Ancient Macedonian army

This article is about the army of the Kingdom of Mace- lus and Arrian, plus the incomplete writings of Curtius,
donia under Philip II and Alexander the Great. For the all of whom lived centuries later than the events they
army of the Kingdom of Macedonia under the Antigonid describe.[1]
dynasty, see Antigonid Macedonian army.

The army of the Kingdom of Macedonia was among the 1 Origins

greatest military forces of the ancient world. It was cre-
ated and made formidable by King Philip II of Macedon;
previously the army of Macedon had been of little ac-
count in the politics of the Greek world, and Macedonia
had been regarded as a second-rate power.
The latest innovations in weapons and tactics were
adopted and rened by Philip II, and he created a uniquely
exible and eective army. By introducing military ser-
vice as a full-time occupation, Philip was able to drill his
men regularly, ensuring unity and cohesion in his ranks.
In a remarkably short time, this led to the creation of one
of the nest military machines of the ancient world.
Tactical improvements included the latest developments
in the deployment of the traditional Greek phalanx made
by men such as Epaminondas of Thebes and Iphicrates
of Athens. Philip II improved on these military inno-
vators by using both Epaminondas deeper phalanx and
Iphicrates combination of a longer spear and smaller and
lighter shield. However, the Macedonian king also in-
novated; he introduced the use of a much longer spear, Philip II of Macedon - Roman medallion depicting the Macedo-
the two-handed pike. The Macedonian pike, the sarissa, nian king.
gave its wielder many advantages both oensively and de-
fensively. For the rst time in Greek warfare, cavalry be-If Philip II of Macedon had not been the father of
came a decisive arm in battle. The Macedonian army per- Alexander the Great, he would be more widely known as
fected the co-ordination of dierent troop types, an earlya rst-rate military innovator, tactician and strategist, and
example of combined arms tactics the heavy infantry as a consummate politician. The conquests of Alexander
phalanx, skirmish infantry, archers, light and heavy cav- would have been impossible without the army his father
alry, and siege engines were all deployed in battle; each created. Considered semi-barbarous by some metropoli-
troop type being used to its own particular advantage and tan Greeks, the Macedonians were a martial people; they
creating a synergy of mutual support. drank deeply of unwatered wine (the very mark of a bar-
barian) and no youth was considered to be t to sit with
The new Macedonian army was an amalgamation of dif-
the men at table until he had killed, on foot with a spear,
ferent forces. Macedonians and other Greeks (especially
a wild boar.[2]
Thessalian cavalry) and a wide range of mercenaries from
across the Aegean and Balkans were employed by Phillip. When Philip took over control of Macedon, it was a
By 338 BC, more than a half of the army for his planned backward state on the fringes of the Greek world and
invasion of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia came from was beset by its traditional enemies: Illyrians, Paeonians
outside the borders of Macedon from all over the and Thracians. The basic structure of the army inher-
Greek world and the nearby barbarian tribes such as the ited by Philip II was the division of the companion cav-
Illyrians, Paeonians, and Thracians. alry (hetairoi) from the foot companions (pezhetairoi),
augmented by various allied troops, foreign levied sol-
Unfortunately, most of the primary historical sources for
diers, and mercenaries.[3] The foot companions existed
this period have been lost. As a consequence, scholar-
perhaps since the reign of Alexander I of Macedon,
ship is largely reliant on the works of Diodorus Sicu-
while Macedonian troops are accounted for in the his-

1
2 2
tory of Herodotus as subjects of the Persian Empire ght-
ing the Greeks at the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC.[4]
Macedonian cavalry, wearing muscled cuirasses, became
renowned in Greece during and after their involvement
in the Peloponnesian War (431404 BC), at times sid-
ing with either Athens or Sparta and supplemented by
local Greek infantry instead of relying on Macedonian
infantry.[5] Macedonian infantry in this period consisted
of poorly trained shepherds and farmers, while the cav-
alry was composed of noblemen eager to win glory.[6]
An early 4th-century BC stone-carved relief from Pella
shows a Macedonian hoplite infantryman wearing a pilos
helmet and wielding a short sword showing a pronounced
Spartan inuence on the Macedonian army before Philip
II.[7]
Nicholas Sekunda states that at the beginning of Philip
IIs reign in 359 BC, the Macedonian army consisted of
10,000 infantry and 600 cavalry, the latter gure simi- 2 Troop types and unit
lar to that recorded for the 5th century BC.[8] However,
Malcolm Errington cautions that any gures for Mace-
donian troop sizes provided by ancient authors should be
treated with a degree of skepticism, since there are very 2.1 Heavy cavalry
few means by which modern historians are capable of
conrming their veracity (and could have been possibly 2.1.1 The Companion cavalry
lower or even higher than the numbers stated).[9]
Alexander Mosaic showing the Battle of Issus. Roman copy of a
Hellenistic painting.
Philips rst achievement was to unify Macedon through
his army. He raised troops and made his army the sin-
gle fount of wealth, honour and power in the land; the
unruly chieftains of Macedonia became the ocers and
elite cavalrymen of the army, the highland peasants be-
came the footsoldiers. Philip took pains to keep them
always under arms and either ghting or drilling. Ma-
noeuvres and drills were made into competitive events,
and the truculent Macedonians vied with each other to
excel.[10]
As a political counterbalance to the native-born Mace-
donian nobility, Philip invited military families from
throughout Greece to settle on lands he had conquered
or conscated from his enemies, these 'personal clients
then also served as army ocers or in the Companion
cavalry. After taking control of the gold-rich mines of
Mount Pangaeus, and the city of Amphipolis that dom-
inated the region, he obtained the wealth to support a
large army, moreover it was a professional army imbued
with a national spirit. By the time of his death, Philips
TROOP TYPES AND UNIT ORGANISATION
army had pushed the Macedonian frontier into southern
Illyria, conquered the Paeonians and Thracians, asserted
a hegemony over Thessaly, destroyed the power of Phocis
and defeated and humbled Athens and Thebes. All the
states of Greece, with the exception of Sparta, Epirus
and Crete, had become subservient allies of Macedon
(League of Corinth) and Philip was laying the founda-
tions of an invasion of the Persian Empire, an invasion
that his son would successfully undertake.[11]
One important military innovation of Philip II is often
overlooked, he banned the use of wheeled transport and
limited the number of camp servants to one to every ten
infantrymen and one each for the cavalry. This reform
made the baggage train of the army very small for its size
and improved its speed of march.[12]
organisa-
tion
Main article: Companion cavalry
The Companion cavalry, or Hetairoi (), were
Ancient depiction of a Macedonian cavalryman (left). This
shows Alexander the Great as a cavalryman. He wears a helmet
in the form of the lion-scalp of Herakles. Detail of the so-called
Alexander Sarcophagus, excavated at Sidon.
the elite arm of the Macedonian army, and have been
regarded as the nest quality cavalry[13] in the ancient
world. Along with Thessalian cavalry contingents, the
Companions raised from landed nobility made up
the bulk of the Macedonian heavy cavalry. Central Mace-
donia was good horse-rearing country and cavalry was
prominent in Macedonian armies from early times. How-
ever, it was the reforms in organisation, drill and tactics
introduced by Philip II that transformed the Companion
cavalry into a battle-winning force, especially the intro-
duction of, or increased emphasis on, the use of a lance
and shock tactics. Coinage indicates that from an early
2.1 Heavy cavalry 3

period the primary weapons used by Macedonian cavalry infantry, as attested by Arrian in his account of the battle
were a pair of javelins. This remained true through to the against the Malli, an Indian tribe he faced after Hydaspes.
reign of Archelaus I (413-399). Subsequently, despite There, Alexander did not dare assault the dense infantry
the adoption of the lance, it is highly probable that the formation with his cavalry, but rather waited for his in-
Companion cavalry continued to employ javelins when fantry to arrive, while he and his cavalry harassed their
on scouting or skirmishing missions.[14] anks.[21] It is a common mistake to portray the Com-
The hetairoi were divided into squadrons called ilai (sin- panion cavalry as a force able to burst through compact
gular: il), each 200 men strong, except for the Royal infantry lines. Alexander usually launched the Compan-
ions at the enemy after a gap had opened up between their
Squadron, which numbered 300. The Royal Squadron
was also known as the Agema - that which leads. Each units or disorder had already disrupted their ranks. How-
ever, the ancient historian Arrian implies that the Com-
squadron was commanded by an ilarchs (ilarch) and
appears to have been raised from a particular area of panion cavalry were successful in an assault, along with
heavy infantry, on the Greek mercenary hoplites serv-
Macedon. Arrian, for instance, described squadrons from
Bottiaea, Amphipolis, Apollonia and Anthemus.[15] It is ing Persia in the closing stages of the Battle of Grani-
cus. Their success may have been largely due to the poor
probable that Alexander took eight squadrons with him
on his invasion of Asia totalling 1,800 men, leaving seven morale of the hoplites who had just witnessed the rest of
ilai behind in Macedon (the 1,500 cavalrymen mentioned their army broken and put to ight.[22]
by Diodorus).[16] Between 330 BC and 328 BC, the Com- The original 1,800 Companions who accompanied
panions were reformed into regiments (hipparchies) of 2- Alexander to Asia was augmented by 300 reinforcements
3 squadrons. In conjunction with this, each squadron was arriving from Macedon after the rst year of campaign-
divided into two lochoi. This was probably undertaken to ing. They were usually arrayed on the right ank (this
allow for the increase in size of each squadron, as rein- being the position of honour in Hellenic armies, where
forcements and amalgamations meant that the Compan- the best troops would be positioned), and typically car-
ion cavalry grew in size. At this time, Alexander aban- ried out the decisive manoeuvre/assault of the battle un-
doned the regional organisation of the ilai, choosing their der Alexanders direct leadership.[23]
ocers regardless of their origins.[17]
The individual Companion cavalry squadron was usually 2.1.2 Thessalian cavalry
deployed in a wedge formation, which facilitated both
manoeuvrability and the shock of the charge. The advan-
tage of the wedge was that it oered a narrow point for
piercing enemy formations and concentrated the leaders
at the front. It was easier to turn than a square formation
because everyone followed the leader at the apex, like
a ight of cranes. Philip II introduced the formation,
probably in emulation of Thracian and Scythian cavalry,
though the example of the rhomboid formation adopted
by Macedons southern neighbours, the Thessalians, must
also have had some eect.[18]
The primary weapon of the Macedonian cavalry was the
xyston, a double ended cornel-wood lance, with a sword
as a secondary weapon. From descriptions of combat, it
would appear that once in melee the Companion cavalry-
man used his lance to thrust at the chests and faces of the
enemy. It is possible that the lance was aimed at the upper
body of an opposing cavalryman in the expectation that
a blow which did not wound or kill might have sucient
A heavy cavalryman of Alexander the Greats army, possibly
leverage to unseat. If the lance broke, the Companion
a Thessalian. He wears a cuirass (probably a linothorax) and
could reverse it and use the other end, or draw his sword. a Boeotian helmet, and is equipped with a scabbarded xiphos
Cleitus, an ocer of the Companions, saved Alexander straight-bladed sword. Alexander Sarcophagus.
the Greats life at the Granicus by cutting o an enemy
horsemans arm with his sword.[19] Companion cavalry- Following the defeat of Lycophron of Pherae and
men would normally have worn armour and a helmet in Onomarchos of Phocis, Philip II of Macedon was ap-
battle.[20] pointed Archon of the Thessalian League; his death in-
Although the Companion cavalry is largely regarded as duced the Thessalians to attempt to throw o Mace-
the rst real shock cavalry of Antiquity, it seems that donian hegemony, but a short bloodless campaign by
Alexander was very wary of using it against well-formed Alexander restored them to allegiance. The Thessalians
were considered the nest cavalry of Greece.[24]
4 2 TROOP TYPES AND UNIT ORGANISATION

The Thessalian heavy cavalry accompanied Alexander (prominent at the Battle of Hydaspes), other mounted
during the rst half of his Asian campaign and contin- missile troops, plus Asiatic heavy cavalry.
ued to be employed by the Macedonians as allies until
Macedon's nal demise at the hands of the Romans. Its
organization and weaponry were similar to the Compan- 2.2.1 Prodromoi/Sarissaphoroi (cavalry unit)
ion Cavalry, though the earlier Thessalian way of ghting
emphasised the use of javelins.[25] The Thessalian cav- Main article: prodromoi
alry was famed for its use of rhomboid formations, said
to have been developed by the Thessalian Tagos (head Scholarship is divided as to the ethnic composition of the
of the Thessalian League) Jason of Pherae. This forma- prodromoi of the Macedonian army. Most authorities re-
tion was very ecient for manoeuvring, as it allowed the gard the prodromoi as being raised from Macedonians,
squadron to change direction at speed while still retain- which would parallel the Athenian prodromoi, who were
ing cohesion.[26] The numbers given for Alexanders in- raised from the Thetes, the lowest census class of Athe-
vasion of the Persian Empire included 1,800 such men. nian citizens.[30] Sekunda, however, gives them an origin
This number would have risen no higher than 2,000. They from Thrace.[31] Arrian usually dierentiates the prodro-
were typically entrusted with the defensive role of guard-moi from the Paeonian light cavalry, which suggests a
ing the left ank from enemy cavalry, allowing the deci- xed ethnic composition.[32] This uncertainty is proba-
sive attack to be launched on the right. They often faced bly due to the lack of a denite understanding of the use
tremendous opposition when in this role. At Issus and of the term prodromoi by the primary sources, referred
Gaugamela, the Thessalians withstood the attack of Per- to above. The prodromoi, are sometimes referred to as
sian cavalry forces, though greatly outnumbered.[27] sarissophoroi, pikemen or lancers, which leads to the
At Ecbatana, the Thessalians with Alexanders army were conclusion that they sometimes were armed with an un-
disbanded and sent home. Some remained with the army commonly long xyston (believed to be 14 ft long), though
as mercenaries, yet these too were sent home a year later certainly not an infantry pike. In the primary sources,
when the army reached the Oxus River.[28] Arrian mentions that Aretes commanded the prodromoi;
in the same context Curtius says that Aretes commanded
the sarissophoroi. It would appear that the same unit of
2.1.3 Other Greek cavalry cavalry was known by both names.[33]
The prodromoi/sarissophoroi acted as scouts, recon-
The Hellenic states allied to, or more accurately under the noitring in front of the army when it was on the march. In
hegemony of, Macedon provided contingents of heavy battle, they were used in a shock role to protect the right
cavalry and the Macedonian kings hired mercenaries of ank of the Companion cavalry. Their abilities as scouts
the same origins. Alexander had 600 Greek cavalrymen would seem to have been mediocre, because Persian light
at the start of his campaign against Persia, probably or- cavalry took over these duties when they became avail-
ganised into 5 ilai. These cavalrymen would have been able to the Macedonian army following Gaugamela. The
equipped very similarly to the Thessalians and Compan- prodromoi then assumed a purely battleeld role as shock
ions, but they deployed in a square formation eight deep cavalry. It is also possible that the prodromoi, due to their
and sixteen abreast.[16] The Greek cavalry was not consid- skill in wielding long lances and their extensive battle ex-
ered as eective or versatile as the Thessalian and Mace- perience, were considered more valuable in the role of
donian cavalry. shock cavalry, especially after the departure of the Thes-
salian cavalry. Four ilai, each 150 strong, of prodromoi
operated with Alexanders army in Asia.[34]
2.2 Light cavalry At Gaugamela, the prodromoi under Aretes were respon-
sible for nally routing the Persian left wing cavalry, win-
Light cavalry, such as the prodromoi (literal trans. those ning the battle in this sector.[35]
who run ahead), secured the wings of the army dur-
ing battle and went on reconnaissance missions. There is
some ambiguity concerning the use of the term prodro- 2.2.2 Paeonian cavalry
moi by the sources; it may have been used to describe any
cavalry undertaking a scouting, skirmishing or screen- These light cavalry were recruited from Paeonia, a tribal
ing mission, or it may have denoted a single unit, or in- region to the north of Macedonia. The Paeones had been
deed both.[29] Apart from the prodromoi (in the sense of conquered and reduced to tributary status by Philip II.
a single unit), other horsemen from subject or allied na- Led by their own chieftains, the Paeonian cavalry was
tions, lling various tactical roles and wielding a variety usually brigaded with the Prodromoi and often operated
weapons, rounded out the cavalry. By the time Alexan- alongside them in battle. They appear to have been armed
der campaigned in India, and subsequently, the cavalry with javelins and swords and are, unusually, described as
had been drastically reformed and included thousands of carrying shields. Initially, only one squadron strong, they
horse-archers from Iranian peoples such as the Dahae received 500 reinforcements in Egypt and a further 600
2.3 Heavy infantry 5

at Susa.[36]

2.2.3 Thracian cavalry

A drawing of a Macedonian phalanx. The shields depicted are

smaller and lighter than those employed in a traditional hoplite
phalanx, the sarissa is twice as long as the hoplite spear and fully
enclosed helmets weren't as widespread as this drawing suggests.

Javelin-armed Thracian horseman - hunting wild boar.

Largely recruited from the Odrysian tribe, the Thracian

cavalry also acted as scouts on the march. In battle, they
performed much the same function as the Prodromoi and
Paeonians, except they guarded the ank of the Thes-
salian cavalry on the left wing of the army. The Thra-
cians deployed in their ancestral wedge formations and
were armed with javelins and swords. At Gaugamela, the
Thracians elded four ilai and were about 500 strong.[36]

2.2.4 Horse archers

Painted depiction of a soldier wearing the linothorax, from
In 329 BC, Alexander, while in Sogdiana, created a 1,000
an ancient Macedonian tomb of Mieza, Macedonia in Imathia,
strong unit of horse archers that was recruited from vari- Greece, 4th century BC
ous Iranian peoples. They were very eective at scouting
and in screening the rest of the army from the enemy. Fir-
ing their bows whilst mounted, they oered highly mobile Pezhetairoi the Foot Companions and made up the
missile re on the battleeld. At the Battle of Hydaspes, Macedonian phalanx.[38]
the massed re of the horse archers was eective at dis-
ordering the Indian cavalry and helped to neutralise thePhilip II spent much of his youth as a hostage at
Indian chariots.[37] Thebes, where he studied under the renowned general
Epaminondas, whose reforms formed the basis of Philips
later tactics. The equipment of the Macedonian phalan-
2.3 Heavy infantry gite is believed to have been inuenced by the 'peltast'
developed by the Athenian general Iphicrates. The Iph-
2.3.1 The Foot Companions icratean peltast was not a skirmisher but a form of light
hoplite, characterised by using a longer spear and smaller
For more details on this topic, see Macedonian phalanx. shield.[39] However, the introduction of the sarissa pike
The Macedonian foot soldiers were formed into an in conjunction with a smaller shield seem to have been
infantry formation developed by Philip II and used by innovations devised by Philip himself, or at the very
his son Alexander the Great to conquer the Persian Em- least least he produced the denitive synthesis of earlier
pire and other enemies. These infantrymen were called developments.[40] Diodorus claimed that Philip was in-
6 2 TROOP TYPES AND UNIT ORGANISATION

spired to make changes in the organisation of his Mace- handed thrust. At close range, such large weapons were
donian infantry from reading a passage in the writings of of little use, but an intact phalanx could easily keep its
Homer describing a close-packed formation.[41] enemies at a distance; the weapons of the rst ve rows
Imitating the Greek example of martial exercises and is- of men all projected beyond the front of the formation,
suing of standard equipment for citizen soldiery, Philip II so that there were more spearpoints than available targets
transformed the Macedonian army from a levied force of at any given time. The men of the rear ranks raised their
farmers into a well-trained ghting force.[42] Foot Com- sarissas so as to provide protection from aerial missiles.
panions were levied from the peasantry of Macedon. A phalangite also carried a sword as a secondary weapon
for close quarter ghting should the phalanx disintegrate.
Once levied they became professional soldiers. Discharge
could only be granted by the King. Under Philip, the The phalanx, however, was extremely vulnerable in the
anks and rear.[45]
Foot Companions received no regular pay. This seems to
have changed by Alexanders time as during the mutiny The phanangite was equipped with a shield, often called
at Opis in 324 BC, the men were chastised by Alexander the 'Telamon shield', which was smaller and less deeply
for having run up debts despite earning good pay.[43] convex than the aspis shield employed by Greek hoplites
Through extensive drilling and training, the Foot Com- (and probably the hypaspists). The extent to which pha-
panions were able to execute complex manoeuvres well langites were armoured is unclear, and may have changed
beyond the ability of most contemporary armies. The over time. They were equipped with helmets and greaves,
sound of myriads of pikes moving though the air in uni- but do not appear to have worn the thorax at the time
son, as they were deployed, was said to be most impres- of Philip II, as this armour is not mentioned as form-
sive, and demoralising to the ears of enemy troops. ing part of the necessary equipment for sarissa-armed
The size of the phalanx elded by Macedon and its vari- infantry. The thorax is, however, shown being worn by
ous successor states varied greatly. Alexander the Great, an infantryman on the Alexander Sarcophagus, however,
for example, elded 9,000 Foot Companions throughout this gure is equipped with an 'aspis shield [46]
and may de-
much of his campaign. These were divided into 1,500- pict a hypaspist, rather than a phalangite. It is indicated
man battalions, each raised from a separate district of in the Military Decree of Amphipolis that the phalan-
Macedon. Philip V elded 16,000 phalangites at the gites wore the kotthybos, a form of defence of uncertain
[47][48]
Battle of Cynoscephalae, and Perseus reputedly elded nature.
over 20,000 at Pydna. Alexander did not use the phalanx as the decisive arm of
These soldiers fought in close-ranked rectangular or his battles, but instead used it to pin and demoralize the
square formations, of which the smallest tactical unit was enemy while his heavy cavalry would charge selected op-
the 256 men strong syntagma or speira. This forma- ponents or exposed enemy unit anks, most usually after
tion typically fought eight or sixteen men deep and in a driving the enemy horse from the eld. [49] An example
frontage of thirty-two or sixteen men accordingly. Each of this is the Battle of Gaugamela, where, after manoeu-
le of 16 men, a lochos, was commanded by a lochagos vring to the right to prevent a double envelopment from
who was in the front rank. Junior ocers, one at the the Persian army and making Darius command his cav-
rear and one in the centre, were in place to steady the alry on his left ank to check the oblique movement of
ranks and maintain the cohesion of the formation, sim- the Greeks by attacking their cavalry, Companion cav-
ilar to modern-day NCOs. The commander of the syn- alry charged the weakened enemy centre where Darius
tagma theoretically fought at the head of the extreme far- was posted and were followed by the hypaspists and the
right le. According to Aelian, a syntagma was accom- phalanx proper. Polybius (18.31.5), emphasises that the
panied by ve additional individuals to the rear: a herald phalanx required at open places for its eective deploy-
(to act as a messenger), a trumpeter (to sound out com- ment, as broken country would hinder and break up its
mands), an ensign (to hold the units standard), an addi- formation.[50]
tional ocer (called ouragos), and a servant. This array The phalanx carried with it a fairly minimal baggage train,
of both audial and visual communication methods helped with only one servant for every ten men. This gave it a
to make sure that even in the dust and din of battle ordersmarching speed that contemporary armies could not hope
could still be received and given. Six syntagmata formed to match on occasion forces surrendered to Alexander
a taxis of 1,500 men commanded by a strategos, six taxeis simply because they were not expecting him to show up
formed a phalanx under a phalangiarch.[44] for several more days. This was made possible thanks to
Each phalangite carried as his primary weapon a sarissa, the training Philip instilled
[51]
in his army, which included
which was a type of pike. The length of these pikes was regular forced marches.
such that they had to be wielded with two hands in bat- The Macedonian phalanx itself was thus not very dif-
tle. The traditional Greek hoplite used his spear single- ferent from the hoplite phalanx of other Greek states as
handed, as the large hoplon shield needed to be gripped by a formation. As an evolution of the hoplite phalanx, it
the left hand, therefore the Macedonian phalangite gained featured improved equipment, training, and tactics. In
in both weapon reach and in the added force of a two Philips and Alexanders time, the Macedonian phalanx
2.3 Heavy infantry
had clear technical superiority.
Ancient depiction of a Macedonian infantryman (right). He is
equipped with a hoplon (Argive) shield, so probably is a Hy- haps not even ocial.
paspist. He also wears a linothorax cuirass and a Thracian hel- ders pike-wielding
met. Alexander Sarcophagus.
2.3.2 Hypaspists
The Hypaspists (Hypaspistai) were the elite arm of the fantry as the most reliable, while disagreeing with his g-
Macedonian infantry. The word 'hypaspists translates ure for cavalry
into English as 'shield-bearers. During a pitched bat-
tle, such as Gaugamela, they acted as guard for the right
ank of the phalanx and as a exible link between the
phalanx and the Companion cavalry. They were used
for a variety of irregular missions by Alexander, often in
conjunction with the Agrianians (elite skirmishers), the
Companions and select units of phalangites. They were
prominent in accounts of Alexanders siege assaults in
close proximity to Alexander himself. The Hypaspists
were of privileged Macedonian blood and their senior
chiliarchy () formed the Agema[52] foot body-
guard of Alexander III.[53][54]
The organisation of the hypaspist regiment seems to
have been into units of 500 (pentakosiarchies) before
331 and later, by 327, it was divided into three battal-
ions (chiliarchies) of 1,000 men, which were then fur-
ther sub-divided in a manner similar to the Foot Compan-
ions. Each battalion would be commanded by a chiliarch,
with the regiment as a whole under the command of an
archihypaspist.[55]
In terms of weaponry, they were probably equipped in
the style of a traditional Greek hoplite with a thrusting
spear or doru (shorter and less unwieldy than the sarissa)
and a large round shield (hoplon).[56] As well as this, they
7
would have carried a sword, either a xiphos or a kopis.
This would have made them far better suited to engage-
ments where formations and cohesion had broken down,
making them well suited to siege assaults and special mis-
sions. Their armour appears to have varied depending on
the type of mission they were conducting. When taking
part in rapid forced marches or combat in broken terrain,
so common in the eastern Persian Empire, it appears that
they wore little more than a helmet and a cloak (exomis)
so as to enhance their stamina and mobility. However,
when engaging in heavy hand-to-hand ghting, for in-
stance during a siege or pitched battle, they would have
worn body armour of either linen or bronze. This variety
of armaments made them an extremely versatile force.
Their numbers were kept at full strength, despite casual-
ties, by continual replenishment through the transfer of
veteran soldiers chosen from the phalanx.[57]
A new term for hypaspistai emerged after the Battle
of Gaugamela in 331 BC: the argyraspides ('silver
shields).[58] The latter continued to serve after the reign
of Alexander the Great and may have been of Asian
origin.[59] However, in regards to both the argyraspides
and chalkaspides ('bronze shields), Malcolm Errington
asserts that these titles were probably not functional, per-
[60]
Sekunda states that Alexan-
infantry numbered some 12,000 men,
3,000 of which were elite hypaspistai and 9,000 of
which were pezhetairoi.[61] However, in discussing the
discrepancies among ancient historians about the size of
Alexander the Great's army, N.G.L. Hammond and F.W.
Walbank choose Diodorus Siculus' gure of 32,000 in-
[62]
at 4,500, asserting it was closer to 5,100
horsemen.
2.3.3 Greek hoplites
ancient fresco of Macedonian soldiers from the tomb of
Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki, Greece, 4th century BC
The army led by Alexander the Great into the Persian
Empire included Greek heavy infantry in the form of al-
lied contingents provided by the League of Corinth and
hired mercenaries. These infantrymen would have been
equipped as hoplites with the traditional hoplite panoply
consisting of a thrusting spear (doru), bronze-faced ho-
8 3 THE USE OF ORIENTAL SOLDIERS UNDER ALEXANDER THE GREAT
plon shield and body armour. In appearance, they would
have been almost identical to the hypaspists. In battle, the
Greek hoplites had a less active role than the Macedonian
phalangites and hypaspists. At Gaugamela, the Greek in-
fantry formed the defensive rear of the box formation
Alexander arranged his army into, while the Macedonians
formed its front face.[63] Nevertheless, they performed a
valuable function in facing down attempts by the Persian
cavalry to surround the Macedonian army and helped deal
with the breakthrough of some Persian horsemen who
went on to attack the baggage.
2.4 Light infantry
2.4.1 Peltasts
Agrianian peltast - modern reconstruction by Johnny Shumate
The peltasts raised from the Agrianes, a Paeonian tribe,
were the elite light infantry of the Macedonian army.
They were often used to cover the right ank of the army 3 The use of Oriental soldiers un-
in battle, being posted to the right of the Companion cav-
alry, a position of considerable honour. They were al-
most invariably part of any force on detached duty, espe-
cially missions requiring speed of movement.[64] Other According to Arrian, Alexander used Arachosian, Bac-
nationalities also provided peltasts for the Macedonian trian, Parapamisadaean, Sogdian, Indian, and Scythian
army. Especially numerous were the Thracians; the Thra- troops. They were present at the grand army revue
cian peltasts performed the same function in battle as the
Agrianians, but for the left wing of the army. It is un-
clear if the Thracians, Paeonians, and Illyrians ghting as
javelin throwers, slingers, and archers serving in Mace-
donian armies from the reign of Philip II onward were
conscripted as allies via a treaty or were simply hired
mercenaries.[65]
Peltasts were armed with a number of javelins and a
sword, carried a light shield but wore no armour, though
they sometimes had helmets; they were adept at skirmish-
ing and were often used to guard the anks of more heav-
ily equipped infantry. They usually adopted an open or-
der when facing enemy heavy infantry. They could throw
their javelins at will at the enemy and, unencumbered by
armour or heavy shields, easily evade any counter-charges
made by heavily equipped hoplites. They were, however,
quite vulnerable to shock-capable cavalry and often op-
erated to particular advantage on broken ground where
cavalry was useless and heavy infantry found it dicult
to maintain formation.[66][67]
2.4.2 Archers
See also: Cretan archer
Philip II was also able to eld archers, including
mercenary Cretan archers and perhaps some native
Macedonians.[68] In most Greek states, archery was not
greatly esteemed, nor practised by native soldiery, and
foreign archers were often employed, such as the Scythi-
ans prominent in Athenian employ. However, Crete was
notable for its very eective archers, whose services as
mercenaries were in great demand throughout the Greek
World. Cretan archers were famed for their powerful
bows, ring arrows with large, heavy heads of cast bronze.
They carried their arrows in a quiver with a protective ap
over its opening. Cretan archers were unusual in carrying
a shield, which was relatively small and faced in bronze.
The carrying of shields indicates that the Cretans also had
some ability in hand-to-hand ghting, an additional fac-
tor in their popularity as mercenaries.[69] Archers were
also raised from Macedonia and various Balkan peoples.
Alexander inherited the use of Cretan archers from his
fathers reign, yet around this time a clear reference to
the use of native Macedonian archers was made.[70] Af-
ter the Battle of Gaugamela, archers of West Asian back-
grounds became commonplace and were organized into
chiliarchies.[70]
der Alexander the Great
4.1 Weapons 9

Alexander assembled in 324 BC. The army supposedly
reached 120,000 front-line troops at one point. This did
not include camp followers. There has been considerable
debate as to when Alexander rst used Orientals in the
army.[71] During his campaign in Asia against the Per-
sian Empire he formed a hipparchia (i.e. unit of a few
hundred horsemen) of companion cavalry composed en-
tirely of ethnic Persians.[72] The introduction of orientals
into the army was actively resented by many of the native
Macedonians, especially when the cadre of young Per-
sians from aristocratic families was trained in Macedo-
nian ghting techniques and enrolled in the companion
cavalry.[73]
military ocers, while pikemen wore the kotthybos stom-
ach bands along with their helmets and greaves, wielding a
dagger as a secondary weapon along with their shields.[47]
There is a considerable body of evidence to suggest that
the dierent classes of Macedonian soldier trained to use
a variety of arms and equipment. Certainly, cavalry, in-
cluding Alexander himself, fought on foot during sieges
and assaults on fortied settlements, phalangites are de-
scribed using javelins and some infantrymen were trained
to ride horses. The deployment of diering types of ar-
mour and weapons was dependent solely on the require-
ments of a particular tactical situation.[76]

4.1 Weapons
4 Arms and armour

The hunter on the right is wielding a kopis cutting sword, the

hunter on the left holds a scabbarded xiphos straight sword. Both
types of sword were used by Macedonian cavalry and infantry.
Lion Hunt mosaic from the Macedonian capital Pella, late 4th
century BC.

Most troops would have carried a type of sword as a sec-

ondary weapon. The straight-bladed shortsword known
as the xiphos () is depicted in works of art, and
two types of single-edged cutting swords, the kopis and
machaira, are shown in images and are mentioned in texts.
An archaeological nd of a well-preserved Macedonian
An image depicting an ancient Macedonian shield displaying the
xiphos revealed a sword with a blade length of 55cm
'Vergina Sun', a royal symbol and a weight of 300g.[77] The cutting swords are particu-
larly associated with cavalry use, especially by Xenophon,
Philip IIs heavy infantry were equipped with peltai but representations would suggest that all three sword
shields (peltai used here to describe a proto-'Telamon types were [78] used by cavalry and infantry without obvious
shield', not the light wicker and leather shields used distinction.
by peltasts) that already diverged from the hoplon style Each Companion cavalryman was equipped with a 3-
shield featured in sculpted artwork of a Katerini tomb, metre double-ended spear/lance with a cornel wood shaft
dated perhaps to the reign of Amyntas III of Mace- called the xyston. The double spear points meant that,
don.[7] His early infantry were also equipped with pro- should the xyston break during a battle, the rider need
tective helmets and greaves, as well as sarissa pikes, only turn his weapon around to re-arm himself. The
yet according to Sekunda they were eventually equipped Thessalian and Greek cavalry would have been armed
with heavier armour such as cuirasses, since the Third similarly to the Companions. The xyston was used
Philippic of Demosthenes in 341 BC described them as to thrust either overarm or underarm with the elbow
hoplites instead of lighter peltasts.[74] As evidenced by exed.[79] This is usefully illustrated in the Alexander
the Alexander Sarcophagus, troops serving Alexander the Mosaic, King Alexander is shown thrusting with his xys-
Great were also armoured in the hoplite fashion.[75] How- ton underarm, whilst immediately behind him a caval-
ever, Errington argues that breastplates were not worn by ryman is employing the overarm thrust. There is no
the phalanx pikemen of either Philip II or Philip Vs reign evidence that the Macedonian cavalry ever used a two-
periods (during which sucient evidence exists).[47] In- handed grip on their lances, as did later Sarmatian and
stead, he claims that breastplates were only worn by Roman lancers.[80] The shaft of the xyston was tapered
10
Fresco of an ancient Macedonian soldier with a grounded spear,
wearing the rectangular Macedoanian cloak and a cap, from the
tomb of Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki, Greece.
allowing the point of balance, and therefore the hand grip,
to be approximately two thirds of the length of the spear
away from the point.[81] During the reign of Alexander
the Great most cavalrymen did not carry shields. How-
ever, the Companion cavalry of the Antigonid dynasty did
carry large, round bossed shields of Thracian origin.
The armament of the Phalangites is described in the
Military Decree of Amphipolis. It lists the nes imposed
upon the soldiers who fail to maintain their armament
or produce it upon demand. Oensive weapons were a
pike (sarissa), and a short sword (machaira). The sarissa
was over 6 m (18 ft) in length, with a counterweight and
spiked end at the rear called a sauroter; it seems to have
had an iron sleeve in the middle which may mean that it
was in two pieces for the march with the sleeve joining
the two sections before use. Like the xyston, the sarissa
was greatly tapered towards the point. This, along with
the sauroter, helped to make the point of balance as far
towards the butt of the weapon as possible. It should be
4 ARMS AND ARMOUR
stressed that the archaeological discoveries show that the
phalangites also used the two-edged sword (xiphos) as
well as the traditional Greek hoplite spear (doru/),
which was much shorter than the sarissa. The sources also
indicate that the phalangites were on occasion armed with
javelins. The sarissa would have been useless in siege
warfare and other combat situations requiring a less cum-
bersome weapon.[82][83]
Hypaspists and allied and mercenary Greek heavy in-
fantry were equipped as classic hoplites and would have
employed the hoplite spear and a sword.[84]
Light troops were provided by a number of subject and al-
lied peoples. Various Balkan peoples, such as Agrianes,
Paeonians and Thracians, provided either light infantry
or cavalry or indeed both. Typical light infantry peltasts
would be armed with a number of javelins. The indi-
vidual javelin would have a throwing thong attached to
the shaft at or near its point of balance. The thong was
wound around the shaft and hooked over one or two n-
gers. The thong made the javelin spin in ight, which
improved accuracy, and the extra leverage increased the
range achievable.[85]
Foot archers, notably mercenary Cretans, were also em-
ployed; Cretans were noted for the heavy, large-headed
arrows they used. Light cavalry could use lighter types of
lance, javelins and, in the case of Iranian horse archers,
compact composite bows.
4.2 Helmets
A simple conical helmet (pilos) of a type worn by some Macedo-
nian infantrymen.
Virtually all helmets in use in the Greek world of the pe-
riod were constructed of bronze. One helmet prominent
in contemporary images was in the form of a Phrygian
cap, that is it had a high and forward-projecting apex, this
type of helmet, also known as a "Thracian helmet", had
a projecting peak above the eyes and usually had large
cheek pieces which were often decorated with stylised
beards in embossing. Late versions of the Chalcidian hel-
met were still in use; this helmet was a lightened form
4.3 Body armour
A Thracian helmet. It lacks its cheek pieces.
Boeotian bronze helmet, the front of the helmet is to the right
developed from the Corinthian helmet, it had a nasal pro-
tection and modest-sized cheek pieces. Other, more sim-
ple, helmets of the conical 'konos or 'Pilos type', without
cheek pieces, were also employed. These helmets were
worn by the heavy infantry.[86]
The Thracian helmet was worn by Macedonian cavalry in
King Philips day, but his son Alexander is said to have
preferred the open-faced Boeotian helmet for his cav-
alry, as recommended by Xenophon.[87] The royal burial
in the Vergina Tomb contained a helmet which was a
variation on the Thracian/Phrygian type, exceptionally
made of iron, this would support its use by cavalry.[88]
Additionally, a fresco depicting a Macedonian mounted
lancer spearing an infantryman, from the Kinch Tomb,
near Naousa, shows the cavalryman wearing a Thracian
type helmet.[89] The Boeotian helmet, though it did not
have cheek pieces, had a aring rim which was folded
into a complex shape oering considerable protection to
the face. The Alexander Mosaic suggests that ocers of
the heavy cavalry had rank badges in the form of laurel
wreaths (perhaps painted or of metallic construction) on
11
their helmets.[90]
The Alexander Sarcophagus shows Alexander the Great
wearing an elaborate helmet in the form of the lion scalp
of Herakles. Alexanders cousin Pyrrhus of Epirus is de-
scribed as wearing a helmet with cheek pieces in the shape
of rams heads. Many examples of helmets from the pe-
riod have crest or plume-holders attached, so that a high
degree of martial nery could be achieved by the wearing
of imposing headpieces.[91]
4.3 Body armour
Hellenistic muscle cuirass and a helmet derived from the Thra-
cian/Phrygian type, combined with elements of the Boeotian type
Body armour in the Macedonian army was derived from
a repertiore found throughout the Greek-speaking world.
The most common form of armour was the linothorax,
which was a cuirass of sti linen built up of glued or
stitched layers of textile; though it is possible that linen
was used as a facing material over leather.[92] It was com-
posed of the 'girdle' a tubular section, often of four verti-
cal panels, that enclosed the torso. A shoulder-piece was
attached to the upper rear section of the girdle, this el-
ement was split into two wings which were pulled for-
ward over the top of each shoulder and laced to the chest-
section of the girdle. Ancient representations show the
shoulder pieces standing vertical when not laced down to
the chest of the corselet. This suggests that the linotho-
rax as a whole was very sti and inexible. Pteruges,
strips of linen or leather, protected the upper arms and
hips of the wearer. The linothorax could be reinforced
with plate bronze or bronze scale elements. Defences of
a similar appearance composed of quilted textile are also
described.[93][94]
Less common, due to its expense, was the muscle cuirass.
This was a defence made entirely of plate bronze con-
sisting of a breast and backplate, usually with shoulder
pieces, modelled in relief on the form a muscular male
torso. This was often given pteruges to extend the area of
the body covered.[95]
A complete cuirass of plate iron, decorated with gold and
modelled on the form of the linothorax, was discovered in
the Macedonian royal burial at Vergina. This, alongside
the evidence of the depiction of Alexander the Great in
the Alexander Mosaic, shows that the technology to make
plate armour in iron existed at this time.[96] It is to be
12
Alexander the Great in battle. The king wears a composite cuirass
which copies the shape of the linothorax. The shoulder elements
and upper chest are of plate iron, whilst the waist is composed of
scale armour for ease of movement. There are pteruges of leather
or stiened linen at the shoulders and hips. The king wears a
xiphos sword. Detail of the Alexander Mosaic (A Roman copy
of a Hellenistic painting).
doubted that this type of armour was worn by persons
other than of royal or very exalted rank.[97]
All of the above forms of armour could be described as
thorakes (plural of thorax). Other forms of armour are
mentioned in original sources, such as the kotthybos and a
type of half-armour the hemithorakion ();
the precise nature of these defences is not known but it
would be reasonable to conclude that they were lighter
and perhaps aorded less protection than the thorax.[98]
However, it has been suggested that when the terms kot-
thybos, hemithorakion and thorax occur together, as in the
Amphipolis regulation, then thorax may refer specically
to the bronze muscle cuirass. Within the phalanx the tho-
rax and hemithorakion were reserved for hegemones, the
ocers.[99] It has also been proposed that the kotthybos
might refer to a form of linothorax. It is recorded that
Alexander ordered the burning of old armours, which
suggests that the armour in question was non-metallic.[100]
Archaeological remains exist for only one type of limb
armour: bronze greaves, which protected the lower leg.
Greaves could be worn by both heavy infantry and heavy
cavalry, but they are not in great evidence in contempo-
4 ARMS AND ARMOUR
rary depictions. However, greaves are mentioned in the
Military Decree of Amphipolis and a pair of greaves,
one shorter than the other, were found in the Vergina
Tomb.[101]
Xenophon mentions a type of armour called the hand to
protect the left, bridle, arm of heavy cavalrymen, though
there is no supporting evidence for its widespread use.
It may have resembled the later manica armour used by
Roman gladiators and cataphract cavalry.[102]
4.4 Macedonian shields
The Macedonian phalangite shield, also termed the 'Tela-
mon shield', was circular and displayed a slight convexity;
its outer surface was faced by a thin bronze sheet. The
inner face of the shield was of wood or a multilayered
leather construction, with a band for the forearm xed
to the centre of the shield. Plutarch noted that the pha-
langites (phalanx soldiers) carried a small shield on their
shoulder. This probably meant that, as both hands were
needed to hold the sarissa, the shield was worn suspended
by a shoulder strap and steadied by the left forearm pass-
ing through the armband. The left hand would project
beyond the rim of the shield to grip the sarissa. Recent re-
constructions of the sarissa and phalangite shield showed
that the shoulder strap supporting the shield eectively
helps to transfer some of the weight of the sarissa from
the left arm to the shoulders when the sarissa is held hori-
zontally in its ghting position. The Macedonian phalan-
gite shield is described by Asclepiodotus (Tactica, 5) as
being eight palms wide (equivalent to 62cm or 24 inches)
and not too hollow.[103][104]
The lefthand gure shows the armband and grip on the inside of
a hoplon or Argive shield - painted Corinthian krater c. 560BC.
From pictorial sources, it is probable that the Hypaspists,
elite members of the infantry, including the Agema of the
Kings personal foot guard, employed a shield of larger di-
mensions, the traditional Greek hoplite shield called the
hoplon or aspis (), it is also referred to as the 'Argive
shield'. This shield, also circular, was larger than the pha-
langite shield, it had sheet-bronze facing over a wooden
base; it was held with the left forearm passing through a
central armband with a hand-grip set just inside the rim.
5.2 Other siege engines 13

This shield was more much convex than the phalangite

shield and had a projecting rim, both features preclud-
ing its use with a double handed pike. The style of shield
used by cavalry, if any, is less clear; the heavy cavalry of
Alexanders time did not employ shields.[105][106]
Light infantry javelineers would have used a version of
the pelte (Ancient Greek: ) shield, from whence
their name, peltast, derived. This was a light shield made
of leather-faced wicker. The shield was of Thracian ori-
gin and was originally crescent-shaped, however, by the
time of Macedonian greatness many depictions of peltai
show them as being oval or round.[107][108]

5 Siege warfare
Further information: Polyidus of Thessaly and Diades of
Pella

The Macedonians had developed their siege tactics un-

der Philip. They had for the rst time conducted suc-
cessful sieges against strongly held and fortied positions.
This was a dramatic shift from earlier warfare, where
Greek armies had lacked the ability to conduct an ef-
fective assault. For instance, during the Peloponnesian
War, the Spartans were never able to take Athens despite
easily conquering her surrounding territory. For the task
of breaching the walled fortications of cities, Philip II
hired engineers such as Polyidus of Thessaly and Diades
of Pella, who were capable of building state of the art
siege engines and artillery ring large bolts.[109]
5.1 Artillery
The dramatic change in the abilities of Greeks to oper-
ate against fortications owed much to the development
of eective artillery. This had begun around 400 BC in
Syracuse under Dionysius I. By Alexanders time, torsion-
powered artillery was in use. Torsion machines used
skeins of sinew or hair rope, which were wound around
a frame and twisted so as to power two bow arms; these
could develop much greater force than earlier forms (such
as the gastraphetes) reliant on the elastic properties of
a bow-stave. Two forms of such ballista were used by
the Macedonians: a smaller bolt-shooting type called the
oxybeles and a larger stone-throwing machine called the
lithobolos. The largest lithoboloi could re stones up to 80
kg in weight. Such machines could shower the defenders
of a city with missiles and create a breach in the walls
themselves.[110]
Alexander the Great appears to have been one of the rst
generals to employ artillery on the open eld of battle, 6 Battle tactics
rather than in a siege. He used massed artillery to re
across a river at a Scythian army, causing it to vacate the The Macedonian army was one of the rst military forces
opposite river bank, thus allowing the Macedonian troops to use 'combined arms tactics, using a variety of spe-
to cross and form a bridgehead.[111]
A modern reconstruction of the gastraphetes
5.2 Other siege engines
In conjunction with various forms of artillery, the Mace-
donians possessed the ability to build an eective array
of siege engines. Prominent in a number of sieges, in-
cluding the epic Siege of Tyre (332 BC), were siege tow-
ers; these allowed men to approach and assault the enemy
walls without being exposed to potentially withering mis-
sile re. Equally, they meant that more men could be put
on the walls in a shorter period of time, as simple lad-
ders constrained the men attacking to moving up in sin-
gle le, thus making the task of defending the walls far
easier. These structures, which were wheeled and sev-
eral stories high, were covered with wet hide or metal
sheathing to protect from missile re, especially incen-
diaries, and the largest might be equipped with artillery.
The Macedonian army could also deploy various forms
of suspended, metal-tipped, rams. Such rams were usu-
ally provided with a wheeled, roofed covering to protect
their users from missile re; they were employed to bat-
ter down gates or to dislodge masonry from walls and so
cause a breach (this latter form was sometimes called a
'drill' rather than a ram).[112]
cialised troops to fulll specic battleeld roles in order
14 8 SEE ALSO

Direction of attack
7 Decline

Psiloi
Skirmisher
Light
Cavalry
Thessalians
Syntagma
Phalanx
Light
Infantry
Heavy
cavalry
Heavy Infantry
Allied Light Infantry
MACEDONIAN BATTLE FORMATION
Under Philip II and Alexander the Great
Macedonian battle formation.
to form a greater whole. Although it did not succeed
in every battle, the army of Philip II was able to suc-
cessfully adopt the military tactics of its enemies, such
as the embolon (i.e. 'ying wedge') formation of the
Scythians.[113] This oered cavalry far greater manoeu-
vrability and an edge in battle that previously did not exist
in the Classical Greek world.[113]
The tactics used by the Macedonian army throughout the
various campaigns it fought were, of course, varied; usu-
ally in response to the nature of the enemy forces and their
dispositions, and to the physical nature of the battleeld .
However, there were a number of features of the tactics
employed by the Macedonians in pitched battles which
can be identied as being typical. These features were
evident in the rst major battle the army, newly trained
up by Philip, fought in 358 BC and could still be discerned
at Gaugamela in 331 BC.[114]
The battle fought in 358 BC near Lake Ohrid was in-
tended to free Macedon of the threat from Illyria and re-
cover some western areas of Macedon from Illyrian con-
trol. The Illyrians, led by King Bardylis, were at a sim-
ilar strength to the Macedonians at about 10-11 thou-
sands. Philip had 600 cavalry, the Illyrians were con-
cerned about being outanked by the Macedonian cav-
alry and formed up in a hollow square. Philip massed
his cavalry on his right ank and arranged his army in
echelon, with the left refused. As had been anticipated,
the Illyrians stretched their formation in order to bring
the Macedonian left wing into action. Philip waited un-
til the inevitable gap appeared in the left of the Illyrian
square, then threw his cavalry at the gap. The cavalry
forced their way into the Illyrian ranks and were followed
by elements of the phalanx. The Illyrians broke after a
erce struggle, and three-quarters of Bardylis army were
slaughtered. The oblique advance with the left refused,
the careful manoeuvring to create disruption in the en-
emy formation and the knock out charge of the strong
right wing, spearheaded by the Companion cavalry, be-
came standard Macedonian practice.[114]
Further information: Antigonid Macedonian army
Irregulars
Light
Hetairoi Cavalry
Taxis
Hypaspists Peltasts Following the fragmentation of the empire of Alexander,
Elite
Light
Infantry Macedon became an independent kingdom once again.
Heavy
Infantry Heavy
Cavalry
The military forces of this successor state, the Antigonid
Macedonian army, retained many features of the armies
of Philip and Alexander. The Hellenistic armies of the
other Macedonian successor-states of the Diadochi pe-
riod, which followed the death of Alexander, also dis-
played a continuation of earlier Macedonian equipment,
organisation and tactics. Towards the end of the pe-
riod, however, there was a general decline in the use
of the combined arms approach, and the phalanx once
more became the arm of decision. The phalangites were
armed with longer pikes and as a result the phalanx it-
self became less mobile and adaptable than it had been
in Alexanders era.[115] Because all the competing Hel-
lenistic armies were employing the same tactics, these
weaknesses were not immediately apparent. However,
the Hellenistic armies were eventually faced by forces
from outside the successor kingdoms, such as the Roman
and Parthian armies, composed of diering troop types
using novel tactics. Against such foes the Hellenistic-era
phalanx proved vulnerable. The phalanx nally met its
end in the Ancient world when the more exible Roman
manipular tactics contributed to the end of Macedon in
the 3rd and 2nd centuries B.C.[116]
8 See also
Military Decree of Amphipolis
Antigonid Macedonian army
List of Macedonian military personnel
Hellenistic armies
Seleucid army
Hoplite
Pezhetairoi
Companion cavalry
Phalanx
Sarissa
Xyston
Wars of Alexander the Great, (Battle of Granicus,
Battle of Gaugamela, Battle of Hydaspes)
Battle of Pydna
Battle of Cynoscephalae
Aelianus Tacticus
 15

9 Notes [37] Ashley. p. 35.

[38] Elis, pp. 52-56

[1] Connolly, pp. 64-70.
[39] Mattew, p. 119
[2] Bury, p. 684.
[40] Elis, p. 56
[3] Sekunda 2010, p. 447; Errington 1990, pp. 243244
[41] Lendon, p. 11.
[4] Sekunda 2010, pp. 447448

[5] Sekunda 2010, pp. 448449; see also Errington 1990, pp. [42] Errington 1990, p. 238; 247: the crucial necessity of
238239 for further details. drilling troops must have become clear to Philip at the
latest during his time as a hostage in Thebes.
[6] Errington 1990, pp. 238239; 243244
[43] The Campaigns of Alexander, Arrian, VII.10
[7] Sekunda 2010, p. 449
[44] Ashley, p. 39.
[8] Sekunda 2010, pp. 448449
[45] Ashley, p. 37.
[9] Errington 1990, pp. 239240
[46] Markle, p. 94
[10] Lendon, p. 129.
[47] Errington 1990, p. 241
[11] Bury, pp. 685-687.
[48] Mattew, p. 119
[12] Connolly, pp. 68-69.
[49] Ashley. p. 39.
[13] Diodorus Siculus, Arrian
[50] Markle, p. 99
[14] Markle, pp.104-105
[51] Connolly, pp. 68-69
[15] Arrian I.2,,I.12,,II.9
[52] Ellis, J. R., p. 27
[16] Connolly, p. 71.
[53] Ashley, pp. 39-40.
[17] Ashley, pp. 30-31.
[54] Campbell and Lawrence (ed.s), p. 165
[18] Lendon, p. 98.
[55] Campbell and Lawrence (ed.s), pp. 164-165
[19] Gaebel, pp. 162-164.
[56] Heckel, p 41
[20] Sidnell, p. 84
[57] Ashley, p. 40.
[21] Arrian, Book 6 Ch. 8
[58] Sekunda 2010, p. 455; Errington 1990, p. 245
[22] Sidnell, pp. 96-98
[59] Sekunda 2010, pp. 455456
[23] Connolly, p. 73.
[60] Errington 1990, p. 245
[24] Ashley. p. 31.

[25] English, p. 62 [61] Sekunda 2010, pp. 455457

[26] Lendon, pp. 98-101. [62] Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 2223

[27] Ashley. p. 32. [63] Green, p. 290

[28] Ashley. p. 32. [64] Ashley, p. 45-46.

[29] Gaebel, p. 178 [65] Errington 1990, pp. 241242

[30] Gaebel, p. 178 [66] Connolly, pp. 48-49.

[31] Sekunda 2010, p. 454 [67] Sidnell, pp. 57-59

[32] Gaebel, p. 178 [68] Sekunda 2010, p. 451; Errington 1990, pp. 241242

[33] Arrian, trans. Hammond, p. 267 [69] Connolly, p. 45.

[34] Ashley. pp. 32-33. [70] Sekunda 2010, pp. 458459

[35] Ashley. p. 32. [71] English, pp. 5051

[36] Ashley. p. 34. [72] Sekunda 2010, p. 453

 16 10 REFERENCES

[73] Green, pp. 333-336 [110] Connolly, pp. 279-282.

[74] Sekunda 2010, pp. 449450; see also Errington 1990, p. [111] Cummings, p. 291.
238 for further details.
[112] Connolly, pp. 280-286
[75] Sekunda 2010, p. 450
[113] Sekunda 2010, p. 451
[76] Markle, p. 100
[114] Green, pp. 24-25.
[77] Markle, p.101
[115] Connolly, pp. 80-81
[78] Connolly, p. 77.
[116] Connolly, pp. 140-142, 205-207
[79] Gaebel, p. 164.

[80] Markle, p.106

10 References
[81] Sidnell, p.83

[82] Ashley, pp. 35-36. 10.1 Primary

[83] Markle, pp. 99, 102
Arrian, , translated by E.J. Chinnock (1893)
[84] Connolly, p. 63
Arrian, trans Hammond, M. (2013) Alexander the
[85] Connolly, pp. 48-49 Great: The Anabasis and the Indica, Oxford Uni-
versity Press.
[86] Connolly, pp. 70.
Quintus Curtius [History of Alexander] with an En-
[87] Anderson, pp. 147- 148.
glish translation by John C. Rolfe (2 voll., Cam-
[88] Heckel, p 61 bridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press;
London, William Heinemann Ltd, 1971-76). (in
[89] Markle, p.90 Latin and English). Hathi Trust Digital Library.
[90] Connolly, pp. 72-73.
Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica (Historical
[91] Connolly, p. 63. Library) volumes XV - XVIII.

[92] Mattew, p. 116

[93] Connolly, p. 58.

10.2 Secondary

[94] Mattew, pp. 114-116 Anderson, J.K, (1961) Ancient Greek Horsemanship,
Berkeley and Los Angeles.
[95] Connolly, pp. 54-58.
Ashley, J.R. (2004) The Macedonian Empire: The
[96] Connolly, pp. 58-59.
Era of Warfare Under Philip II and Alexander the
[97] Mattew, p. 121 Great, 359-323 B.C. McFarland.

[98] Connolly, pp. 79-80. Bury, J.B., (1913) A History of Greece to the Death
of Alexander. London.
[99] Hatzopoulos and Juhel, p. 113
Campbell, B. and Lawrence, A. (ed.s) (2013) The
[100] Mattew, pp. 119-120
Oxford Handbook of Warfare in the Classical World,
[101] Connolly, p. 80 Oxford University Press.

[102] Anderson, p. 148. Connolly, P. (1981) Greece and Rome at War. Mac-
donald Phoebus, London. ISBN 1-85367-303-X
[103] Connolly, p. 79.
Cummings, L.V., (2004) Alexander the Great.
[104] Markle, p.92
Grove Press.
[105] Connolly. p. 72
Dabrowa, E (ed.) (2014) The Greek World in
[106] Markle, pp.97-98 the 4th and 3rd Centuries BC: Electrum Vol. 19,
Wydawnictwo. Published by Jagiellonian Univer-
[107] Dabrowa, p. 145
sity, Cracow.
[108] Lendon, pp. 95-97
Ellis, J. R. (1986), Philip II and Macedonian Impe-
[109] Sekunda 2010, p. 451 rialism. Princeton University Press.
 17

English, S. (2011) The Army of Alexander the Great, 12 External links

Pen & Sword Military, London.
Twilight of the Polis and the rise of Macedon
Errington, R. M. (1990). A History of Macedonia.
(Philip, Demosthenes and the Fall of the Polis). Yale
Translated by Catherine Errington. Berkeley, Los
University courses, Lecture 24. (Introduction to An-
Angeles, & Oxford: University of California Press.
cient Greek History)
ISBN 0-520-06319-8.

Gaebel, R.E, (2004) Cavalry Operations in the An-

cient Greek World, University of Oklahoma Press

Green, P. (1992), Alexander of Macedon: 356323

B.C. A Historical Biography. University of Califor-
nia Press. ISBN 0-520-07166-2.

Hammond, N. G. L.; Walbank, F. W. (2001). A

History of Macedonia: 336167 B.C. 3 (reprint
ed.). Oxford & New York: Clarendon Press of the
Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814815-1.

Hatzopoulos, M.B. and Juhel, P. (2009) Four Hel-

lenistic Funerary Stelae from Gephyra, Macedonia,
American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 113, No.
3, pp. 423-437, Archaeological Institute of Amer-
ica.

Heckel, W. and Jones, R. (2006) Macedonian War-

rior Alexanders elite infantryman, Osprey. ISBN
978-1-84176-950-9

Lendon, J.E. (2006) Soldiers and Ghosts: A His-

tory of Battle in Classical Antiquity, Yale University
Press.

Markle, M.M. (1982) Macedonian Arms and Tac-

tics under Alexander the Great, Studies in the His-
tory of Art, Vol 10, Symposium Series I: Macedonia
and Greece in Late Classical and Early Hellenistic
Times, pp. 86-111. National Gallery of Art.

Mattew, C. (2015) An Invincible Beast: Understand-

ing the Hellenistic Pike Phalanx in Action, Pen and
Sword.

Sekunda N. and McBride, A. (illustrator) (1986)

The Ancient Greeks. Osprey Publishing.

Sekunda, N. V. (2010). The Macedonian Army.

In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian. A Compan-
ion to Ancient Macedonia. Oxford, Chichester, &
Malden: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 446471. ISBN
978-1-4051-7936-2.

Sidnell, P. (2006) Warhorse: Cavalry in Ancient

Warfare, Continuum, London.

11 Further reading
Black, ed. by Jeremy (2005). The Seventy Great
Battles of All Time. London: Thames & Hudson.
ISBN 0500251258.
18 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

13 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

13.1 Text
Ancient Macedonian army Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_army?oldid=777130632 Contributors: Jagged,
PFHLai, Bender235, MBisanz, Gilgamesh he, Themusicgod1, PWilkinson, Cyrillic, Fdewaele, Woohookitty, Mandarax, Graham87,
Cuchullain, BD2412, Miq, Ghepeu, Bgwhite, Chwyatt, Wavelength, Ajaypp, JarrahTree, RussBot, Fabartus, Kurt Leyman, Gaius Cor-
nelius, Megistias, Aldux, Garion96, Josesierra, Allens, Kungfuadam, Fastifex, Crystallina, SmackBot, The Monster, Bomac, Colonel Tom,
Alex earlier account, Khepidjemwa'atnefru, Chris the speller, Hebel, Sadads, Nick81aku, William Allen Simpson, Cplakidas, Seleukosa,
Dreadstar, CountZ, The undertow, BrownHairedGirl, Arvand, Greyscale, IronGargoyle, Neddyseagoon, Intranetusa, Az1568, Fils du Soleil,
The ed17, Smitdl00, Cydebot, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Highonhendrix, Wandalstouring, Bockbockchicken, Esemono, Nick Number,
Wikidudeman, JJ Harrison, MartinBot, Urselius, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Dorieo21, Marhault, Bot-Schafter, Gurchzilla, Robertgreer,
1812ahill, Macedonian, Nik Sage, TheOtherJesse, Dardanos, Hrothberht, Rcher6, Phoebus Americanos, Kai Su?, PericlesofAthens, Tech-
man224, Torchwoodwho, 3rdAlcove, ClueBot, Oracleofdelphi, Wikijens, Niceguyedc, Excirial, Canis Lupus, Zaharous, Arjayay, Cata-
lographer, Agbrittanica, Egmontaz, BalkanFever, Bilsonius, Addbot, C6541, Haruth, GK1973, LinkFA-Bot, 5 albert square, Lightbot,
Drpickem, Yobot, Fraggle81, TaBOT-zerem, Eric-Wester, AnomieBOT, Shadowmorph, Ulric1313, Eumolpo, Grey ghost, RedTony, Ku-
racpm1, , FrescoBot, Vincenzo80, DrilBot, Kibi78704, December21st2012Freak, Imperial fodder, Woodlot, NPanovski,
EmausBot, Rosas120988, Constantineix, Bollyje, Tolly4bolly, Donner60, Ltkilo, Zeta1127,89thLegion, ClueBot NG, Frietjes, Helpful
Pixie Bot, Matsjoyce, Davidiad, Notesenses, Glevum, Khazar2, LezFraniak, Dexbot, Mogism, Dr.Allen7, King Philip V of Spain, Pietro13,
Cornell abrams, PMathew42, Lakun.patra, Vieque, SuperTah, BD2412bot, Applodion, Alexis Ivanov, GreenC bot, Semin124, Bender the
Bot, David123pote and Anonymous: 142

13.2 Images
File:200910311250MEZ_Saalburg-Museum,_Gastraphetes.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/
200910311250MEZ_Saalburg-Museum%2C_Gastraphetes.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Self-photographed Original artist:
Hartmann Linge
File:Agios-Athanasios.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Agios-Athanasios.jpg License: Public do-
main Contributors: The macedonian tomb of Hagios Athanassios,Thessaloniki Original artist: Anonymous Macedonian artists of the 4th
century BC
File:Agios_Athanasios_1_fresco.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Agios_Athanasios_1_fresco.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: The macedonian tomb of Hagios Athanassios,Thessaloniki Original artist: Anonymous Macedonian
artists of the 4th century BC
File:Agrianian3.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Agrianian3.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Peltast at English Wikipedia
File:Alexander_Mosaic-high_res_fragment.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Alexander_
Mosaic-high_res_fragment.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: uncertain
File:Ancient_Mieza,_Macedonian_tombs_of_Lefkadia,_The_Tomb_of_Jugdement_926eb424be6db3e06917e5c03ffdfaaa.jpg
Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Ancient_Mieza%2C_Macedonian_tombs_of_Lefkadia%2C_The_
Tomb_of_Jugdement_926eb424be6db3e06917e5c03ffdfaaa.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Pinterest Original artist: Ancient
painters of Macedonia, Greece
File:Battle_of_Issos_MAN_Napoli_Inv10020_n01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Battle_of_
Issos_MAN_Napoli_Inv10020_n01.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Marie-Lan Nguyen (2011) Original artist: ?
File:Boeotian_helmet,_4th_century_BC.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Boeotian_helmet%2C_
4th_century_BC.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gts-tg
File:Crater_Hippolyte_Painter_Louvre_E636.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Crater_Hippolyte_
Painter_Louvre_E636.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: User:Jastrow, own work, 2008-03-15 Original artist: English: Hippolyte
Painter
File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by-
sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Fresco_of_a_Macedonian_soldier,_from_the_Tomb_of_Agios_Athanasios,_4th_century_BC.jpg Source: https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Fresco_of_a_Macedonian_soldier%2C_from_the_Tomb_of_Agios_Athanasios%
2C_4th_century_BC.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Pinterest Original artist: Ancient painters of Macedonia, Greece
File:Hypaspist.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/Hypaspist.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Peltast at English Wikipedia
File:Lion_hunt_mosaic_from_Pella.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Lion_hunt_
mosaic_from_Pella.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Pella Archaeological Museum Original artist: Unknown<a
href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050'
data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Macedonian_Army_Alexander.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Macedonian_Army_
Alexander.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright
claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Marsyas assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Macedonian_Army_Pezetairos.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Macedonian_Army_
Pezetairos.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
13.3 Content license 19

File:Macedonian_Army_Thessalian.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Macedonian_Army_

Thessalian.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright
claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Marsyas assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Macedonian_battle_formation-en.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Macedonian_battle_
formation-en.svg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: RedTony
File:Makedonische_phalanx.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Makedonische_phalanx.png License:
Public domain Contributors: http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/gabrmetz/gabr0066.htm Original artist: F. Mitchell, Department of
History, United States Military Academy
File:NAMA_Greek_helmet_of_Pilos_type.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/NAMA_Greek_
helmet_of_Pilos_type.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dorieo
File:Philip_II_of_Macedon_CdM.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Philip_II_of_Macedon_CdM.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Jastrow (2006) Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Phrygian_helmet.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Phrygian_helmet.jpg License: CC BY-SA
3.0 Contributors: Transferred from el.wikipedia; transfer was stated to be made by User:Dorieo. Original artist: . Original uploader
was GeoTrou at el.wikipedia
File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Teteven-History-museum-Thracian-god-3-century-BC.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/
Teteven-History-museum-Thracian-god-3-century-BC.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Vassia
Atanassova - Spiritia
File:Thesprotian_armour_and_helmet.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Thesprotian_armour_and_
helmet.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: - The original uploader was
Harrygouvas at Greek Wikipedia
File:___.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%
BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82_%D0%BE%D0%
B4_%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%87%D0%B5.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Macedonian Academy of Sciences and
Arts Original artist: unknown / (editor of the publication is Blaze Ristovski)

13.3 Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0