vehicular radios, and backpack radios.
Cobham/Aeroflex) The 3515 can be programmed for
specific standards-based tests or used
manually. For its small size, it packs all
the instruments needed to find faults
in tactical radios. It contains a signal
generator with range from 2 MHz to 1
GHz, an oscilloscope, an RF power meter,
an audio meter, a spectrum analyzer,
and an antenna/cable tester. It is just one
example of the tactical radio test solutions
available to help the troops ultimately get
the message through. n
BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS
SINCGARS systems, but includes satellite-
communications (satcom) capability.
It is small enough to be mounted into
any combat vehicle and is modular and
scalable for providing critical voice, Understanding VNA Guide
data, and video communications even This 62 page guide will introduce
for locations that might normally be the basic fundamentals of the
considered on the edge of a tactical Vector Network Analyzer (VNA).
communications network.
Whetstone radios can operate in the
VHF FM frequency range from 30 to 88
MHz using 25-kHz channels and have
single-channel and frequency-hopping
modes, with 111 frequency hops/s to
ensure high security and resistance to
jamming. With their satcom capabilities,
they can use the wide transmission
bandwidths to communicate satellite
imaging, video, and large amounts of data
to troops in remote locations.
Considering the large number of
tactical radios used in the field by even
one branch of the military, testing and
maintenance are vital practices that are
aided by a number of portable commercial
test sets. The 3515 from Cobham/Aeroflex
(www.aeroflex.com) is one such example
 MICROWAVES & RF LIBRARY
Chapter 7: ANTENNAS & PHASED ARRAYS
Evaluating Antennas and
Arrays for Electronic Defense
Portable tactical radio systems have evolved from simple single-channel transceivers into software-
dominated programmable tools, ever trending toward smaller sizes and higher power efficiencies.
E
lectronic defense systems
employing receivers and
transmitters rely on antennas.
From the simplest dipoles for
portable radios to larger radiators of
radar systems, the antenna is the interface
between EM waves and electronic
hardware. Military applications have
driven some antenna technologies, such
as radars encouraging the development
of phased arrays and beam steering,
which have become widely adopted in
commercial systems. Military systems
designers have many antenna technologies
from which to choose, and the
requirements of an application will usually
provide the guidelines for an optimum
choice.
An antennas mechanical and electrical
characteristics will determine how well
it fits a particular system. For example,
smaller, lighter antennas match well with
portable systems or in mobile applications
such as for unmanned aerial vehicles
(UAVs). Larger antennas are better suited
for stationary installations and where high
transmit power levels are required, such as
in radars.
An antenna can receive or transmit,
and often must do both. Radars typically
require antennas with very directional
radiation patterns; in contrast, a radio
network works better with an antenna
providing more of an omnidirectional
VISIT: mwrf.com for more Defense & Aerospace content | 20
radiation pattern. Some systems
are narrowband, while others
operate over broader bandwidths.
Portable manpack radios, for
example, operate at frequencies
from 30 MHz to 6 GHz across
multiple systems, although a
single light-weight antenna such
as a dipole (Fig. 1) may provide
enough bandwidth for all of those
systems.
Analyzing Antennas
Antennas are characterized by
numerous parameters, including
frequency, bandwidth, directivity,
gain, efficiency, effective aperture,
polarization, input impedance,
power-handling capability, and
front-to-back ratio. Antennas can
be considered active or passive,
although an active antenna
usually means that an antenna
element has been integrated with
an amplifier to boost the gain.
An antenna of any form radiates
and detects EM waves, with
propagation of the waves along
the ground at lower frequencies
and more through free space and
line of sight at higher frequencies
(as well as when equipment is in
spacee.g., a satellite).
Military applications have
adopted many different antenna
formats over the years, including
wire antennas such as leaky
coaxial cables, monopoles, dipoles,
helix antennas printed-circuit-
board (PCB) antennas based on
microstrip transmission lines,
and waveguide lens and horn
antennas. In addition, arrays
of multiple antenna elements,
such as electronically scanned
arrays (ESAs) or phased-array
antennas, are used to create highly
directional beams for surveillance
or radar systems.
Antenna elements are often
combined with focusing elements
such as directors and reflectors to
achieve more directional behavior.
The size of an antennas resonant
element in terms of fractional
wavelength will determine its
frequency response. For example,
a monopole or dipole that is the
same size as one-quarter or one-
half wavelength of a particular
frequency will resonate at that
frequency. A reflector will help
focus radiant EM energy to and
1. The dipole is one of the simplest forms of
antennas, often used for portable electronic
devices such as tactical radios. (Courtesy of
Radiall; www.radiall.com)
 MICROWAVES & RF LIBRARY
Antennas are characterized by numerous
parameters, including frequency, bandwidth,
directivity, gain, efficiency, effective aperture,
polarization, input impedance, power-handling
capability, and front-to-back ratio.
from the antenna element, and a feed
to the antenna element will provide the
connection to a receiver, transmitter, or
other electronic portions of a system.
Radiation patterns provide the
means for comparing the directional
characteristics of different antennas.
A radiation pattern can be created by
measuring the radiated energy at different
angles and the same distance from the
center of the antenna. Measured values
can be plotted on either rectangular
or polar coordinate systems, although
the latter is probably more familiar to
most engineers (Fig. 2). In the polar
format, measured power levels from the
antenna are shown on points along a
series of equally spaced concentric circles
representing the full 360 deg. around the
antenna. Points further from the center
represent higher radiated power levels. In
this way, it is possible to visualize the EM
field radiated from a particular antenna,
including mainlobes and sidelobes.
330
dB
3d
B
10
300
20
30
40
270
240
210
VISIT: mwrf.com for more Defense & Aerospace content | 21
Large antenna elements, or arrays
with many separate antenna elements,
are needed to achieve highly directional
antenna beams. An antennas beamwidth
describes the amount of coverage that can
be expected from the antenna, with the
beamwidth usually given in terms of the
angular measurement points where the
radiated power is one-half the amount
of the antennas full radiated power
level, such as a 90-deg. beamwidth (the
beamwidth of an ideal dipole antenna).
An antennas output power is usually
specified as the effective or equivalent
isotropic radiated power (EIRP), which
is the amount of power that an ideal
omnidirectional (isotropic) antenna would
radiate to produce the peak power density
in the direction of maximum antenna
gain. For an actual antenna, the maximum
gain and output power only occur within
a relatively narrow angular area, but for
an isotropic antenna, the same gain and
output power are assumed at all angles.
30 2. Antenna radiation
patterns plotted in
Be polar coordinates
am
wi provide a clear
dt 60
h
and simple means
of visualizing an
antennas radiated
energy. (Courtesy
90 of Astron Wireless
Technologies LLC;
www.astronwireless.
com)
120
150
CHAPTER 7: ANTENNAS & PHASED ARRAYS
An antennas effective aperture defines the
area available for radiating or receiving
EM energy, with larger areas translating
into higher gains.
Because EM waves propagate with
some form of polarization, antennas are
polarized to match. When the electric (E)
field components of an EM wave are at
right angles to the surface of the Earth,
the wave is considered vertically polarized.
When they are parallel to the surface
of the Earth, the wave is horizontally
polarized. For the best performance,
the antenna for a particular application
should be oriented in the same direction
as the EM waves E field: a vertically
polarized antenna with vertically polarized
EM waves, and a horizontally polarized
antenna with horizontally polarized EM
waves.
It is possible for EM waves to have
a rotating E field, and those waves are
considered to have circular or elliptical
polarization, with both vertical and
horizontal E-field components. The
E-field rotation may be clockwise (right-
handed circular polarization; RHCP) or
counter-clockwise (left-handed circular
polarization; LHCP). Circular polarization
results when equal magnitudes of
vertically and horizontally polarized waves
are combined with a phase difference of
90 deg.
At lower frequencies such as HF,
where the EM waves travel mostly along
the ground, antennas with vertical
polarization work best. At higher
frequencies such as VHF and UHF, with
more of the EM waves traveling through
the air, antennas with either vertical or
horizontal polarization work fineso long
as the same type of antenna is used for
transmit and receive. When there are no
ground effects, as is the case with satellites,
circular polarization can support high data
rates.
Measuring Performance
The radiation pattern of an antenna
can be measured and modeled close to
the antenna (in its near field) or further
 MICROWAVES & RF LIBRARY CHAPTER 7: ANTENNAS & PHASED ARRAYS

from the antenna (in its far field) at a
minimum distance defined by various
standards, including those of the IEEE.
Depending upon the size of an antenna,
measurements are usually conducted in
a shielded room lined with EM absorber
material to minimize interference and
reflections. For larger antennas, such as for
shipboard radar systems, measurements
are usually made with the antenna
mounted in place.
Measurements of an antenna under test
(AUT) can be made with a microwave
vector network analyzer (VNA), a
source antenna, and a test signal source.
Additional mechanical positioning
equipment such as x-y positioners may
be required to align the antennas and set
different measurement positions. Gain for
an AUT can be determined by comparing
measured power levels to those from a
reference antenna with known gain.
Mathematical software and simulation
software based on EM theory can provide
effective, efficient tools for predicting
the effects of modifications on antenna
performance. Ultimately, this reduces
the time and expense associated with
performing multiple prototype cycles for
enhanced performance. n

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3. Phased-array antennas are formed of many separate antenna elements, which

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