Vector Valued Fxns Chaptr PDF

Vector-Valued Functions The Calculus of Vector-Valued Functions Motion in Space Curvature Tangent and Normal Vect
Calculus
Vector-Valued Functions
Outline
1 Vector-Valued Functions
2 The Calculus of Vector-Valued Functions
3 Motion in Space
4 Curvature
5 Tangent and Normal Vectors
6 Parametric Surfaces
Vector Valued Functions: An Example
To specified the path of the plane indicated in the figure, we

describe the planes location at any given time by the endpoint
of a vector called position vector
Figure: [9.1a] Airplanes flight Figure: [9.1b] Vectors indicating

path. planes position at several times.
Definition of Vector-Valued Functions

Definition (1.1)
A vector-valued function r(t) is a mapping from its domain
D R to its range R V3 , so that for each t in D, r(t) = v for
only one vector v V3 . We can always write a vector-valued
function as
r(t) = f (t)i + g(t)j + h(t)k,
for some scalar functions f , g and h (called the component

functions of r).
we can likewise define a vector-valued function r(t) in V2 by
r(t) = f (t)i + g(t)j
for some scalar function f and g.

Sketching the Curve Defined by a Vector-Valued

Function
Example (1.1)
Sketch a graph of the curve traced out by the endpoint of the
two-dimensional vector-valued function
r(t) = (t + 1)i + (t2 2)j.

The Trace of a Vector-Valued Function

In example 1.1, the curve traced out by the endpoint of the
vector-valued function
r(t) = (t + 1)i + (t2 2)j
is identical to the curve described by the parametric equations
x(t) = t + 1 and y(t) = t2 1
Figure: [9.2a] Some values of Figure: [9.2b] Curve defined by

r(t) = (t + 1)i + (t2 2)j. r(t) = (t + 1)i + (t2 2)j.
A Vector-Valued Function Defining an Ellipse
Example (1.2)
Sketch a graph of the curve traced out by the endpoint of the
vector-valued function r(t) = 4 cos t i 3 sin t j, t R.
Figure: [9.3] Curve defined by r(t) = 4 cos t i 3 sin t j.

A Vector-Valued Function Defining an Elliptical Helix

Example (1.3)
Plot the curve traced out by the vector-valued function
r(t) = sin t i 3 cos t j + 2t k, for t 0.
Figure: [9.4a] Elliptical helix, Figure: [9.4b] Computer sketch:

r(t) = sin t i 3 cos t j + 2t k. r(t) = sin t i 3 cos t j + 2t k.
A Vector-Valued Function Defining a Line

Example (1.4)
Plot the curve traced out by the vector-valued function
r(t) = h3 + 2t, 5 3t, 2 4ti, t R.
Figure: [9.5] Straight line: r(t) = h3 + 2t, 5 3t, 2 4ti.

Matching a Vector-Valued Function to Its Graph (I)
Example (1.5)
Match each of the vector-valued functions
r1 (t) = hcos t, ln t, sin ti, r2 (t) = ht cos t, t sin t, ti,
r3 (t) = h3 sin 2t, t, ti and r4 (t) = h5 sin3 t, 5 cos3 t, ti with the
corresponding computer-generated graph.
Matching a Vector-Valued Function to Its Graph (II)
r1 (t) = hcos t, ln t, sin ti r2 (t) = ht cos t, t sin t, ti

r3 (t) = h3 sin 2t, t, ti r4 (t) = h5 sin3 t, 5 cos3 t, ti
Matching a Vector-Valued Function to Its Graph (III)

r1 (t) = hcos t, ln t, sin ti r2 (t) = ht cos t, t sin t, ti
r3 (t) = h3 sin 2t, t, ti r4 (t) = h5 sin3 t, 5 cos3 t, ti
Arc Length in R2
Recall from section 5.3 that if f and f 0 are continuous on the

interval [a, b], then the arc length of the curve y = f (x) on that
interval is given by
Z bq
s= 1 + (f 0 (x))2 dx
a
Consider a curve defined parametrically by x = f (t) and

y = g(t), where f , f 0 , g and g0 are all continuous for t [a, b]. If
the curve is traversed exactly once as t increases from a to b,
then the arc length is given
Z bq
s= (f 0 (x))2 + (g0 (x))2 dt
a
Arc Length in R3
Suppose that a curve in three dimensions is traced out by the

end point of the vector-valued function
r(t) =< f (t), g(t), h(t) >,
where f , f 0 , g, g0 , h and h0 are all continuous for t [a, b] and

where the curve is traversed exactly once as t increases from a
to b. For this situation, the arc length is given by
Z bq
s= (f 0 (x))2 + (g0 (x))2 + (h0 (x))2 dt
a
The integral can only rarely be computed exactly and we must

typically be satisfied with a numerical approximation.
Approximating the Arc Length of a Curve in R3

We approximate the curve by a number of line segments and
use the distance formula to yield an approximation to the arc
length. As the number of segments increases without bound,
the sum of the distances approaches the actual arc length.
Figure: [9.7a] Figure: [9.7b] Figure: [9.7c]

Approximate arc Approximate arc Improved arc length
length in R2 . length in R3 . approximation.
Computing Arc Length in R3

Example (1.6)
Find the arc length of the curve traced out by the endpoint of
the vector-valued function r(t) = h2t, ln t, t2 i, for 1 t e.
Figure: [9.8] The curve defined by r(t) = h2t, ln t, t2 i.

Approximating Arc Length in R3
Example (1.7)
Find the arc length of the curve traced out by the endpoint of
the vector-valued function r(t) = he2t , sin t, ti, for 0 t 2.
Finding Parametric Equations for an Intersection of Surfaces
Example (1.8)
Find parametric equations for
pthe curve determined by the
intersection of the cone z = x2 + y2 and the plane y + z = 2.
2
Figure: [9.9b] x = t, y = 1 t4 ,
p
Figure: [9.9a] z = x2 + y2 and
2
y + z = 2. z = 1 + t4 .
Limit of a Vector-Valued Function (I)

For a vector-valued function
r(t) =< f (t), g(t), h(t) >,
If we write
lim r(t) = u,
ta
we mean that as t gets closer and closer to a, the vector r(t) is

getting closer and closer to the vector u. If we write
u =< u1 , u2 , u3 >, this means that
lim r(t) = lim < f (t), g(t), h(t) >= u =< u1 , u2 , u3 >
ta ta
Notice that for this to occur, we must have that
f (t) u1 , g(t) u2 , and h(t) u3 .

Limit of a Vector-Valued Function (II)
Definition (2.1)
For a vector-valued function r(t) = h f (t), g(t), h(t)i, the limit of
r(t) as t approaches a is given by
D E
lim r(t) = limh f (t), g(t), h(t)i = lim f (t), lim g(t), lim h(t) ,
ta ta ta ta ta
provided all of the indicated limits exist. If any one of the limits
indicated on the right-hand side of (2.1) fails to exist, then
lim r(t) does not exist.
ta
Finding the Limit of a Vector-Valued Function
Example (2.1)
Find limht2 + 1, 5 cos t, sin ti.
t0
A Limit That Does Not Exist
Example (2.2)

2t 2 1
Find lim e + 5, t + 2t 3, .
t0 t
Continuity of a Vector-Valued Function (I)
Recall that for a scalar function f , we say that f is continuous at

a if and only if
lim f (t) = f (a)
ta
We defined the continuity of vector-valued functions in the

same way.
Definition (2.2)
The vector-valued function r(t) = h f (t), g(t), h(t)i, is
continuous at t = a whenever
lim r(t) = r(a)

ta
(i.e., whenever the limit and the value of the vector-valued

function are the same).
Continuity of a Vector-Valued Function (III)

Notice that in terms of the components of r, the definition says
that t is continuous at a whenever
lim < f (t), g(t), h(t) >=< f (a), g(a), h(a) >
ta
Further since
lim < f (t), g(t), h(t) >=< lim f (a), lim g(a), lim h(a) >
ta ta ta ta
It follows that r(t) is continuous at t = a if and only if
< lim f (t), lim g(t), lim h(t) >=< f (a), g(a), h(a) >
ta ta ta
Note that this occurs if and only if
lim f (t) = f (a), lim g(t) = g(a), and lim h(t) = f (a).
ta ta ta
The above result is summarized in Theorem 2.1.

Continuity of a Vector-Valued Function (IV)
Theorem (2.1)
A vector-valued function r(t) = h f (t), g(t), h(t)i is continuous at
t = a if and only if all of f , g and h are continuous at t = a.
Notice that Theorem 2.1 says that if you want to determine
whether or not a vector-valued function is continuous, you need
only check the continuity of each component function.
Determining Where a Vector-Valued Function Is

Continuous
Example (2.3)
Determine for what values of t the vector-valued function
r(t) = he5t , ln(t + 1), cos ti is continuous.
A Vector-Valued Function with Infinitely Many

Discontinuities
Example (2.4)
Determine for what values of t the vector-valued function
1
r(t) = htan t, |t + 3|, t2 i is continuous.
The Derivative of a Vector-Valued Function (I)

Recall that we defined the derivative of a scalar function f to be
f (t + t) f (t)
f 0 (t) = lim
t0 t
Similarly, we define the derivative of a vector-valued function as
follows.
Definition (2.3)
The derivative r0 (t) of the vector-valued function r(t) is defined
by
r(t + t) r(t)
r0 (t) = lim ,
t0 t
for any values of t for which the limit exists. When the limit
exists for t = a, we say that r is differentiable at t = a.
The Derivative of a Vector-Valued Function (II)
Theorem (2.2)
Let r(t) = h f (t), g(t), h(t)i and suppose that the components
f , g and h are all differentiable for some value of t. Then r is
also differentiable at that value of t and its derivative is given by
r0 (t) = h f 0 (t), g0 (t), h0 (t)i.

Theorem 2.2 says that the derivative of a vector-valued function
is found directly from the derivatives of the individual
components.
Finding the Derivative of a Vector-Valued Function
Example (2.5)
Find the derivative of r(t) = hsin(t2 ), ecos t , t ln ti.
Rules for Computing Derivatives of Vector-Valued

Functions
Theorem (2.3)
Suppose that r(t) and s(t) are differentiable vector-valued
functions, f (t) is a differentiable scalar function and c is any
scalar constant. Then
d
1 [r(t) + s(t)] = r0 (t) + s0 (t)
dt
d
2 [cr(t)] = cr0 (t)
dt
d
3 [ f (t)r(t)] = f 0 (t)r(t) + f (t)r0 (t)
dt
d
4 [r(t) s(t)] = r0 (t) s(t) + r(t) s0 (t) and
dt
d
5 [r(t) s(t)] = r0 (t) s(t) + r(t) s0 (t).
dt
A Graphical Interpretation of the Derivative of a

Vector-Valued Function (I)
Recall that the derivative of r(t) at

t = a is given by
r(a + t) a
r0 (a) = lim
t0 t
Notice that the endpoint of the
vector-valued function r(t) traces out
a curve C in R3 as shown in the
figure.
Observe that the vector
r(a + t) r(t)
points in the same
t
direction as r(a + t) r(t).

Vector-Valued Function (II)
r(a + t) r(t)
If we take smaller and smaller value of t, will
t
approach r0 (t).

Vector-Valued Function (III)
As t 0, notice that the vector

r(a + t) r(t)
approaches a
t
vector that is tangent to the curve C
at the terminal point of r(t). We refer
to r0 (a) as the tangent vector to the
curve C at the point corresponding
to t = a.
Observe that r0 (a) lies along the
tangent line to the curve at t = a and
points in the direction of the
orientation of C.

Vector-Valued Function (IV)
Drawing Position and Tangent Vectors

Example (2.6)
For r(t) = h cos 2t, sin 2ti, plot the curve traced out by the
endpoint of r(t) and draw the position vector and tangent vector
at t = 4 .
Figure: [9.11] Position and tangent vectors.

||r(t)|| = constant r0 (t) r(t)
Theorem (2.4)
kr(t)k = constant if and only if r(t) and r0 (t) are orthogonal, for
all t.
Theorem 2.4 implies that:
1 in two (three) dimensions, if ||r(t)|| = c, then the curved
traced out by the position r(t) must lie on the circle
(sphere) of radius c, centered at the origin, and
2 the path traced out by r(t) lies on a circle (sphere) centered
at the origin if and only if the tangent vector is orthogonal
to the position vector at every point on the curve.
Antiderivatives of the Vector-Valued Functions
Definition (2.4)
The vector-valued function R(t) is an antiderivative of the
vector-valued function r(t) whenever R0 (t) = r(t).
Notice that if r(t) =< f (t), g(t), h(t) > and f , g and h have
antiderivatives F, G and H, respectively, then
d
< F(t), G(t), H(t) >=< F 0 (t), G0 (t), H 0 (t) >=< f (t), g(t), h(t) >
dt
That is, < F(t), G(t), H(t) > is an antiderivative of r(t). In fact,
< F(t) + c1 , G(t) + c2 , H(t) + c3 > is also an antiderivative of r(t),
for any choice of constants, c1 , c2 and c3 .
Indefinite Integral of a Vector-Valued Function
Definition (2.5)
If R(t) is any antiderivative of r(t), the indefinite integral of r(t)
is defined to be
Z
r(t)dt = R(t) + c,
where c is an arbitrary constant vector.

As in the scalar case, R(t) + c is the most general antiderivative
of r(t). Notice that this says that
Z Z Z Z Z
r(t) dt = < f (t), g(t), h(t) >= f (t) dt, g(t) dt, h(t) dt
That is, you integrate a vector-valued function by integrating

each of the individual components.
Evaluating the Indefinite Integral of a Vector-Valued

Function
Example (2.7)
Z D E
2
Evaluate the indefinite integral t2 + 2, sin 2t, 4tet dt.
Definite Integral of a Vector-Valued Function
Similarly, we defined the definite integral of a vector-valued

function in the obvious way.
Definition (2.6)
For the vector-valued function r(t) = h f (t), g(t), h(t)i, we define
the definite integral of r(t) by
*Z +
Z b Z b b Z b Z b
r(t)dt = h f (t), g(t), h(t)idt = f (t)dt, g(t)dt, h(t)dt .
a a a a a
Notice that this says that the definite integral of a vector-valued

function r(t) is simply the vector whose components are the
definite integrals of the corresponding components of r(t).
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus for Vector-Valued

Functions
Theorem (2.5)
Suppose that R(t) is an antiderivative of r(t) on the interval
[a, b]. Then,
Z b
r(t)dt = R(b) R(a).
a
Evaluating the Definite Integral of a Vector-Valued

Function
Example (2.8)
Z 1
sin t, 6t2 + 4t dt.

Evaluate
0
Motion in Space (I)
Suppose that an object moves along

a curve described parametrically by
C : x = f (t), y = g(t), z = h(t)
where t [a, b]. We can think of the

curve as being traced out by the
endpoint of the vector-valued
function
r(t) =< f (t), g(t), h(t) > .

Figure: [9.12] Position,
velocity and acceleration
vectors.
Motion in Space (II)
Differentiating r(t), we have
r0 (t) =< f 0 (t), g0 (t), h0 (t) >
and the magnitude of this

vector-valued function is
q
||r(t)|| = [f 0 (t)]2 + [g0 (t)]2 + [h0 (t)]2

vectors.
Motion in Space (III)
Recall that the arc length of the

portion of the curve from u = t0 up to
u = t is given by
Z tq
s(t) = [f 0 (u)]2 + [g0 (u)]2 + [h0 (u)]2 dt.
t0
If we differentiate both sides of the

above equation, we get
q
s0 (t) = [f 0 (t)]2 + [g0 (t)]2 + [h0 (t)]2
= ||r0 (t)||. Figure: [9.12] Position,
vectors.
Motion in Space (IV)
Since s(t) represent arc length,

s0 (t) gives the instantaneous
rate of change of arc length
with respect to time, i.e., the
speed of the object as it moves
along the curve.

vectors.
Motion in Space (V)
For any given t, r0 (t) is a

tangent vector pointing in the
direction of the orientation of C
and whose magnitude gives the
speed of the object. We call r(t)
the velocity vector, usually
denoted v(t).

vectors.
Motion in Space (VI)
We refer to the derivative of the

velocity vector v0 (t) = r00 (t) as
the acceleration vector,
denoted a(t).

vectors.
Finding Velocity and Acceleration Vectors

Example (3.1)
Find the velocity and acceleration vectors if the position of an
object moving in the xy-plane is given by r(t) = ht3 , 2t2 i.
Figure: [9.13] Position, velocity and acceleration vectors.

Finding Velocity and Position from Acceleration

Example (3.2)
Find the velocity and position of an object at any time t, given
that its acceleration is a(t) = h6t, 12t + 2, et i, its initial velocity is
v(0) = h2, 0, 1i and its initial position is r(0) = h0, 3, 5i.
Figure: [9.14] Position, velocity and acceleration vectors.

Newtons Second Law of Motion
The Newtons second law of motion states that the net force
acting on an object equals the product of the mass and the
acceleration.
Using vector notation, we have the vector form of Newtons
second law:
F = ma
Here, m is the mass, a is the acceleration vector and F is the
vector representing the net force acting on the object.
Newtons Second Law of Motion and Linear

Momentum
When a force F(t) applies on an object of constant mass m, the
motion of the object obeys the Newtons second law of motion,
F(t) = ma(t)
where a is the acceleration of the object.

Now, integrating the Newtons second law with respect to time
we have
Z t2 Z t2
F(t) dt = m a dt
t1 t1
= mv(t)|tt21 = mv(t2 ) mv(t1 )
In the last expression, the term mv(t) is referred to as the linear

momentum of the object.
Rotational Version of Newtons Second Law of Motion
In the case of an object rotating in two dimensions, the primary

variable that we track is an angle of displacement, denoted by
. For a rotating body, the angle measured from fixed ray
changes with time t, so that the angle is a function (t). We
define the angular velocity to be (t) = 0 (t) and the angular
acceleration to be
(t) = 0 (t) = 00 (t)
The equation of rotation motion is then
= I
where I is the moment of initial of a body and is the torque

causing the rotation.
Rotational Version of Newtons Second Law of Motion

and Angular Momentum
For rotational motion in three dimensions, the calculations are
somewhat more complicated. Recall that we had defined the
torque due to a force F applied at position r to be
=rF
Integrating the above equation with respect to time, we yield

Z t2 Z t2 Z t2
dt = r F dt = v mv + r ma dt
t1 t1 t1
Z t2 Z t2
= v0 mv + r mv0 dt = (r mv)0 dt
t1 t1
= (r mv)|tt21
The term r mv is referred to as the angular linear momentum

Finding the Force Acting on an Object

Example (3.3)
Find the force acting on an object moving along a circular path
of radius b centered at the origin, with constant angular speed.
Figure: [9.15a] Motion along a Figure: [9.15b] Centripetal force.

circle.
Analyzing the Motion of a Projectile

Example (3.4)
A projectile is launched with an initial speed of 140 feet per
second from ground level at an angle of 4 to the horizontal.
Assuming that the only force acting on the object is gravity (i.e.,
there is no air resistance, etc.), find the maximum altitude, the
horizontal range and the speed at impact of the projectile.
Figure: [9.16a] Initial velocity Figure: [9.16b] Path of a

vector. projectile.
The Rotational Motion of a Merry-Go-Round
Example (3.5)
A stationary merry-go-round of radius 5 feet is started in motion
by a push consisting of a force of 10 pounds on the outside
edge, tangent to the circular edge of the merry-goround, for 1
second. The moment of inertia of the merry-go-round is I = 25.
Find the resulting angular velocity of the merry-go-round.
Relating Torque and Angular Momentum
Example (3.6)
Show that torque equals the derivative of angular momentum.
Analyzing the Motion of a Projectile in Three

Dimensions (I)
Example (3.7)
A projectile of mass 1 kg is
launched from ground level
toward the east at 200
meters/second, at an angle of

6 to the horizontal. If a gusting
northerly wind applies a
steady force of 2 newtons to
the projectile, find the landing
location of the projectile and Figure: [9.17a] The initial velocity
its speed at impact. and wind velocity vectors.
Analyzing the Motion of a Projectile in Three

Dimensions (II)
Figure: [9.17b] Path of the Figure: [9.17c] Projection of path

projectile. onto the xz-plane.
Arc Length of a Curve

Recall that for the curve traced out by the endpoint of the
vector-valued function
r(t) =< f (t), g(t), h(t) >, for a t b,
we define the arc length parameter s(t) to be the arc length of
that portion of the curve from u = a up to u = t, i.e.,
Z tq
s(t) = [f 0 (u)]2 + g0 (u)]2 + h0 (u)]2 du
0
Recognizing that
q
[f 0 (u)]2 + g0 (u)]2 + h0 (u)]2 = ||r0 (u)||,
we can write this more simply as

Z t
s(t) = ||r0 (u)|| du
a
Parameterizing a Curve in Terms of Arc Length
Example (4.1)
Find an arc length parameterization of the circle of radius 4
centered at the origin.
Unit Tangent Vector (I)
Consider the curve C traced out by

the endpoint of the vector-valued
function r(t). Recall that for each t,
v(t) = r0 (t) can be thought of as both
the velocity vector and a tangent
vector, pointing in the direction of
motion (i.e., the orientation of C).
Figure: [9.18] Unit tangent
vectors.
Unit Tangent Vector (II)
Notice that
r0 (t)
T(t) =
||r0 (t)||
is also a tangent vector, but has

length one (||T(t)|| = 1). We call T is
a tangent vector of length one
pointing in the direction of the
orientation of C. Figure: [9.18] Unit tangent
vectors.
Finding a Unit Tangent Vector
Example (4.2)
Find the unit tangent vector to the curve determined by
r(t) = ht2 + 1, ti.
Figure: [9.18] Unit tangent vectors.

Tangent Vectors and "Sharpness" of Curves (I)

In the following figures, we show two curves both connecting
the points A and B. The curve in Figure 9.19b indicates a much
sharper turn than the curve in Figure 9.19a. The question
before us is to see how to mathematically describe this degree
of "sharpness".
Figure: [9.19a] Gentle curve. Figure: [9.19b] Sharp curve.

Tangent Vectors and "Sharpness" of Curves (II)

In the same figures, we have draw in a number of unit tangent
vectors at equally spaced points on the curve. Notice that the
unit tangent vectors change very slowly along the gentle curve
in Figure 9.19c, but twist and turn quite rapidly in the vicinity of
the sharp curve in Figure 9.19d.
Figure: [9.19c] Unit tangent Figure: [9.19d] Unit tangent

vectors. vectors.
Tangent Vectors and "Sharpness" of Curves (III)
Based on the analysis, the rate of change of the unit tangent

vectors with respect to the arc length along the curve will give
us a measure of sharpness.
Figure: [9.19c] Unit tangent Figure: [9.19d] Unit tangent

vectors. vectors.
Curvature of a Curve (I)
Definition (4.1)
The curvature of a curve is the scalar quantity

dT
= ds .

Computing the curvature of given curve by the definition

is not a simple matter. To do so, we would need to first find
the arc length parameter and the unit tangent vector T(t),
rewrite T(t) in terms of the arc length parameter s and then
differentiate with respect to s
Curvature of a Curve (II)

Observe that by the chain rule
dT dT ds
T 0 (t) = = ,
dt ds dt
so that
dT kT 0 (t)k

=
ds = ds

dt
Recall that Z t
s(t) = ||r0 (u)||du
a
By the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus,
ds
= ||r0 (t)||
dt
Hence, we have
||T 0 (t)||
=
||r0 (t)||
Finding the Curvature of a Straight Line
Example (4.3)
Find the curvature of a straight line.
Finding the Curvature of a Circle
Example (4.4)
Find the curvature for a circle of radius a.
Another Way of Computing the Curvature of a Curve
Theorem (4.1)
The curvature of the curve traced out by the vector-valued
function r(t) is given by
kr0 (t) r00 (t)k

= .
kr0 (t)k3
This is a relatively simple matter to use this formula to

compute the curvature for nearly any three-dimensional
curve.
Finding the Curvature of a Helix

Example (4.5)
Find the curvature of the helix traced out by
r(t) = h2 sin t, 2 cos t, 4ti.
Figure: [9.20] Circular helix.

Curvature for the plane curve y = f (x)

For a plane curve y = f (x), we can derive a simple formula for
the curvature. Notice that such a curve is traced out by the
vector-valued function r(t) =< t, f (t), 0 > in the xy-plane.
Further,
r0 (t) =< 1, f 0 (t), 0 > and r00 (t) =< 0, f 00 (t), 0 >
From Theorem 4.1, we have
kr0 (t) r00 (t)k k< 1, f 0 (t), 0 > < 0, f 00 (t), 0 >k
= =
kr0 (t)k3 k< 1, f 0 (t), 0 >k3
|f 00 (t)|
=
{1 + [f 0 (t)]2 }3/2
Replacing t by x, we write the curvature as
|f 00 (x)|
=
{1 + [f 0 (x)]2 }3/2
Finding the Curvature of a Parabola
Example (4.6)
Find the curvature of the parabola y = ax2 + bx + c. Also, find
the limiting value of the curvature as x .
Stationary and Moving Frame of Reference
Up to this point, we have used a stationary frame of reference

for all of our work with vectors. That is, all the vector are in
terms of the standard unit basis vectors i, j and k. In this
section we introduce a moving frame of reference which is
suitable for describing the motion of a moving object.
TNB Frame of Reference (I)
Consider an object moving along the

curved traced out by a vector-valued
function r =< f (t), g(t), h(t) >. To
define a reference frame that moves
with the object, we will need to have
three mutually orthogonal unit
vectors at each point on the curve.
Figure: [9.21] Principal unit

normal vectors.
TNB Frame of Reference (II)
One of these vectors should be

pointing in the direction of motion,
i.e., in the direction of the orientation
of the curve. Since
r0
T=
kr0 k
is a vector pointing in the direction

of motion, T can be used as one of
the three mutually orthogonal unit
vectors.
normal vectors.
TNB Frame of Reference (III)
Recall that T is a unit vector, i.e.,

kTk = 1. Hence, from Theorem 2.4,
we have
T T 0 = 0,
implying that T and T 0 are
orthogonal. This gives us a second
unit vector in our moving frame of
reference, as in Definition 5.1.

normal vectors.
TNB Frame of Reference (IV)

Principle Unit Normal Vector
Definition (5.1)
The principal unit normal vector N(t) is a unit vector having
the same direction as T0 (t) and is defined by
T0 (t)
N(t) = .
kT0 (t)k
TNB Frame of Reference (V)
Recall that for a given curve traced out by r, the arc length
parameter s(t) is given by
Z t
s(t) = kr0 (u)kdu
a
Note that
ds
= kr0 (t)k > 0
dt
This implies that
ds ds
=
dt dt
TNB Frame of Reference (VI)
From the chain, we have

dT dT ds
T 0 (t) = = .
dt ds dt
This gives us
dT ds dT
T 0 (t) ds dt 1 dT
N(t) = = = ds =
kT 0 (t)k dT ds dT ds
k k k k
ds dt ds
where we have used the definition of curvature.

TNB Frame of Reference (VII)
The expression
1 dT
N(t) =
ds
is not a practically useful formula for
computing N. However, it can be
used to determine the direction of
N(t). Since > 0, N has the same
dT dT
direction as . Notice that is
ds ds
the instantaneous rate of change of
the unit tangent vector with respect
to the arc length. Figure: [9.21] Principal unit
normal vectors.
TNB Frame of Reference (VIII)
dT
This says that points in the
ds
direction in which T is turning as arc
length increases. That is, N(t) will
always point to the concave side of
the curve.

normal vectors.
TNB Frame of Reference (IX)
To get a third unit vector orthogonal to both T and N, we simply

take their cross product. This leads to the following definition.
Definition (5.2)
We define the binormal vector B(t) to be
B(t) = T(t) N(t).

Notice that since T and N are unit vectors and orthogonal to
each other, the magnitude of B is 1.
TNB Frame of Reference (X)
This triple of three unit vectors T(t),

N(t) and B(t) forms a frame of
reference, called the TNB frame (or
the moving trihedral), that moves
along the curve defined as r(t). This
moving frame of reference has
particular importance in a branch of
mathematics call differential
geometry.
Figure: [9.24] The TNB
frame.
Finding Unit Tangent and Principal Unit Normal Vectors
Example (5.1)
Find the unit tangent and principal unit normal vectors to the
curve defined by r(t) = ht2 , ti.
Figure: [9.22] Unit tangent and principal unit normal vectors.

Finding Unit Tangent and Principal Unit Normal Vectors
Example (5.2)
Find the unit tangent and principal unit normal vectors to the
curve determined by r(t) = hsin 2t, cos 2t, ti.
Figure: [9.23] Unit tangent and principal unit normal vectors.

Finding the Binormal Vector

Example (5.3)
Find the binormal vector B(t) for the curve traced out by
r(t) = hsin 2t, cos 2t, ti.
Figure: [9.25] The TNB frame for r(t) = hsin 2t, cos 2t, ti.
Normal Plane and Osculating Plane
For each value of t, the plane determined by N and B is

called the normal plane. By definition, the normal plane to
a curve at a point contains all of the lines that are
orthogonal to the tangent vector at the given point on the
curve.
For each value of t, the plane determined by T and N is
called the osculating plane. For a two-dimensional curve,
the osculating plane is simply the xy-plane.
Osculating Circle (I)
For a given value of t, say t = t0 , if

the curvature of the curve at the
point P corresponding to t0 is
nonzero, then the circle of radius
1
= lying completely in the

osculating plane and whose center
1
lies a distance of from P along the

normal N(t) is called the osculating
circle (or the circle of curvature).
Figure: [9.26] Osculating
circle.
Osculating Circle (II)
Since the curvature of a circle is the

reciprocal of its radius, it implies that
the osculating circle has the same
tangent and curvature at P as the
curve. Further, because the normal
vector always points to the concave
side of the curve, the osculating
circle lies on the concave side of the
curve.

circle.
Osculating Circle (III)
In this sense, the osculating circle is

the circle that "best fits" the curve at
point P. The radius of the osculating
circle is called the radius of
curvature and the center of the
circle is called the center of
curvature.

circle.
Finding the Osculating Circle

Example (5.4)
Find the osculating circle for the parabola defined by
r(t) = ht2 , ti at t = 0.
Figure: [9.27] Osculating circle.

Tangential/Normal Component of Acceleration (I)
Suppose that the position of an object at time t is given by the

terminal point of the vector-valued function r(t). Recall that
r0 (t) ds
T= and kr0 (t)k = ,
kr0 (t)k dt
where s represents arc length. Then the velocity of the object is

given by
ds
v(t) = r0 (t) = kr0 (t)kT(t) = T(t).
dt
Further, we have the acceleration given by
d2 s

0 d ds ds
a(t) = v (t) = T(t) = 2 T(t) + T 0 (t)
dt dt dt dt
Tangential/Normal Component of Acceleration (II)

Recall that
T 0 (t)
N(t) = T 0 (t) = kT 0 (t)kN(t)
kT 0 (t)k
Further by the chain rule,

dT dT ds ds dT
0
kT (t)k = =
= = ds
dt ds dt dt ds dt
where we have used the definition of the curvature and the
ds
fact that > 0. So
dt
ds
T 0 (t) = kT 0 (t)kN(t) = N(t)
dt
and 2
d2 s

ds
a(t) = 2 T(t) + N(t)
dt dt
Tangential/Normal Component of Acceleration (III)

We have obtained the acceleration
vector as
2
d2 s ds
a(t) = + N(t)
dt2 dt
= aT T(t) + aN N(t)
Notice that since a(t) is written as a

sum of a vector parallel to T(t) and a
vector parallel to N(t), the vector a(t)
always lies in the osculating plane.
The coefficient of T is the tangential
Figure: [9.28] Tangential
component of acceleration aT and
and normal components of
the coefficient of N(t) is the normal acceleration.
component of acceleration aN .
A Strategy for Keeping the Car on the Road (I)
From Newtons second law of

motion, the net force acting on a
car at any time t is F(t) = ma.
Hence,
F(t) = ma(t)
2
d2 s

ds
= m 2 + m N(t)
dt dt
where m is mass of the car.
Figure: [9.29] Driving around

a curve.
A Strategy for Keeping the Car on the Road (II)

Observe that:
1 Since T points in the direction
of the path of motion, we want
the component of the force
acting in the direction of T to
be as large as possible
compared to the component of
the force acting in the direction
of the normal N.
2 If the normal component of the
force is too large, it may
exceed the normal component
of the force of friction between
the tires and the highway,
Figure: [9.29] Driving around
causing the car to skid off the
a curve.
road.
A Strategy for Keeping the Car on the Road (III)
1 To minimize the force applied

in the direction of N, we need
to make ds/dt small (reducing
speed).
2 To maximize the tangential
component of the force, we
need to make d2 s/dt2 as large
as possible. It implies that we
need to accelerate while in the
curve.
3 To make a turn it is better to
slow down before you enter
the curve and then accelerate Figure: [9.29] Driving around
while in the curve. a curve.
A Strategy for Keeping the Car on the Road (IV)
If we wait until we are in the curve

to slow down then
d2 s
<0
dt2
in the curve and so the tangential
component of the force is negative
(acting in the opposite direction of
T), making it harder to get through
the curve.
Figure: [9.30] Net force:
d2 s
< 0.
dt2
Finding Tangential and Normal Components of

Acceleration
Example (5.5)
Find the tangential and normal components of acceleration for
an object with position vector r(t) = h2 sin t, 2 cos t, 4ti.
Computing aT and aN (I)
1 It is simple to compute
d2 s
aT =
dt2
We must only calculating
ds/dt = kr0 (t)k and then
differentiate the result.
2 Computing aN is a bit more
complicated, since it requires you
to first compute the curvature . Figure: [9.31]
Components of a(t).
Computing aT and aN (II)

An easier way to compute aN can be
obtained by using the orthogonality of
the two vectors T and N. Notice that
2
d2 s ds
a(t) = 2
+ N(t)
dt dt
= aT T(t) + aN N(t)
Since
T N = 0.
we have
kak2 = a2T + a2N

Figure: [9.31]
Components of a(t).
followed by the Pythagorean
Theorem.
Computing aT and aN (III)
Solving
kak2 = a2T + a2N
for aN , we get
q
aN = kak2 a2T
where we have taken the positive root

since 2
ds
aN =
dt Figure: [9.31]
Components of a(t).
Finding Tangential and Normal Components of Acceleration
Example (5.6)
Find the tangential and normal components of acceleration for
an object whose path is defined by r(t) = ht, 2t, t2 i. In particular,
find these components at t = 1. Also, find the curvature.
Figure: [9.32] Tangential and normal components of acceleration at

t = 1.
kr(t) r00 (t)k

Proving =
kr0 (t)k3
Recall that 2
d2 s ds
a(t) = 2 T(t) + N(t)
dt dt
Taking the cross product of both sides of this equation with T
gives us
2 2
d2 s ds ds
Ta= 2TT+ TN = B
dt dt dt
Hence 2 2
ds ds
kT ak = kBk =
dt dt
Recalling that T = r0 /kr0 k, a = r00 and ds/dt = kr0 k gives us
kr(t) r00 (t)k kr(t) r00 (t)k
0
= kr0 k2 =
kr (t)k kr0 (t)k3
KEPLERS LAWS OF PLANETARY MOTION

Theorem
1 Each planet follows an elliptical orbit, with the sun at one
focus.
2 The line segment joining the sun to a planet sweeps out
equal areas in equal times.
3 If T is the time required for a given planet to make one orbit
of the sun and if the length of the major axis of its elliptical
orbit is 2a, then T 2 = ka3 , for some constant k (i.e., T 2 is
proportional to a3 ).
Keplers laws are based on a careful analysis of a massive

number of astronomical observations.
Using Newtons second law of motion and Newtons law of
universal gravitation and Vector Calculus, one can derive
the Keplers Laws. A detail derivation can be found in the
book.
Parametric Surfaces
In this section, we extend the notion of parametric

equations to those with two independent parameters.
We will be working with the simple cases of functions of
two variables, which are developed in more detail in
Chapter 10.
Parametric Equations with One Variable: An Helix
Consider the helix defined by the parametric equations
x = cos t
y = sin t and
z = t
This curve winds around the cylinder
x 2 + y2 = 1
Parametric Equations with Two Variables: An Cylinder
Suppose that we wanted to obtain parametric equations that

described the entire cylinder
x 2 + y2 = 1
we can use the parameters u and v to obtain the corresponding

parametric equations
x = cos u
y = sin u and
z = v
Parametric equations with two independent parameters

correspond to a two-dimensional surface.
Graphing a Parametric Surface

Example (6.1)
Identify and sketch a graph of the surface defined by the
parametric equations x = 2 cos u sin v, y = 2 sin u sin v and
z = 2 cos v.
p
Figure: [9.35] x2 + y2 + z2 = 4. Figure: [9.36] z = 4 x 2 y2 .
Parametric Equations for Hyperboloids and Hyperbolic

Paraboloids
For parametric equations of hyperboloids and hyperbolic

paraboloids, it is convenient to use the hyperbolic functions
ex + ex
cosh x =
2
ex ex
sinh x =
2
Notice that
cosh2 x sinh2 x = 1
Graphing a Parametric Surface

Example (6.2)
Sketch the surface defined parametrically by
x = 2 cos u cosh v, y = 2 sin u cosh v and z = 2 sinh v, 0 u 2
and < v < .
p
Figure: [9.38] z = x2 + y2 4.
Figure: [9.37] x2 + y2 z2 = 4.
Parametric Equations in Two Dimensions
In two dimensions, certain curves are more easily described in

polar coordinates than in rectangular coordinates. For example,
polar coordinates are essentially the parametric equations for
circles. In particular, the polar coordinates r and are related to
x and y by
p
x = r cos , y = r sin and r = x2 + y2
Finding a Parametric Representation of a Hyperbolic

Paraboloid
Example (6.3)
Find parametric equations for the hyperbolic paraboloid
z = x 2 y2 .
Finding Parametric Representations of Surfaces

Example (6.4)
Find a parametric representation of each surface:
p
1 the portion of z = x2 + y2 inside x2 + y2 = 4 and
2 the portion of z = 9 x2 y2 above the xy-plane with y 0.
Figure:
p [9.39a] Portion of Figure: [9.39b] Portion of
z = x2 + y2 inside x2 + y2 = 4. z = 9 x2 y2 above the
xy-plane, with y 0.

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Vector-Valued Functions The Calculus of Vector-Valued Functions Motion in Space Curvature Tangent and Normal Vect

2 The Calculus of Vector-Valued Functions

5 Tangent and Normal Vectors

Vector Valued Functions: An Example

To specified the path of the plane indicated in the figure, we

Figure: [9.1a] Airplanes flight Figure: [9.1b] Vectors indicating

Definition of Vector-Valued Functions

r(t) = f (t)i + g(t)j + h(t)k,

for some scalar functions f , g and h (called the component

we can likewise define a vector-valued function r(t) in V2 by

r(t) = f (t)i + g(t)j

for some scalar function f and g.

Sketching the Curve Defined by a Vector-Valued

r(t) = (t + 1)i + (t2 2)j.

The Trace of a Vector-Valued Function

Figure: [9.2a] Some values of Figure: [9.2b] Curve defined by

A Vector-Valued Function Defining an Ellipse

Figure: [9.3] Curve defined by r(t) = 4 cos t i 3 sin t j.

A Vector-Valued Function Defining an Elliptical Helix

Figure: [9.4a] Elliptical helix, Figure: [9.4b] Computer sketch:

A Vector-Valued Function Defining a Line

r(t) = h3 + 2t, 5 3t, 2 4ti, t R.

Figure: [9.5] Straight line: r(t) = h3 + 2t, 5 3t, 2 4ti.

Matching a Vector-Valued Function to Its Graph (I)

Matching a Vector-Valued Function to Its Graph (II)

r1 (t) = hcos t, ln t, sin ti r2 (t) = ht cos t, t sin t, ti

Matching a Vector-Valued Function to Its Graph (III)

Recall from section 5.3 that if f and f 0 are continuous on the

Consider a curve defined parametrically by x = f (t) and

Suppose that a curve in three dimensions is traced out by the

r(t) =< f (t), g(t), h(t) >,

where f , f 0 , g, g0 , h and h0 are all continuous for t [a, b] and

The integral can only rarely be computed exactly and we must

Approximating the Arc Length of a Curve in R3

Figure: [9.7a] Figure: [9.7b] Figure: [9.7c]

Computing Arc Length in R3

Figure: [9.8] The curve defined by r(t) = h2t, ln t, t2 i.

Approximating Arc Length in R3

Finding Parametric Equations for an Intersection of Surfaces

Limit of a Vector-Valued Function (I)

r(t) =< f (t), g(t), h(t) >,

we mean that as t gets closer and closer to a, the vector r(t) is

Notice that for this to occur, we must have that

f (t) u1 , g(t) u2 , and h(t) u3 .

Limit of a Vector-Valued Function (II)

Finding the Limit of a Vector-Valued Function

A Limit That Does Not Exist

Continuity of a Vector-Valued Function (I)

Recall that for a scalar function f , we say that f is continuous at

We defined the continuity of vector-valued functions in the

lim r(t) = r(a)

(i.e., whenever the limit and the value of the vector-valued

Continuity of a Vector-Valued Function (III)

It follows that r(t) is continuous at t = a if and only if

Note that this occurs if and only if

The above result is summarized in Theorem 2.1.

Continuity of a Vector-Valued Function (IV)

Determining Where a Vector-Valued Function Is

A Vector-Valued Function with Infinitely Many

The Derivative of a Vector-Valued Function (I)

The Derivative of a Vector-Valued Function (II)

r0 (t) = h f 0 (t), g0 (t), h0 (t)i.

Finding the Derivative of a Vector-Valued Function