Home Through Decades

Homes through the decades
The making of modern housing
Guide
62
a
Acknowledgements Image credits

This guide was prepared by Clive Architectural Press Archive / RIBA Library Photographs Collection: 18 bottom left
copyright Des Blenkinsopp: 9 no. 2
Turner, NHBC Foundation, and Steve Cadman: 12 middle left, 24 top and bottom left
Richards Partington Architects (RPA). PETER COOK / VIEWpictures.co.uk: 32, 37
Tim Crocker: inside front cover, 31, 36 bottom left, 38 left, inside back cover
Concept, design and illustration by John Donat / RIBA Library Photographs Collection: 19 left
Suzanne Davenport (RPA) and Richard June Egglestone / fotoLIBRA: 36 middle left
Emmett Russell Architects: 38 right, 39
Partington (RPA). English Heritage. Licensor www.rcahms.gov.uk: 8 bottom
Express / Stringer: 21 no. 1
The NHBC Foundation is grateful John Gay / English Heritage.NMR / Mary Evans: 2, 23 top
to Robin Nicholson, CBE, Cullinan The Geffrye Museum of the Home: Photograph by Jayne Lloyd: 3 no. 3
Studio, for his comments during the The Geffrye Museum of the Home: 15 no. 2, 27 no. 3
Anthony Harrison / Arcaid Images 2015: 33 no. 2
development of this guide. Christopher Hope-Fitch / RIBA Library Photographs Collection: 36 top left
Illustrated London News Ltd / Mary Evans: 16 top left
John Lewis Partnership Archives: 25 right, 28 bottom, 29 bottom
John Lewis Press Centre: 31 right, 34 bottom, 35 bottom
Macdonald, Madeline: By kind permission of Madeline Macdonald: 25 left
John Maltby / RIBA Library Photographs Collection: 17 top left
Eric de Mare / RIBA Library Photographs Collection: 6 top left
Mary Evans / Alinari Archives: 30 bottom left
Mary Evans / Classic Stock / Camerique: 15 no. 3
Mary Evans / Classic Stock / CHARLES PHELPS CUSHING: 15 no. 1
Mary Evans / Classic Stock / H. Armstrong Roberts: 21 no. 2
Mary Evans / Classic Stock / K. Vreeland: 27 no. 1
Mary Evans Picture Library: ii, 5 top left and right, 14, 15 no. 4, 18 top and middle
left, 21 nos. 3 and 4, 22 top, 27 no. 2
Mary Evans Picture Library / Shirley Baker: 20
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NHBC Foundation Mary Evans Picture Library / Town & Country Planning: 6 top right
NHBC House M&N / fotoLIBRA: 17 top right
National Trust Images / Geoffrey Frosh: 3 nos. 2 and 4
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NHBC Foundation Transport for London Collection of London Transport Museum: 11 top right
Victoria and Albert Museum, London: 1 right, 4 bottom, 5 bottom, 6 bottom
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bottom, 18 bottom right, 19 right, 22 bottom, 23 bottom, 24 bottom right
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ISBN 978-0-9930691-3-0
NHBC Foundation Homes through the decades i
Contents Welcome
Over the past two centuries, Britain has experienced seismic
Welcome i changes in society, politics, technology and culture. From
Victoriana to the digital age, housing has played a pivotal role
Introduction ii and has featured, for different reasons at different times, at
the very top of the political agenda. Analysis of housing policy,
Part 1 pre 1918 1 design or construction has been prominent in most historians
Victorian and Edwardian legacy studies of the 20th century.
Homes and public health
We are now embarking on a further historically-important step
for housing as we seek to establish a generation of new homes
Part 2 1919-1939 7
suitable for the 21st century. Our thinking should be informed
Between the wars by a clear understanding of what has gone before and an
New tenure and lifestyle enlightened view of how we should address the challenges
of today and tomorrow. I am therefore delighted to welcome
Part 3 1945-1959 13 you to Homes through the decades, the NHBC Foundations
account of the drivers, endeavour and experience that over
Post-war recovery
the last hundred and fifty years has shaped the modern home.
Prefabrication, productivity and planning In its pages we are engaged by evocative images of landmark
projects and of how we lived. We are reminded of the pivotal
Part 4 1960-1979 19 events and inspirational people reformers, planners,
Towers in the sky architects, designers, technologists and construction teams
A misapplied utopian vision who grappled with the pressures and constraints of their time
to deliver our unique housing heritage.
Part 5 1980-1999 25
For this century, the drive to protect the future environment
Technology and society has defined a new phase that of sustainable housing
Towards safe, secure and comfortable homes design. This has already resulted in a technical transformation
of new homes, in particular to reduce energy usage and
Part 6 2000-present 31 to minimise carbon emissions. At the same time new and
Embracing sustainability unstoppable demographic and societal changes are on the
A new norm for British housing immediate horizon, including further decreases in family size
and a growing trend towards single occupancy, by choice,
circumstance or as a characteristic of an ageing population.
Part 7 37
Together with technological advances, these will drive the
The future next chapters of the fascinating history of British housing.
Meeting tomorrows needs and challenges
I hope you find this latest NHBC Foundation publication
Summary charts 40 enjoyable, thought-provoking and informative.
Background reading and information 42 Rt. Hon. Nick Raynsford MP

Chairman, NHBC Foundation
Index 42
ii NHBC Foundation Homes through the decades
Introduction
Although there are different ways of classifying the history From the turn of this century, sustainability was beginning
of housing, it is widely accepted that the modern home has to give a new direction to design. From Part 6 we can see
strong connections dating back to Victorian and Edwardian how the house-building industry has contributed to carbon
times. Homes from that period, up to 1918, form Part 1 of this emissions reductions by pioneering new energy technologies
guide - a time when public health was a priority consideration and by raising thermal performance dramatically. For the
and when private renting the norm for most families. Part 2, future, Part 7, housing will be a meld of what is known to work
between the wars, marks a major change in house design and for owners and occupiers the good experience and insight
tenure, away from terraces towards cottage-style homes and from successful housing over the years but also a response
the establishment of local authority council housing for poorer to new needs as the population ages and as patterns of
people. These were the Homes for heroes and, politically, the occupancy change.
provision of a good home was seen as crucial in preserving
In this guide we have not sought to make quality comparisons
the stability of our nation.
between homes from different times, but to show what
After the Second World War our story reflects an ongoing different periods contributed to modern thinking and design.
preoccupation with how we would provide new homes in Advocates of Victorian homes will emphasise the aesthetic
sufficient numbers, but there were very distinctive phases. qualities of homes from this era. Others will argue the benefits
Part 3 describes the immediate post-war rebuilding of a new low energy home with its lower heating costs and
programme to win the peace with the deployment of interiors designed for modern living. In between these two
prefabrication a symbol of British ingenuity and resolve. In ends of the spectrum most types of homes have attracted
the 1960s and 70s, Part 4, it is often not appreciated that we admiration - even the occupants of the post-war temporary
came close to addressing, at least numerically, the nations prefabs loved their homes. In truth, homes from different
Victorian workers slums in Bath Street, long-term housing shortage, but failed to provide solutions periods were intended to meet different needs and it is
Grimsby a reminder of how people
lived that worked with communities. In just two decades we saw the against the backdrop of their own time that they should be
rise of the residential tower block and its fall from grace - an judged.
expensive and damaging episode.
In Part 5 we see a period characterised by an expansion in
technical information and guidance as housing moved further
from its craft-based roots. The Right to Buy policy, saw 1.9
million homes moved from public to private ownership by the
end of the 1990s.
Victorian and Edwardian legacy pre 1918 Part 1
Homes and public health
The 19th century saw massive social change as a largely agrarian past was overtaken by From 1800 to 1900 the UK
an industrial future. Led by social reformers, Victorian politicians, architects, engineers population grew from about 11
and health scientists became intertwined in a national effort to improve the living million to 32 million. The urban
conditions for the new urban workers and the poor. Many of the homes built for the population increased from around
emerging middle classes and the rich are a lasting legacy, adorning many UK towns and 2 million to over 20 million.
city districts today.
In the new urban areas, workers
lived in overcrowded houses. Lack
of sanitation and fresh water, and
poor food often contributed to
a depressing downward spiral
towards slum conditions.
Victorian mains sewers, flushing

WCs and waste collections were
breakthroughs in public health.
Public health concerns drove the

development of the 1878 Model
Bye Laws, which consolidated a
process of building control.
Henry Roberts Model Home

established new standards for
workers dwellings.
2 NHBC Foundation Homes through the decades Part 1 pre 1918
How we built then Signs of the times

Traditional cut roof The Victorian expansion of the railway system
with overhanging gave mobility and led to the development of
eaves, natural slate new suburbs around major cities. It also eased
tiles and cast iron the transport of mass-produced building
guttering. No felt or
insulation components, enabling the speculative builders
of the time to build more efficiently. Historical
commentators describe a glut of good quality
houses for the well-off middle classes.
The plight of the urban worker, however,
Solid walls at least was a national concern. Slum conditions had
one brick thick with
lime mortar, typically become commonplace in many industrial cities
Flemish bond and overcrowding perpetuated illnesses like
tuberculosis. In London, poor sanitation allowed
the spread of cholera, which had a devastating
effect on the capital, killing over 43,000 people
between 1832 and 1866. The early Victorians
were understandably fearful of such diseases
that killed indiscriminately, and public health
drove the reform of towns and cities.
Timber sash By the end of the Victorian period a number
windows. Victorian of significant improvements were in place.
improvements in The basic housing needs of workers and
glass technology their families had been recognised and
allowed larger panes
embodied in new Model Home designs. In
1875, Joseph Bazalgettes renowned sewerage
system had been completed, improving the
health of Londoners, and the 1878 Building
Act established new Bye Laws for housing
development.
The early Edwardian period was a time of
Shallow stepped optimism and people sought respectability
brick footings.
Ventilated through their homes. From now on, new
suspended timber options were available. First, in 1904, the Halifax
ground floor Building Society offered mortgages of up to
90% on middle-bracket homes, a move that
opened up a realistic prospect of ownership for
many, and challenged the tenancy model that Elegant exteriors and a chimney-dominated skyline along
Northwood Road, London. An illustration of the popular
had dominated the Victorian period. Second, perception of Victorian housing
apartment living, which had been stigmatised
as housing for the poor, was now recognised as
a respectable and economic option.
NHBC Foundation Homes through the decades Part 1 pre 1918 3
New features of the time

Children per family
1 2
1870s Between five and six children
1930s Two children

3 1950s Post Second World War baby boom leads to an
increase in average family size
1960s Baby bust gradual decline in fertility rates
1980s Continuing decline in fertility rates
and gradual fall in average family size
to 1.6-1.8 children
2000s Slight rise in fertility and average family size, this time
as the grandchildren of the original baby boomers
start their own families
1. Edwardian bathroom. Flushing WC with high level cistern and
ornate sink. Running water As well as families having fewer children, average household
size, which includes single person occupation, has been
2. By the middle of the 19th century, a separate dining room was declining: it was 3.2 in 1951 and is continuing to fall, being
a common feature 2.4 in 2001 and 2.3 in 2011. Source: Office for National
Statistics
3. The parlour, or drawing room, became a space for comfort
and relaxation Source: Dermot Grenham, Demography: The effects of
changing population profiles Staple Inn Actuarial Society,
4. Part of a working familys kitchen showing basic amenities 1996.
Tenure 1914 Homes then

The Victorian age was a period of stark contrasts. Housing Without electricity, Victorian home life was far more
from this time reflected the fortunes of people, perhaps more physically demanding than today and tasks like washing
graphically than in any other period. clothes, cooking, cleaning and simply keeping warm were
10% The rich and well-off middle classes typically lived in villas.
considerable daily chores. In the absence of electric lighting,
homes at night, even those with gas lamps, would seem very
These homes were intentional status symbols, having ornate
gloomy to us. Candles remained the main source of lighting.
exteriors and separate quarters and entrances for servants.
Owner-occupied homes Villas usually had several reception rooms, and might include a Throughout the Victorian period architectural style evolved
drawing room, a morning room and elaborate conservatories. considerably, initially reflecting Regency style and then in
turn adopting elements of Italianate and Gothic revival. The
For middle class families of modest income, less prestigious
Arts and Crafts Movement had built a strong following by the
homes, mostly in terraces, were available. These overlapped
1880s. It was a reaction to industrialisation and instead placed
89% in quality and size with the upper end of homes for well-
value on traditional craftsmanship and the natural beauty of
paid workers. Facilities in these homes were more basic and
materials in design. It became a major international trend,
typically followed a two-up two-down room configuration.
influencing architecture strongly at the turn of the 19th century
Privately-rented homes Homes for poorly paid industrial workers were cramped with an ongoing impact on subsequent design. Many housing
two-roomed back to backs, sometimes built in densities developments which adopted this approach, such as Edwin
approaching 250 houses per hectare. In these homes, kitchen Lutyens Hampstead Garden Suburb, remain popular to this
amenities were so minimal that families often relied on meals day.
being prepared elsewhere and had to use the local bake
1% houses for cooking.
The Garden City Association (which later became the Town
and Country Planning Association) was established by
As the Victorian period progressed, general improvements planning reformer Ebenezer Howard. Through Letchworth,
were seen across all classes of new homes. New standards the first Garden City, the Association promoted a new way of
Rented from local authorities made homes progressively safer and there were living, away from the pressures, and poor air, of urban life.
improvements in facilities and appliances. Flushing WCs
became a common feature in new homes during the 1890s,
providing a welcome alternative to the chamber pot or earth
closet.
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NHBC Foundation Homes through the decades Part 1 pre 1918 5
Health and homes today

When Edwin Chadwick made the link between poverty and
poor health in 1842, which led to the 1848 Health Act, he
triggered an ongoing public health debate that still has
significance today.
The Victorians worked to address many of the basic
characteristics of substandard housing, such as dampness,
cold, poor indoor air, lack of daylight, poor sanitation,
inadequate food storage and unsafe drinking water. For later
generations of Britons buying new homes, these deficiencies
gradually became a thing of the past, and would not be
experienced in a home built to todays standards.
The way we live also has potential impact on health. Over
time, health and safety guidelines have been developed
to avoid the use of the most dangerous chemicals in the
home and to guide the safe use of everyday products, such
as paints, varnishes and cleaning agents. A situation very
different to that in Victorian times, when the health risks of
using even highly toxic materials in the home, such as arsenic
and lead, were not appreciated.
As we address the challenges of overheating and indoor air Where Shall I Live? In Letchworth, of
quality in tomorrows energy efficient homes, health again course! will be your answer when you
overlaps with design and planning. However, in seeking have visited the 1907 Cottages Exhibition
promoting the joys of living in Letchworth
effective solutions to these problems and others that might be Garden City
on the horizon, we can draw on mature scientific approaches
and disciplines - an option that was simply not available to
Edwin Chadwick in the 1840s.
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Themes Looking forward from 1918

Indoor air quality and health - how
Railway building todays research protects households
brought about
increased mobility Air quality inside homes is a long-
including wide scale established issue, and one which
national access
to house-building preoccupied the Victorians.
materials Currently as we strive for greater energy
efficiency, attention has refocused on
how new homes are ventilated. Homes
built today are more airtight than ever
before, which is beneficial in terms of
reducing unwanted heat loss; however, it is
increasingly important that the ventilation
provided works well to maintain healthy
Victorian conditions indoors.
philanthropic house
building provided Whereas Victorian homes had chimneys
model villages and loosely fitting windows that provided
for workers, such
as Bournville, plenty of ventilation (and uncomfortable
Birmingham draughts), the ventilation for new homes is
generally now provided by means of trickle
ventilators placed at the top of windows, a
cooker hood in the kitchen and extract fans The poor health and low fitness of many who
in bathrooms and WCs. volunteered to serve in the Great War was a stark
reminder of the living conditions that still prevailed
As an alternative, some new homes built to across the UKs towns and cities.
the latest energy efficiency standards use a
system called mechanical ventilation with To improve the health of the next generation
The 19th century heat recovery (MVHR). This system has the and provide better homes for returning soldiers
saw revolutionary the Government initiated the Homes for heroes
sanitary engineering, potential to improve energy efficiency by
capturing heat from the outgoing exhaust campaign. And it became the job of the Tudor Walters
particularly the
development of the air and transferring it to the incoming committee, commissioned in 1917, to propose a
modern WC cistern ventilation air and thereby reducing fuel totally new approach to the nations new housing.
use. As it turned out the Tudor Walters proposals, which
were incorporated in the Addison Act, proved over-
In 2014 NHBC introduced new guidance ambitious, but they represent an early attempt to steer
for the house-building industry, raising housing design towards the well-being of occupants,
standards for the design, installation and not just their physical health.
commissioning of MVHR so that systems
deliver good performance in use.
Between the wars 1919-1939 Part 2
New tenure and lifestyle
During the inter-war period a fundamentally new dual approach to house building From 1919 the role of housing,
emerged. Local authorities, funded by central Government, built over a million homes in both the social and financial
for rent. In parallel, private house building grew rapidly as mortgages became more stability of the nation, assumed
affordable. For working families moving to the newly-created suburban developments, life growing political significance.
was transformed, revolving increasingly around the home, rather than the tight-knit urban
communities they were used to. The UK embarked on a large-scale
post-war council house building
programme. By 1939 this was
accommodating about 1 in 10
families.
British people embraced private

ownership. Compared with just
10% in 1914, around 25% of all
Britons owned or were paying for
their own home by 1939.
New housing was typically of

cottage style, semi-detached
and suburban. While traditional
materials were mainly adopted, the
distinctive, streamline Moderne
style emerged in the 1930s.
In the mid 1930s, concerns over

the variable quality of new homes
for private buyers triggered
the establishment of a national
registration scheme for house
builders.
8 NHBC Foundation Homes through the decades Part 2 1919-1939

Traditional cut roof After the war it was hoped that the nation
often with hipped would quickly recover its trade and its output
ends, clay plain from traditional industries. However, this
tiles. Some houses did not happen and by 1921 Britain was in a
had torching (lime
mortar under the downturn and long-term unemployment faced
tiles) by many. While the nation diversified into new
technology-led industries, ongoing investment
in a large-scale re-housing programme also
played a part in stabilising the economy and
Most new houses protecting it from the worst of the global
had cavity walls: two depression of the 1930s.
independent leaves
of brickwork tied For men returning from war but also for all
together families subjected to poor living conditions, the
urgent provision of good quality, affordable
homes would, it was argued, help maintain
social stability. So, immediately after the war,
the 1919 (Addison) Housing Act introduced
new standards for homes and together with
the first Labour Governments 1924 Housing
Act embedded the principle of subsidised
Timber hinged council housing. Within about 15 years, under
casements were very
common, sometimes this legislation, a million modern, hygienic
with stained glass in new homes had been built, many in suburban
top lights settings.
Remarkable too was the growth in private home
ownership. Those in work now had greater
disposable incomes and the availability of
affordable mortgages, from a rapidly increasing
number of building societies, put home
ownership within their grasp.
Concrete strip
foundations. This dual system with local authorities
Timber floor joists providing for poorer people and private house
protected from builders building for those with the means to
dampness buy, established a housing provision model
that persisted into the 1980s. Rent control,
introduced during the war, was gradually
relaxed from 1923, but though still the most Aerial photographs of suburban development taken in the 1930s.
Top: Ashfield Housing Estate, Glasgow; bottom: Braunstone Park,
common form of tenure in 1939, private renting Leicester. The term sprawl was coined in the 1950s to describe
was in decline and home ownership was firmly this kind of expansion
in the ascendency.
NHBC Foundation Homes through the decades Part 2 1919-1939 9

Yorks rapid expansion and
1 2 suburban sprawl
Heworth
Clifton
Bootham
The Minster Tang Hall

and Medieval
walls
Acomb
3
Clementhorpe
Dringhouses
Fulford
Key
4 Medieval Crowded walled city, population about

7,000 in 1377
1853 Following the arrival of the railways, the

city expanded considerably supporting a
population of approximately 41,000
1. All new houses had a kitchen, though even in the 1930s it was
often pretty basic 1938 By 1938 suburban sprawl had resulted in a
huge expansion of the city. Its population
2. Early gramophones were available, but an expensive luxury was 94,000 by 1937, subsequently rising
to 200,000 by 2013
3. A typical 1930s bedroom, with twin beds covered in shiny
quilted bedspreads
Source: Ordnance Survey Historical Mapping. Office for
4. The bathroom at Mendips, John Lennons childhood home, National Statistics for 2013 population and historic census
showing many original 1930s fittings data for 19th century and medieval figures

Following the First World War, the monotony of Victorian
terraces was rejected in favour of a new cottage-style two-
storey home. Because land was cheap, homes were built at
32% low densities with generous gardens and often in tree-lined
avenues and cul de sacs with open green spaces. This period
is characterised by the semi-detached home, often with a
garage for the more wealthy, and it was the heyday of the
Owner-occupied homes
bungalow, particularly in coastal developments.
The design of the semi-detached home was fairly standard
across the nation, with pitched roofs, a prominent front
gable and bay window, brick cavity walls, wooden casement
57% windows and covered porches. However, a range of styles
including Mock Tudor and Neo-Georgian were adopted.
Typically homes had three bedrooms, a living room, dining
Privately-rented homes room, kitchen, bathroom and separate internal WC. No
longer was there any allowance for servants quarters, a luxury
beyond the means of the new middle classes. Instead, the
kitchen was designed at the heart of the home and many were
11% fitted with the latest labour-saving appliances and fittings.
Middle class housewives positively adopted their new home-
owner status, and were proud of their modern, light and
wholesome homes.
Rented from local authorities By the 1930s the Modernist movement was speading across
Europe and the USA. In Britain, house builders began to add
features to their home designs, offering a new look called
Moderne. While most of the additions were cosmetic,
these homes (alongside the ubiquitous traditional semis)
A typical British suburban semi-detached house with green
remain a hallmark of the inter-war years. Also stemming paintwork, actually No. 17, Braemar Gardens, West Wickham, Kent
from the Modernist movement, the close of this period saw
experimentation in open-plan living, which would further
revolutionise how people live in their homes.
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Social housing in the UK

Some notable social housing schemes, largely built by
philanthropists, existed before the 1920s. However, it was not
until 1919, and the start of the major council house building
programme, that we see national commitment to provide
good homes for the less well off.
After the Second World War council home building continued
apace and by 1979 nearly 32% of all homes (about 6.5 million)
were public rented. In 1980 the Governments Right to Buy
policy changed the picture: twenty years later, 1.9 million
council homes had passed into private ownership. While
reinforcing Britain as a property-owning democracy, there
were repercussions for the remaining council housing. What
was left was of lower quality and income from sales was not
reinvested in new homes or maintenance. Much existing
public housing was allowed to deteriorate and after 1993 the
production of council housing effectively ceased.
In the 1960s the Government sought more private sector
involvement in the provision of state-supported housing,
and looked to expand the role of Housing Associations. In
the early 1970s, legislation granted subsidies to Housing
Associations to build homes for affordable rent, and this
sector subsequently expanded rapidly.
Housing Associations now manage about a third of all
social housing in England and Wales. This proportion is The term Metro-land promoted the
dream of a modern home in beautiful
increasing, with over 36,000 affordable housing completions countryside with a fast railway service to
in 2013/14. Housing Associations have a non-profit making central London. This was epitomised by
status, ploughing any surplus back into maintenance of their Harrow Garden Village
Moderne style. Clissold Court, Greenway Close, Stoke
stock and investment in new housing for rent. Some, like the Newington, London
Peabody and Guinness Trusts, have proud histories, traceable
back to Victorian philanthropy.
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Private house building between the
A new symbol of wars
quality in house
building. The This period saw the introduction of a
NHBRC lighthouse degree of mechanisation on building sites,
with its moto
Cavendo Tutus and some progress on the standardisation
safe by being wary of components: speeding up and
simplifying construction. Better transport
and particularly the growth of lorry haulage
meant that materials costs were reduced.
As a result, house builders were able to
keep the cost of homes down.
At the top end of the scale, the new homes
available were exceptional value for money,
The Isokon flats in and were offered to a high quality and
London built in 1934 with deluxe fixtures and fittings. At the
reflected the ideas
of Corbusier and the lower end of the scale, house builders
Bauhaus movement were tempted to add attractive cosmetic
features, which had become expected,
but to make a profit were forced to Open-plan living at The Homewood
economise on the basic fabric of the home.
A number of serious early failures triggered Homes from the period between the wars have
accusations of Jerry building, a term used affection in the public mind, being synonymous with
to describe poor construction standards tranquil leafy drives and a comforting traditional
and inadequate materials. Government air. However, in this period, foundations were laid
and national concern was fuelled. It was for dramatic changes in our approach to housing. It
the industry, however, that developed a not only sees the emergence of the modern design
The Campaign solution under the initial direction of the
to Protect Rural movement in the UK but also the first steps towards the
England (CPRE) was
National Federation of Building Trades high-rise approach to living that dominated the 1960s
formed in 1926 to Employers. Ultimately this led to the and 70s. In terms of construction technology, many
challenge urban formation of the National House-Builders lessons were learned from pioneering projects from
sprawl and ribbon Registration Council, the forerunner of the this time, which explored the use of new materials and
development: led NHBC, which would provide a certification
to the formation of prefabrication both contributing significantly to the
National Parks and scheme for private house builders and nations ability to rebuild after the Second World War.
green belts introduce building standards and an
inspection regime.
Post-war recovery 1945-1959 Part 3
Prefabrication, productivity and planning
On top of the pre-war housing shortage, nearly half a million homes were destroyed or Following the Second World War,
made uninhabitable by war time bombing, and many slums still remained. Plans made the nation endured a protracted
during the war were enacted in earnest from 1945 to relieve the acute overcrowding period of recovery, with food
in British homes. Prefabrication was adopted on a massive scale as a way of urgently rationing continuing until 1954.
supplying new homes, playing both a symbolic and practical role in the nations recovery.
The population united behind a
post-war reconstruction to win the
peace.
A large number of non-traditional

homes were built using a range of
prefabrication approaches. These
helped to boost housing output
to a high level (just under 354,000
homes were built in the UK in 1954).
Centralised planning introduced

new principles for establishing
communities and social interaction.
Successive Housing Manuals

(in 1944 and 1949) introduced
new standards which shaped a
distinctive new generation of
housing.

New techniques Following the war, people wanted to help
such as the TRADA rebuild the nation: the welfare state was
truss introduced. established, the railways nationalised and the
Concrete tiles hugely ambitious plan to bring good healthcare
underlaid with felt
and cast iron or to all, financed by taxation, was realised with
asbestos guttering the creation of the NHS. The need to rebuild
homes in great numbers led to a period of rapid
experimentation, particularly in planning.
In the realm of housing the period up to 1959
Traditionally-built led to much closer conformity between the
houses had mostly
brick cavity walls. quality of public and private homes. This was
Early blockwork also largely achieved by the 1944 and 1949 Housing
used for the inner Manuals - guidance that can be viewed as
leaf precursors of current standards - and also
by the changes in the 1949 Housing Act that
enabled local authorities to provide housing for
professional as well as manual workers.
In this period there were very significant
developments in the planning system. Perhaps
Galvanised metal the most significant was the Town and Country
windows very Planning Act of 1947, which was a response to
common. Single uncontrolled expansion of the suburbs which
glazed started in the 1930s. This Act established
enduring planning principles that still apply
today. Town planning came of age, particularly
in the development and evolution of the so-
called Mark 1 New Towns, which started with
the initial approval for Stevenage in 1946. In
the development of these towns and other
residential areas, planners were adopting
Concrete strip new concepts, including the neighbourhood
foundations. unit approach - establishing units of 5 to 10
Thin concrete thousand people with their own dedicated
ground floor. No
polythene damp- facilities. The concept of mixed-accommodation
proof membrane developments, in which people up-sized or
(DPM) down-sized progressively though their lives,
was also explored in towns and cities across the Terraced houses on the Somerford Estate, Hackney, London,
country, though later found to be flawed. 1952. This public housing was the first mixed-accommodation
development in England, consisting of low-rise flats, terraces of
two-storey houses and bungalows

Post-war non-traditional housing
1 2
Number of designs
300
225
150
75
3
1930
1940
1950
1960
Key
Timber-frame designs
Spooner 4,800 Brick clad
Swedish Timber 4,500 Timber clad
In-situ concrete designs
Wimpey No-fines 300,000 Rendered
Easiform Type II 100,000 Rendered
4 Metal frame designs
BISF Type A1 35,000 Metal clad
Trusteel Mk 2 20,000 Brick clad
Precast reinforced concrete designs
Cornish Unity 30,000 Concrete clad
1. In 1955, a third of UK households had a television Airey 26,000 Concrete clad
2. Avon portable two-bar reflector fire, designed in 1954 and
manufactured by Morphy Richards, between 1955 and 1970 Some of the main post-war non-traditional house types are
shown above, including numbers built. These, as the graph
3. A larger fridge had become a standard feature of the modern shows, are just a fraction of the number of different designs
home produced just after the war
4. A contemporary advert bathrooms were becoming a Based on details published in the BRE Report Non-traditional
lifestyle statement Houses: Identifying non-traditional houses in the UK 1918-75
Homes then
For more than 125,000 homeless and bombed-out families
across Britain the emergency temporary prefabs built shortly
after the war were a godsend. These small two-bedroom
detached homes offered all the basic amenities including a
factory prefabricated bathroom and fitted kitchen unit.
Alongside these temporary prefabs (which typically endured
well beyond their expected 20 year life) the main programme
of permanent non-traditional homes rapidly gathered
momentum, delivering slightly under 450,000 new homes in
the decade following the war. These homes consisted of a
considerable range of steel frame, precast concrete, in-situ
concrete and timber-frame homes with various degrees of
prefabrication. Following the 1944 Housing Manual, these
typically quite generous three-bedroom homes, with state of
the art facilities and services, were much appreciated at the
time despite the austere appearance of some designs.
Traditionally-constructed homes still formed the major
part of the house-building profile, though adaptations
were necessary because of restrictions, particularly on the
availability of timber. Concrete floors and metal windows
predominated at this time. Walls were by now almost entirely
of cavity construction, often with early blockwork inner leaves. Surviving Airey houses clad in their hallmark precast concrete
Compared to todays new homes, those from this period panels. In 10 years from 1945 to 1955 over 26,000 were built in
England and Wales
were draughty and difficult to keep warm in winter. Central
heating was still rare and the fireplace was a focal point in cold
weather.
Swedish and Bauhaus influences had an impact on the design
of higher density housing projects and a number of apartment
blocks, including Lubetkins Spa Green development were
potent symbols of success in the immediate post-war period.
in o d y
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Non-traditional housing today

In recent decades prefabrication has fallen out of use, the
term Prefab bringing to the publics mind the idea of
temporary, poorly built homes unworthy of investment. This
tended to undermine the concept of prefabrication and
possibly held back what some see as a natural progression
away from a craft-based industry and towards a modern
manufacturing approach, as strongly advocated by Sir
John Egan in 1998. To give a fresh start, prefabrication has
been aligned within the umbrella term Modern methods of
construction (MMC). Today the acronym MMC embraces a
range of approaches from pre-assembled components and
sub-assemblies such as floors and roofs, right through to
complete pre-assembled home modules.
The drivers for the adoption of MMC today have some
parallels with the pressures that applied in post-war Britain.
Today, as then, there is an acute housing shortage and again
we are exploring the wider use of non-traditional construction
with its potential for increasing housing output and cost
savings. Shortages of skilled craftsmen and availability of
materials are again giving a nudge towards the use of non-
traditional approaches.
However, the debate on MMC is ongoing, with advocates and
sceptics evaluating evidence for cost, quality, environmental
and social benefits. The important distinction, however, is
that this time round, in contrast to the post-war period, the
engagement with non-traditional construction techniques is
proceeding with decades of hindsight, and the availability of
Spa Green (1943-50) by Berthold Lubetkin and Tecton, certification and warranty for a growing number of products
Clerkenwell, London, photographed in 2009 and systems. Significantly the word prefabrication is again
emerging in product literature, perhaps indicating growing
interest in this approach within the UK.
es
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Post-war innovation the legacy
Non-traditional
construction, Born out of necessity the post-war non-
including these traditional housing programme was a
prefabricated types, remarkable period in the history of UK
helped to boost housing. Many of the systems look set to
housing production
last well beyond the 60-year life expected
of them. With some exceptions their
performance in terms of ongoing costs is
estimated to be no worse than that of their
traditionally-constructed contemporaries.
For some precast reinforced concrete
(PRC) homes, structural weaknesses came
to light in the 1980s when occupants were
Emphasis on first offered the right to buy. A survey of
terraces and other PRC homes, carried out by the Building
economies helped
increase numbers of Research Establishment, established a
homes generic problem of carbonation of the
concrete, due to inadequate protection
of the steel reinforcement. As a result, A contemporary timber-frame house under construction
more than 20 types of PRC homes, were
designated as defective and immediately By the mid 1950s the proportion of non-traditional
became unmortgageable. houses within the overall housing output was
To restore confidence, Government beginning to decline, though some types like Wimpey
grants were made available for 90% of No-fines continued to be built in large numbers.
individual repair costs. To ensure that Timber-frame construction, however, did secure long-
the homes were properly repaired, the term popularity among house builders and today, for
Stevenage was
Englands first New Government approached NHBC to set low-rise, remains the UKs main alternative to masonry.
Town, followed by up and administer a repair scheme. Though not adopted as a long-term solution for the
Basildon, Harlow, This scheme eventually repaired over
Hemel Hempstead structural frames of houses, precast concrete did
and Bracknell
13,000 homes, adopting tailored repair find its niche in medium- and high-rise apartments
procedures for most of the defective where it has become the principal framing and
house types. The scheme was run by PRC cladding material. Steel frame has been a somewhat
Homes, a subsidiary of NHBC, and as well less common solution for housing since the post-war
as offering certificates of repair acceptable period; however, it has its advocates, who value the
to mortgage lenders, owners were given an flexibility provided by the light structures that can be
equivalent of the ten-year NHBC Buildmark designed.
warranty.
Towers in the sky 1960-1979 Part 4
A misapplied utopian vision
In the 1960s and 70s, to reduce the ongoing housing shortage and to re-house those in In the 1960s and 70s more homes
substandard homes, local authorities across the land built large numbers of residential were built in the UK than at any
tower blocks. It was supposed that everyday people would enjoy high-rise living and other time, including over 425,000
share the utopian vision of an elite professional minority who precipitated this change. In in 1968.
practice many of the tower blocks were social and financial failures. In the worst cases,
vertical slums replaced horizontal ones. Residential tower blocks were a
major part of the new housing mix:
about 55,000 were built in this
period over 400,000 homes.
Public disapproval of tower

blocks quickly grew. Poor design
for community security, austere,
repetitive concrete exteriors
and technical deficiencies all
contributed to dissatisfaction.
In 1964, Scotland introduced

Building Regulations. England
followed in 1965 when the long-
standing local Bye Laws for
building were replaced by national
Building Regulations.
Two further waves of New Towns

were designated. The early 1960s
group included Telford and
Washington and the final group in
the late 60s included Milton Keynes
and Warrington.

Mostly prefabricated In the swinging sixties, a new generation
roof trusses, enjoyed new freedoms and a brighter future.
concrete tiles with It was felt that the nation should by now have
felt and plastic left poverty behind and there was a genuine
guttering. Some
insulation political determination to ensure that all
enjoyed a good quality of life. The reality of the
time was very different for many people, and at
least 100,000 families were still living in poverty,
as were half of all old age pensioners. Living
Most houses had conditions for some remained shockingly bad.
cavity walls: block In 1975, perhaps a million homes were still rated
inner leaf almost as slums, and 1.8 million unfit for habitation,
universal and brick lacking basic amenities such as running water,
outer leaf
baths and toilets. At the same time at least half
a million families were still sharing homes and as
many as 30,000 were homeless.
The 1960s solution to the housing problem
was the large-scale construction of residential
tower blocks; however, even within a few years
many of these were demonstrating serious
Single glazed shortcomings in design and construction and
timber casement
windows popular were rapidly falling out of favour with the public.
or horizontal sliding Resistance grew to the practice of demolishing
aluminium windows the existing housing and replacing it with the
seemingly inhuman towers, which isolated
individuals and were inappropriate for families.
By the early 1970s Government policy makers,
now increasingly wary about the merits of the
high-rise solution, were advocating policies to
improve and upgrade existing low-rise homes.
Concrete strip The 1960s and 70s saw the rapid expansion
foundations and of the New Towns policy across the country.
ground floor. House building reached a peak at this time and
Polythene DPM
from mid 1960s a threshold was crossed in 1968, the year when
half the families in the UK owned their own
homes.
Boys drop rocks into a large puddle in an area of wasteland in
Manchester. In the background can be seen abandoned and half
demolished Victorian terraces and a high-rise residential tower
block

UK houses built 1950-present
1 2 1968 Peak of UK
Houses completed
(thousands) house building
(425,830 homes)
400
300
200
3
100
1950
1955
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
Key
Government of the day
Labour
4
Conservative
Conservative/Lib Dem Coalition

1. A radiator a rare sight in 1970 when just one-quarter of
homes had central heating. By 1990, this had risen to nearly
three-quarters
2. In the 1960s cheaper, initially Italian, imports led to domestic
appliances becoming much more affordable
Permanent dwellings completed in the UK per year from
3. Fashionable Roberts R portable radio 1950-present compared with the Government of the day
4. Frozen oven chips, pizza and indulgent gateaux became a Source: Office for National Statistics Table 241 House building
staple of everyday family life by the mid 1970s

From 1965, national Building Regulations were in force and
new homes would now need to comply to a range of common
technical requirements. The new homes could be expected
44% to perform well, though some aspects, such as sound
transmission between homes, was only poorly understood
and was proved to be a shortcoming, particularly with the
proliferation of more powerful hi-fi systems.
Tower block construction quality was at best described as
variable. While some construction systems performed badly,
being difficult for residents to keep warm, and vulnerable to
rain penetration and condensation, some have performed well
32% and been popular with residents.
The majority of houses from this period were functional in
their design and tended to be box-like. A typical home would
Privately-rented homes be built with minimal eaves overhangs and windows flush to
the exterior, giving a profile of little relief or interest. Electrical
and gas central heating systems were increasingly adopted
as the norm and fireplaces and chimneys omitted from the
design.
24%
Internally, the lounge was still the main place for relaxing
and entertaining, and a centre for family activity; however,
designs increasingly looked at open-plan configurations and
Rented from local authorities a separate dining room became less common. Interior design
favoured bold colours and a range of styles, including pop art.
Design from the early 1960s onwards, particularly that of
public sector housing, was strongly influenced by the Parker
Morris report in 1961, which set out principles of space design Boys and girls leave a housing estate and set off for school. Late
in homes. Designers now had guidance to help enhance the 1960s
usability of space.
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Apartment living Energy efficiency 1979

In ancient Rome, apartments provided an affordable housing
solution for most people. In Victorian and Edwardian times,
low- and medium-rise apartment blocks were built but not
extensively. In the 1930s the building of apartment blocks 16%
accelerated as a housing response to slum clearance. At this
time the apartments were medium rise, up to five storeys
and with no lifts. Into the mix at this time were the ideas of
Homes with double glazing
Corbusier and the Bauhaus movement, the latter reflected
in the Isokon flats in London. After the Second World War
a number of local authorities commissioned medium-rise
apartment blocks, some of which, like Lubetkins Spa Green
development, remain popular to this day. 49%
The unfortunate, faulty application of high-rise to the housing
problems of the 1960s and 70s undermined public confidence
in the basically sound concept of the residential apartment Homes with central heating
block for many years.
By the late sixties, enlightened architects sought to bring
together insights and experiences to generate more beautiful
apartment complexes at a more human scale. Research
demonstrated that high rise was not the only way of achieving 5.6%
high density required by planners or dictated by available
space. Other configurations could be equally effective.
Today, apartment living is in renaissance. We have learnt that Fuel as a percentage of
household expenditure
communities in apartment blocks need facilities and meeting
places that allow human interaction and expression, and
should create an ambience that reinforces good citizenship.
High-rise modern apartment living is now popular as a
An elevated view of Camden Housing Estate, built between 1970
housing solution for young professionals in cities and the and 1979
luxury apartment market is booming. Current trends suggest
that the proportion of people living in apartments, currently at
about 20%, is set to expand significantly.
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The problem of noise
High-rise and
non-traditional Noise transmission between homes was
construction led to an emerging concern in the 1960s. This
more homes being was linked to increasing use of Hi Fi, but
built in the UK than also to the transmission of everyday noise
at any other time
(425,830 in1968) between dwellings. In the new apartment
blocks of the time, noise transmission
between homes and particularly across
party floors was often a serious concern.
Prior to 2003, successive editions of
Approved Document E (which sets out
how to achieve compliance with acoustic
aspects of the Building Regulations)
The third and last had not made a sufficient impact on
wave of New Towns the number of noise complaints from
(196770) allowed
for growth chiefly occupants. So, for the 2003 edition of
further north from Approved Document E, more demanding
the previous New requirements were set. Additionally, new
Towns around homes would be tested for compliance, or
London In May 1968 there was a gas explosion within Ronan
alternatively could be built using proven
Point, a newly-completed high-rise apartment block.
construction details, available under a new
A complete twenty-two storey corner of the building
scheme called Robust Details.
collapsed as a result, killing four people and injuring
The Robust Details scheme, built on many others. A public enquiry followed, which
industrial expertise and academic rigour, concluded that the concrete structure was unsound
has proved very popular with home - a finding that seriously undermined the publics
Span sought to builders and is now adopted on the confidence in the modernist high-rise buildings of
bring modern majority of new developments across the time. Though Ronan Point was repaired, it was
architecture to the UK. Recent research by the NHBC eventually demolished in 1986 and, ironically, replaced
middle class, middle Foundation (NF56) has now demonstrated by low-rise terraced homes - the very houses it was
income people. an encouraging decline in noise concerns intended to supersede.
The design of the
landscaping was from homeowners since 2003, including
In the UK, high-rise concrete buildings are now built
important those living in apartments, where the
to a design code that has stringent requirements to
acoustic challenges are highest. In this case
prevent progressive collapse and high rise has today
the original research and development
earned an acceptance, in some cases acclaim, for the
which led to improved construction details
lifestyle and value it provides.
has delivered very positive benefits for the
owner of a new home.
Technology and society 1980-1999 Part 5
Towards safe, secure and comfortable homes
The last twenty years of the 20th century will be remembered as a time of economic In the 1980s, incomes improved
boom and bust, and a time of political activism as the nations inequality gap widened. for most people. It was a time of
The Right to Buy scheme was the landmark policy for housing. However, behind the entrepreneurship and innovation.
scenes, a quiet revolution was taking place as advances in technology and social sciences
were assimilated in improved regulations, standards and guidelines for new housing Economic success drove up house
developments. price inflation, which reached 32%
in 1988. The bubble burst in 1990
resulting in negative equity for
many. In 1992 alone 75,000 families
had their homes repossessed.
The Right to Buy scheme was

launched in the 1980 Housing Act.
By the end of the 1990s about 1.9
million council homes had been
sold.
There was a huge expansion in

technical information. Radically
new, performance-based Building
Regulations appeared in 1985. In
1992 the new NHBC Standards
were published.
Safety standards in homes were

improved significantly and set a
path for much safer homes today.

Trussed rafters Affluence reached new heights in the 1980s
almost universal. when disposable income nearly doubled for
Roofs ventilated at the wealthy and increased significantly even
eaves. 100 mm roof for those on average incomes. Many people
insulation
invested heavily in expensive cars, prestige
homes, luxury holidays and a generally lavish
lifestyle. It was a time when those with initiative
and imagination became millionaires, and a
time of innovation, particularly in the services
Cavity walls with sector.
aerated block inner
leaf. Cavity typically Celebrity culture emerged, promoted by new
50 mm or 75 mm glossy magazines like Hello. Television, now
if partial cavity in practically every home, was a powerful
insulation included and influential political medium, allowing the
population to more easily engage with and
participate in the pressing social issues of the
day, such as the Miners Strike and the Poll Tax
revolts.
As a free-market economy was being
Double glazed established across the world a number of
PVC-U windows, changes were cementing capitalism within
often casement style the UK. The Right to Buy scheme gave many
council tenants the chance to own their own
homes and, as significant, was the increase in
share ownership notably from the privatisation
of public utilities.
For housing the 1990s were a time of transition.
Housing Associations were replacing local
authorities as the providers of social housing,
and they explored novel solutions for young
Deeper concrete people and also the elderly. Government
strip foundations.
Concrete floor, emphasis on providing homes for private sale
DPM and screed. pushed housing ownership up to 67% by 1995.
Insulation rare To improve the design quality of developments,
the Commission for Architecture in the Built
Environment (CABE) was established.
Loanda Close, Stonebridge Estate, Haggerston, London. Typical

1980s housing elevation in a regeneration area

Dwelling stock by tenure, England
1 2 1980 Right to Buy
All dwellings
(millions) policy enacted
16
12
3 4
1911
1931
1951
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
1961
Key
Owner-occupied
Privately rented
4
Rented from local authorities
Rented from Housing Associations

1. 1980s couple working an early Apple home computer
2. A family of Couch Potatoes, lounging on the sofa watching
TV Overlaid tenure trends for English housing stock since 1911. Note
the marked rise in private renting starting in the early 1990s
3. Cordless telephones were now a common convenience
Source: Office for National Statistics Table 104 Dwelling stock and
4. The microwave is added to the growing list of appliances that Tenure in England: 1914-99 in Research Paper 99/111 A Century
was expected in every household of Change: Trends in UK statistics since 1900. House of Commons
Library, 1999, p. 12

Housing from the period between 1980 and 2000 was
characterised by more complex exteriors, typified by
developments such as Mallard Place in Twickenham.
58% Designers successfully explored how to deliver quite dense
housing, but still achieve a spacious feel.
By the 1990s planning and design now became more closely
Owner-occupied homes linked, as good urban design principles were incorporated
into schemes. Many were carefully designed around existing
features, and incorporated amenity areas and facilities to
encourage social interaction. While some high-rise apartment
blocks were built, medium rise, with its more human scale was
11% viewed as a more acceptable option.
Owners of new homes were now seeing the benefits of
improved energy efficiency in construction and heating
Privately-rented homes systems as national standards were raised. People could
afford to heat their homes to much higher levels of comfort
and average temperatures in homes increased by a
remarkable 5.5oC between the early 1970s and the late 1990s.
28% Practically all new homes had central heating installed and
double glazing, and were typically equipped with fridges and
washing machines. Most also had microwaves, dishwashers
and tumble dryers. The kitchen, once the lowliest room and
Rented from local authorities a place of drudgery, had now been transformed into perhaps
the most important room in the house a place to cook, eat,
drink, work, and entertain. Kitchens became more spacious
in new home designs and became a statement of an owners
wealth and status, and an undisputed deal maker in house
2% sales. Mallard Place in Twickenham. High quality 1980s-style housing:
demonstrating pleasing architectural qualities
g y te n f s s
m ro te e c h o y
n m e i n i nv s S i n
ke ed , th y. se
an s t
,
er ba e i nd e
es cu e e e
e ion en
e s t di d d ar
st
g it y
h o o f u r s c h e,
en ir h d e ol v id e
Bu t
t a he
e n e e s y la m
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ar y d a u
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o Ac
ha tim im
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Technology informs design Energy efficiency 1999

This period was marked by a huge expansion in the availability The 1990s saw the emergence of far more elaborate security
of technical information, including radically new performance- arrangements. For new and refurbished apartment blocks,
based Building Regulations supported by detailed guidance, the welcoming concierge became common. On individual
the Approved Documents. With the establishment of houses and apartments more robust windows, doors and 68%
the digital age, there was a rapid expansion in the use of locks, resistant to burglary attack, could be specified under
computer technology in industry and commerce. In housing, a methodology set out in the Secure by Design scheme.
one of the main early computer applications was in the field of Developed by the Police and guided by security experts,
Homes with double glazing
energy modelling. Now designers need not rely on uncertain Secure by Design also gave recommendations for the
empirical judgement, but would have software to demonstrate planning of neighbourhoods to deter criminals.
compliance to the standards of the day.
Research on how people used their homes and the whole
Quite sophisticated computer-aided design tools became discipline of post occupancy evaluation became established
widely used, making it possible for projects to be more easily during this time, providing vital feedback on how owners and 79%
visualised, designed and communicated with clients. tenants respond to the new designs that were emerging.
Through the 1980s and 1990s the safety and security of homes To combat urban sprawl and make better use of derelict land,
was improved enormously. Some of the main safety aspects the Government, in 1998 pressed for 60% of all new housing Homes with central heating
addressed at the time a basis for todays practice - are developments to be built on brownfield sites. The major
shown on page 30. In each case the new Regulations were complications associated with brownfield sites, including
built on a mixture of technical advances and improvement in contamination and weak ground, pose very significant
design informed by a better understanding of how people
interact with their homes.
technical challenges and risks for house builders. To open
up the safe use of these sites, the NHBC provided detailed 3.2%
step-by-step guidance (Chapter 4.1 of the NHBC Standards)
There were straightforward improvements. So, safety glazing
to help builders in the evaluation of land and the management
was introduced in the 1992 Building Regulations, protecting
of the major risks. To encourage housing developments on Fuel as a percentage of
owners of new homes from the common and nasty accidents
brownfield sites, a revised version of Planning Policy Guidance household expenditure
caused by weak glass on low level windows and doors. At a
3 (PPG 3) was prepared.
much more complex level an urgent answer was needed to the
alarming number of house fire deaths, which exceeded 700
people per year in the late 1960s. Much is owed to a suite of
fire safety measures introduced in the 1980s that are credited
with reducing significantly the number of people killed or
injured by fires in their homes.
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Steps towards safer homes
Margaret Thatcher
hands over a copy Fire safety avoiding deaths from fire,
of the deeds to smoke and combustion products
the GLCs 12,000th Providing fire escape routes
council house buyer (regulated 1985)
in 1980
Fire resistant construction
(regulated 1985)
Chimney and hearth construction
(regulated 1985)
Ventilation for solid fuel/gas appliances
(regulated 1985)
Fire resistant furniture and furnishings
(regulated 1988)
Council estates Gas safety avoiding gas leaks and
fast became the explosions
accommodation
of last resort, as Requirements for safe connection
families on middle and installation of gas appliances
incomes sold up and Pennylands in Milton Keynes, a large-scale pioneering
(regulated 1994) project exploring passive solar design
moved out
Glass and window safety avoiding cuts,
injuries and falls
Safety glass required in critical In the mid 1980s a strong worldwide economic upturn
(dangerous) locations (regulated 1992) contributed to a boom, perhaps unprecedented, in
Opening restrictors required above the UK housing market. At one point house prices
ground floor (regulated 1992) increased by as much as 30% in just six months. When
this bubble eventually burst many who had invested
Lead avoiding poisoning significantly during the upcycle found themselves
The introduction Lead additives removed from
of the World trapped in negative equity, with their properties worth
household paints (regulated 1992) less than the borrowing they had taken out. Negative
Wide Web in
1991 provided Stairs avoiding falls equity was a rude shock for a nation conditioned to
unparalleled thinking that property was a safe investment option.
opportunity for Consistency in stair design
(regulated 1992) For many people the entire financially-attractive
creativity, sharing
and collaboration Safe lighting on stairs (regulated 1992) concept of home ownership was temporarily called into
Safe height and impact resistance of question at that time.
balustrades (regulated 1992)
Safe gaps between or under elements
of balustrades (regulated 1992)
Embracing sustainability 2000-present Part 6
A new norm for British housing
Housing has been a policy priority for successive Governments throughout the 20th Globalisation, through the internet
century. In the new century, with binding national targets on carbon emissions, housing and improved communications,
was identified as having a key part to play in the Governments carbon reduction strategy. has driven commercial and social
An ambitious timescale and performance target for zero carbon homes was set down, change, but also played a part
triggering a wave of pioneering innovation by manufacturers, architects, designers and in the 2008 financial crisis and
house builders. subsequent deep recession.
Potential economic impact of

global warming is highlighted in
the Stern Review - Government and
the business world start to engage
with sustainability and to promote
principles of sustainable living.
Government supported the

development of the Code for
Sustainable Homes, which set
out a range of environmental
sustainability standards for new
homes.
The Zero Carbon Homes policy is

established, with the ambition of
establishing zero carbon standards
by 2016. Delivery would be
facilitated by the Zero Carbon Hub.
Low energy housing designs and

low carbon energy technologies
both evolve rapidly. However, in
2010 housing output declines to
the lowest level since the Second
World War.
32 NHBC Foundation Homes through the decades Part 6 2000-present
How we build now Signs of the times

Braced and With the new millennium, the concept of
restrained trusses. globalism swept into everyday life. The internet
Vapour permeable expanded rapidly and by 2006 three-quarters
roof underlays and of British children had access to the internet at
eaves ventilation.
Deep roof insulation home. Between 2006 and 2010 sustainability
moved from a minority interest to being a
boardroom consideration. It was the Stern
Review of 2006 that truly changed perceptions
in Government and business, with its stark
Cavity walls with economic forecasts of climate change impact.
aerated block inner Many practices would be changed to reduce
leaf. Wide cavity pollution and protect natural resources.
with significant
insulation Homes would now be built to meet
environmentally-sound criteria and sustainable
practices such as organic farming would gain
wider public acceptance. Among a range of
measures to encourage a new sustainable
lifestyle, the Government would reduce
vehicle excise duty for low emission cars and a
European star rating scheme was introduced for
Double glazed low-energy appliances.
PVC-U, timber or
aluminium/timber The affordability of homes was becoming
windows a major issue. In 2002 only about 37% of
households could afford to buy a home,
compared with 47% in the late 1980s. From
2004 a young couple both working and earning
average wages would struggle to secure a
mortgage for an average-priced home. That
situation has not improved and property
ownership is now a distant prospect for many
Concrete strip prospective first time buyers, particularly in
foundations London and the home counties. Indeed private
and ground- ownership has started to decline in the last
bearing floor with
insulation below decade and private renting to increase.
Brooklands Avenue, Accordia Housing, Cambridge

NHBC Foundation Homes through the decades Part 6 2000-present 33

Annual household energy spend
1 2
Victorian house
With some
modern day 2,460 4-bed detached
improvements
1,670 3-bed semi-detached
1,430 3-bed mid terrace
940 1-bed ground floor flat
1,050 4-bed detached

New build house
Built to 2013 780 3-bed semi-detached
regulations
760 3-bed mid terrace
500 1-bed ground floor flat
4 620 4-bed detached

Future house
2016 aspirations 450 3-bed semi-detached
480 3-bed mid terrace
1. The transition between indoors and outdoors is a focal point 380 1-bed ground floor flat
for new home designs
2. A walk-in wardrobe. Now a common feature for the master
bedroom Energy bills. How modern low energy homes (and the
very low energy homes planned from 2016) reduce costs
3. In April 2003 Apple launched the third edition iPod and its for homeowners
online music store iTunes
These indicative costs have been calculated by the Zero
4. Smart meters help us manage our energy use and follow the Carbon Hub
performance of our own energy generating photovoltaics
Tenure 2009 Homes now

In housing, sustainability was pursued in all its recognised Some designs, for example BedZed, struck a futuristic
forms during this time. Economic sustainability was behind tone, while others demonstrated that technologies could
the Governments Sustainable Communities Action Plan which be incorporated almost seamlessly in traditional-appearing
66% in 2003 launched a series of pathfinder projects to improve homes. Good quality in design is essential in delivering
the marketability of selected run-down districts. For new sustainable homes that genuinely meet todays challenging
housing the Design for Manufacture competition explored performance standards and the complex needs of
how to build good quality affordable housing for a 60,000 communities, and there has been a timely re-engagement of
construction cost. the architectural profession with housing and neighbourhood
design over the last decade. From 2013 the Government,
On social sustainability, the quality of new neighbourhoods
through its Housing Standards Review consultation, has
was scrutinised under the CABE Building for Life criteria,
encouraged a wide debate on the technical standards of new
and the Decent Homes standard was introduced for all
16% existing council and Housing Association homes. In 2006,
homes.
the Government supported the introduction of the Code
for Sustainable Homes to enhance the environmental
Privately-rented homes sustainability of new developments. It also sponsored the
establishment of the Zero Carbon Hub to support the delivery
of the zero carbon homes policy.
In response to challenging low-carbon building standards,
designers and house builders have explored a range of
8% housing solutions. The thermal performance of the envelope
(walls, roofs, floors, windows and doors) has been enhanced
significantly and a range of low-carbon energy technologies
Rented from local authorities including solar photovoltaics, solar hot water, heat pumps and
heat recovery ventilation have been adopted increasingly on
new developments.
9%
to
s n ht s
si on s
th e T e e ith
G e l o i t a g u l i n ro w s n t
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ow t h f t h w
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ay n t a r r a l d
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es
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te i e i o
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ic of e h e
um th ho er
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NHBC Foundation Homes through the decades Part 6 2000-present 35
Low carbon and low energy homes Energy efficiency 2009

A major thrust in Government policy on new homes has been
to ensure that new housing from 2016 minimises carbon
emissions. The pathway to this goal has entailed a rapid
ramping up of the thermal performance of homes and also 92%
the adoption of low-carbon energy technologies to heat and
ventilate homes, and provide hot water.
The potential financial advantages of these new homes to Homes with double glazing
owners and occupiers have become increasingly significant
as energy prices have risen. To ensure that homes do indeed
perform as expected from design calculations, a major
cross-industry study was commenced in 2013 to identify and
address any part of the housing supply process that could be 89%
impacting negatively on energy performance.
In meeting the high thermal performance standards required,
homes are required to be much more airtight. In terms Homes with central heating
of ventilation this presents new challenges in ensuring
adequate air quality in homes, whether related to humidity,
accumulation of pollutants or just a lack of air freshness. At
the same time designers are engaged with the emerging
consideration of overheating. Increasing spells of hot weather 4.4%
are predicted under climate change projections and care will
be needed to ensure that new thermally efficient homes are
not predisposed to risk of overheating. Indoor air quality and Fuel as a percentage of
overheating have been, and remain, priority areas for research household expenditure
and guidance.
Another main thrust of research has been directed at
understanding how people use their new homes and
Newhall Be, Harlow, Alison Brooks Architects
improving the quality of advice to ensure that incorporated
technologies are used to their potential.
ty
se
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na
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Themes Looking forward

The NHBC Buildmark warranty
Beddington Zero
Energy Develop- Around 80% of new homes in the UK are
ment [BedZed] registered with NHBC and sold with the
designed for the benefit of an NHBC Buildmark warranty,
Peabody Trust, which currently protects over 1.6 million
Helios Road,
Wallington, Sutton, homes.
London
The Buildmark warranty gives homeowners
protection with:
Pre-completion insolvency cover
This gives protection if the builder
becomes insolvent after exchange of
contracts
Energy Performance Cover for the first two years after
Certificates (EPCs) completion
were introduced
in 2007 and are The builder is responsible for putting
needed whenever a right certain damage and defects.
home is built, sold For the rest of the 21st century, what should our
Homeowners also have access to
or rented aspiration be for British housing? The reality is that
the resolution service and NHBC
we have insufficient housing and a severe shortage
Guarantee in the event that the builder
is going to be with us, at least in the medium
fails to fulfil their responsibilities
term, no matter what is done to boost output. It is
Cover for parts of the home in years 3 to important that the pressure on numbers does not
10 of ownership have an adverse impact on quality, to the detriment of
Insurance to cover the cost of putting purchasers, owners and tenants.
right physical damage in specified
There is a sunnier outlook which draws hope from
Low energy homes areas of the home such as damage
the large numbers of high quality schemes and
at Derwenthorpe. to floors, staircases, roofs, drains,
The design draws on developments that are emerging in our cities, towns
windows and doors
the rich architectural and villages. Many of these projects are the result of
legacy of the new positive partnerships between house builders and
century-old model architects, and are contributing to a new and powerful
village at nearby public appreciation of the importance of quality in the
New Earswick
built environment.
The future Part 7
Meeting tomorrows needs and challenges
In contemplating future homes it might be limiting to envisage a convergence towards

one solution and more inspiring to think about how housing might be favourably adapted
to meet a number of specific circumstances and pressures. Could well designed, stylish
and safe homes suited to downsizing or single person occupancy become a more
common new house type within 20 years? These, alongside new family homes, which
are also needed, should perhaps be a priority for our 21st century pioneers in planning,
design and construction.
38 NHBC Foundation Homes through the decades Part 7 The future
Directions and priorities

Over forthcoming decades and beyond, pressures,
particularly arising from demographic and social changes, are
likely to have a profound effect on how we design new homes
and neighbourhoods. With people spending more time at
home, a focus will remain on health and well-being and, in
particular, what our homes can do to prolong independent
living for older people. Research and development will
continue on how we can reduce still further the impact of new
homes on the environment, perhaps with a move to address
embodied energy in the materials used for construction.
Socially we may become more aware of the positive impact
of design excellence on people and place more value on the
contribution good housing plays in achieving social cohesion.
In addressing these, and other issues, technology will be a
major contributor. However, it will be essential that home
buyers can be encouraged to recognise the value of emerging
technologies and be willing and able to engage with them.
The clever integration of new technologies within well-
designed homes which are pleasing to people and meet their
needs efficiently, has been and should continue to remain the
aspiration.
Derwenthorpe by Richards Partington A number of thematic technological areas will undoubtedly

Architects. Passive measures, including affect the development of design of new homes. Already the
good, secure ventilation, planting and concept of the interconnected home is gaining a foothold.
reflective surfaces will protect homes Here, a mobile device such as a smartphone or tablet displays
from higher temperatures expected in and controls the status or activity of everything from the
future in the UK
security system to the room lighting and entertainment.
This kind of technology is advancing rapidly with mobile
apps (software applications) available to control a range of
functions remotely, for example, to provide entry for selected
guests and family members.
Automation has been used for some time to operate basic
devices in the home, such as closing curtains for security and
operating shading devices. The idea of the fully automated
house, which monitors the occupants, learns their heating and
comfort requirements and even replenishes the refrigerator
is also emerging. Whole house shutdown systems (similar to
the keycards used in hotels) could become commonplace, as
could central locking by means of an electronic keyfob. For Emmett Russell Architects winning entry for the Re-Imagine
Ageing RIBA Design Competition offering the baby boomer
further information see NHBC Foundation report (NF43). generation a new model of home ownership in later life
NHBC Foundation Homes through the decades Part 7 The future 39
Automation is seen to have a potentially significant role in

supporting independent living for older people in their own
homes, as well as those with disability or illness. In the future,
monitors in homes will be able to provide remote reassurance
that elderly relatives are following their normal patterns of
behaviour. One step further, and being trialled in Australia, is
health monitoring: key information is fed back automatically to
the occupant and, via the cloud, to clinicians and relatives.
As domestic energy efficiency increases further and
renewable energy technologies are improved to deliver even
greater efficiency, new homes may tend to become more self-
sufficient and less dependent on connections to the electricity
and gas grids. This would require a fundamental rethink of the
design and installation of services as well as large batteries or
other means of storing energy within individual homes.
It is conceivable in the very long term that a mix of approaches
might ultimately lead to the development of homes that
mimic natural systems. These could be built from materials
that are self-repairing and provide internal environments that
are entirely self-regulating, responding to environmental
changes. These ideas are gradually gaining widespread
acceptance: biomimicry is even a feature of some
commentators vision of a future home. However, this vision is
associated with the low-density, land-hungry, detached home, Emmett Russell Architects Rose House, Kingsdown, Bristol. Interior of modern
with the autonomous elements requiring land and space. So family home with advanced low carbon energy technologies
in its pure form, this is unlikely to be a model for dense, urban
living, though elements of self-sufficiency might become
increasingly relevant in more remote areas.
The future by definition is uncertain; however, as in the past,
British ingenuity will once again be central to our success in
overcoming technical challenges and delivering homes that
are right for the coming decades.
Summary charts
GB Houses built Dwelling stock by tenure, England
Houses completed (thousands) 1968 Peak of GB house 1914 1938 1961 1981 1999 2009
building (413,700 homes)
400
Owner-
10% 32% 44% 58% 69% 66%
occupied
300
Privately-
89% 57% 32% 11% 10% 16%
rented
200
Rented
from local 1% 11% 24% 28% 15% 8%
100 authorities
Rented from
Housing 0% 0% 0% 2% 5% 9%
2000
1900
1990
1980
1930
1920
2010
1950
1960
1940
1970
1910
Associations
Source: British Historical Statistics by Brian R. Mitchell. Cambridge University Press, 1988, p. 390 and Office
for National Statistics Table 212 House building permanent dwellings completed in GB per year Source: see page 27
NHBC first time buyers ability to buy index UK fertility rate

1901 1911 1921 1931
Greater ability
*
130
110
1.8
2.8 2.4
3.5
90
70 1941 1951 1961 1971
50
Lesser ability 1.8 2.6
30 2.4 2.6
1978
1980
1990
2000
1984
1986
1988
1992
1998
2004
2008
2006
1982
1996
2002
1994
2010
1981 1991 2001 2005
The index is calculated taking into account the average deposit a first time buyer must pay, average income
and mortgage rates. The higher the index the greater the ability to buy. 1.7 1.8 1.6 1.7
*Up until the end of 1999 the earning index used was that for males over 21 in full time employment. From
2000 onwards it is the index for all full-time employees on adult rates. The change typically reduces the index
by five points Source: Total Fertility Rate, England and Wales, 1841-2005 by Ian Diamond. GSS Conference Paper,
Source: NHBC New House-Building Statistics Economic and Social Research Council, 2007
NHBC Foundation Homes through the decades Summary charts 41
Average winter internal temperatures in oC Annual household energy spend

Average internal
temperature (centrally
heated and non-
centrally heated homes)
4-bed detached 2,460 1,050 620
3-bed semi-detached 1,670 780 450
3-bed mid terrace 1,430 760 480
1-bed ground floor flat 940 500 380
18.5
12.0
16.3
13.3
13.4
13.0
16.9
16.1
17.7
Victorian New build Future
with some modern day Built to 2013 regulations 2016 aspirations
improvements
2000
2005
1990
1980
1995
2010
1985
1970
1975
Energy bills. How modern low energy homes (and the very low energy homes planned from 2016) reduce
Source: United Kingdom housing energy fact file by Jason Palmer and Ian Cooper. Department of Energy & costs for homeowners.
Climate Change, 2013, p. 136 These indicative costs have been calculated by the Zero Carbon Hub
Increase in single person & single parent households, England UK projected increase in numbers of elderly people
People Estimated total
+600,000 population of early
(millions)
Victorian England
Increases by 157% to
Increase in 3.6 million by 2036
single person +300,000 12
(Largest growth of any
households age band)
Aged 85+
8
2011 2016 2021 +1 million
Increase in Increases by 63% to 9.8

Aged 70-84
single parent million by 2036
households +200,000 4
+400,000
2016
2020
2028
2032
2036
2024
2012
Two key 21st century household demographic changes: projected growth in single person and single parent Our ageing population. Growth in the numbers of elderly and very elderly people in the UK. Even in the medium
households. Both trends increase the housing need, but what kinds of housing should be created for each? term, up to 2036, the projected changes are staggering
Source: Household Interim Projections 2011-2021, Department for Communities and Local Government, 2013 Source: National Population Projections, Office for National Statistics, 2013.
42 NHBC Foundation Homes through the decades
Background reading and information Index

The life of the British home: An architectural history by Addison Act, 6, 8 Modernist Movement, 10, 12
Edward Denison and Guang Yu Ren. John Wiley & Sons, 2012 Affordability, 34, 40 Modern methods of construction
A history of modern Britain by Andrew Marr. Pan, 2006 Ageing population, 39, 41 (MMC), 17
Agrment Board, 22 New Towns, 14
The Construction of Houses by Duncan Marshall, Derek Negative equity, 30
Air quality, 6, 35
Worthing, Nigel Dann and Roger Heath. Estates Gazette, fifth
Apartment living, 20, 23, 24 Noise in homes, 24
edition 2013
Arts and Crafts Movement, 4 Non-traditional housing, 15, 16, 17
The Effects of High-Rise Living on Residential, Social and Automatic homes, 38 Open-plan living, 12
Health Indicators and Outcomes in Glasgow: Results from Overheating, 35
Boom and bust, 25, 30
the GoWell Programme by Phil Mason & Ade Kearns, Elise
Brownfield sites, 29 Owner-occupied homes, 27, 40
Whitely and Carol Tannahill www.geography.dur.ac.uk/Conf/
Portals/124/Wednesday/Phil%20Mason.pdf Building Act 1984, 28 Parker Morris standards, 22
Building Regulations, 22 Philanthropy, 6, 11
Energy efficient fixed appliances and building control Planning, 14, 29
Camden Housing Estate, 23
systems, NF43. NHBC Foundation, 2012
Cholera, 2 Prefabrication, 16, 17, 18
Overheating in homes: Understanding overheating where Concrete houses, 15, 16, 18 Private house building, 8, 12
to start, NF44. NHBC Foundation, 2012 Council housing, 11, 27, 40 Private renting, 8, 27, 40
Sound progress: A review of homeowner feedback on noise Consumer Code, 35 Public health, 5, 6
in new homes, NF56. NHBC Foundation, 2014 Construction, 2, 8, 14, 20, 26, 32 Right to Buy policy, 11, 26, 27
NF43, 44 and 55 are available from www.nhbcfoundation.org Demographic changes, 3, 41 Ronan Point, 24
Design for Manufacture, 34 Safety in the home, 5, 30
Brookwood Farm and Greenwatt Way. Advanced technology Secured by Design, 29
Energy costs, 33, 41
with traditional and modern exteriors respectively
Energy efficiency, 28, 35 Single parent families, 41
www.zerocarbonhub.org/building-profiles
Garden cities, 4 Single person occupancy, 41
Green belts, 17 Slums, 2
Jerry building, 12 Social housing, 11
Places to visit
Homes for heroes, 6 Span housing, 24
National Trust Birmingham back to backs Household size, 3 Steel houses, 15
www.nationaltrust.org.uk/birmingham-back-to-backs/ Sustainable Communities Action, 34
Housing Associations, 11, 26
BRE Innovation Park, Watford. Experience sustainable new Housing Association renting, 27, 40 Technology, 29, 38
homes www.bre.co.uk/innovationpark/ Housing output, 21, 40 Tenure patterns, 27, 40
The Geffrye Museum of the Home, London. Explore 400 High-rise history, 20, 23, 24 Timber-frame housing, 15, 18
years of history of the home www.geffrye-museum.org.uk Local authority renting, 27, 40 Tower blocks, 19
Low carbon homes, 35 Suburban expansion, 8, 9
Thrasher Street, Aylesbury. Good examples of British Iron and
Steel Federation (BISF) steel frame homes from the immediate Metro-land, 11 Ventilation, 6
post war period Mixed accommodation, 14 Warranty, 36
Moderne, 10, 11 Zero Carbon Hub, 35
43
About the NHBC Foundation

The NHBC Foundation, established in 2006, provides high
quality research and practical guidance to support the house-
building industry as it addresses the challenges of delivering
21st century new homes. To date we have published over 60
reports on a wide variety of topics, including the sustainability
agenda, homeowner issues and risk management.
The NHBC Foundation is also involved in a programme of
positive engagement with the Government, academics and
other key stakeholders, focusing on current and pressing
issues relevant to house building.
To find out more about the NHBC Foundation, please
visit www.nhbcfoundation.org. If you have feedback or
suggestions for new areas of research, please contact
info@nhbcfoundation.org.
NHBC is the standard-setting body and leading warranty
and insurance provider for new homes in the UK, providing
risk management services to the house-building and wider
construction industry. All profits are reinvested in research
and work to improve the construction standard of new homes
for the benefit of homeowners. NHBC is independent of the
Government and builders. To find out more about NHBC,
please visit www.nhbc.co.uk.
NHBC Foundation Expert Panel
The NHBC Foundations research programme is guided by an
Expert Panel of senior representatives from Government and
industry:
Rt. Hon. Nick Raynsford MP Chairman of the NHBC Richard Hill Chief Executive, Spectrum Housing Group
Foundation and Expert Panel
Neil Jefferson Director, NHBC and Chief Executive,
Jane Briginshaw Head of Design and Sustainability, HCA Zero Carbon Hub
Andrew Burke Policy Officer, National Housing Federation Rod MacEachrane NHBC Director (retired)
Richard Cook Head of Residential Development, Lend Lease Robin Nicholson CBE Senior Partner, Cullinan Studio
Claire Curtis-Thomas Chief Executive, Tadj Oreszczyn Professor of Energy and Environment and
British Board of Agrment Director of the UCL Energy Institute,
University College London
Hywel Davies Technical Director,
Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE) Geoff Pearce Director of Development and Property,
East Thames Group
Andrew Day Director, Architecture, Design & Sustainability
New Homes and Communities, Mike Quinton Chief Executive, NHBC
Countryside Properties (UK) Ltd
Helen Saunders Group Marketing Director,
Russell Denness Group Chief Executive, Crest Nicholson plc
Croudace Homes Group
Steve Turner Head of Communications,
Michael Finn Design and Technical Director, Home Builders Federation
Barratt Developments plc
Andy von Bradsky Chairman, PRP Architects LLP
Cliff Fudge Technical Director, H+H UK Ltd
Karl Whiteman Divisional Managing Director, Berkeley Homes
Richard Hardy Managing Director, BRE Global
Tony Woodward Managing Director, Kingerlee Homes
Richard Harral Head of Technical Policy,
Neil Smith Head of Research and Innovation, NHBC, and
Building Regulation and Standards Division,
Secretary to the Expert Panel, NHBC Foundation
Department for Communities and Local Government
62 NHBC Foundation
ISBN 978-0-9930691-3-0

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Homes through the decades

The making of modern housing

Acknowledgements Image credits

Background reading and information 42 Rt. Hon. Nick Raynsford MP

Victorian mains sewers, flushing

Public health concerns drove the

Henry Roberts Model Home

How we built then Signs of the times

New features of the time

1930s Two children

Tenure 1914 Homes then

B o lic bili o r k H e bli s

Health and homes today

Themes Looking forward from 1918

British people embraced private

New housing was typically of

In the mid 1930s, concerns over

How we built then Signs of the times

New features of the time

The Minster Tang Hall

4 Medieval Crowded walled city, population about

1853 Following the arrival of the railways, the

Tenure 1938 Homes then

Social housing in the UK

Themes Looking forward from 1939

A large number of non-traditional

Centralised planning introduced

Successive Housing Manuals

How we built then Signs of the times

New features of the time

pr rec y, e ion and atio ed

Non-traditional housing today

Themes Looking forward from 1959

Public disapproval of tower

In 1964, Scotland introduced

Two further waves of New Towns

How we built then Signs of the times

New features of the time

Government of the day

Conservative/Lib Dem Coalition

Tenure 1961 Homes then

Apartment living Energy efficiency 1979

Themes Looking forward from 1979

The Right to Buy scheme was

There was a huge expansion in

Safety standards in homes were

How we built then Signs of the times

Loanda Close, Stonebridge Estate, Haggerston, London. Typical

New features of the time

Rented from Housing Associations

Tenure 1981 Homes then

Rented from Housing Associations

Technology informs design Energy efficiency 1999

Themes Looking forward from 1999

Potential economic impact of

Government supported the

The Zero Carbon Homes policy is

Low energy housing designs and

How we build now Signs of the times

Brooklands Avenue, Accordia Housing, Cambridge

New features of the time

1,430 3-bed mid terrace

940 1-bed ground floor flat

1,050 4-bed detached