Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 1 introduces you to the key concepts and issues related to curriculum.
It provides insights to the types of curriculum, relationship between
curriculum, syllabus, course and programme. It also looks at the the forces
that influence curriculum construction..
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CONTENT
Exercise 1
Originated from the Latin word currere referring to the oval track upon which
Roman chariots raced (means literally to run a course).A plan for achieving
goals (Tyler and Taba). Tanner (1980) defined curriculum as the planned
and guided learning experiences and intended outcomes, formulated through
the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experiences under the
auspices of the school, for the learners continuous and wilful growth in
personal social competence.
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Curriculum is:
That which is taught in school;
A set of subjects;
Content;
A programme of studies;
A set of materials;
Sequence of courses;
A set of performance objectives;
A course of study;
Everything that goes on within a school;
Everything that is planned by school personnel;
That which is taught both inside and outside of school directed by the
school;
A series of experiences undergone by learners in school; and
That which an individual learner experiences as a result of schooling.
Source:Peter F. Oliva, Developing the Curriculum. Boston: Little, Brown & Company.
1982.
Tutorial Task
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Enacted Curriculum
Null Curriculum
That which we do not teach, thus giving students the message that these
elements are not important in their educational experiences or in our society.
Tutorial Task
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Political
Economic
Education was primarily didactic and learning was less book-based that it is
today. Controlled largely by the teacher, education focused predominantly on
basic skills. Teachers taught reading, writing and arithmetic to complement
the skill students learn outside school.
By the beginning of the 20th century, the industrial revolution brought about
drastic changes in the economy of many countries. More people moved to
live in cities and working in factories. As a consequence new skills were
needed in an industrial society. It was then that a great change took pace in
education: the model of schools as a factory emerged. Students were taught
the facts and skills they needed for industrial jobs, which they were likely to
hold their entire lives. One-room schools were eventually replaced by large
buildings. Students were sorted by grades and sat in straight rows, with a
teacher at the front of the classroom in control of learning. The curriculum
was compartmentalised.
and learn independently. The knowledge gained and skills acquired and
attitudes nurtured will support them throughout life.
Social
Society is increasingly becoming diverse, especially in urban areas. Societies
are becoming more multicultural, multiethnic and multi-religious and it is
important that curriculum understands and reflect these changes. As stated
by Ornstein and Hunkins (1998), the complexion of our students is changing
from one colour to various shades of colour and this adding of colour and
cultural diversity will continue into the foreseeable future (p.146). As the
world moves towards becoming a global village, society will become even
more diverse with people bringing in new values, new languages and a new
way of life.
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any student and the curriculum must nurture students to become active
participants in a dynamic and emerging society (Schon, 1993).
Reflection
Do you think that the syllabuses & textbooks used in our country adequately
reflect your national ideology & the demands of our society?
Then take a break and move on to the next topic when you are ready.
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2.0 SYNOPSIS
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2.3 CONTENT
Exercise 1
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assessment strategies(evaluation)
These decisions are made in relation to the context in which the curriculum
will operate
Tutorial Task
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After identifying the objectives (which are the desired learning outcomes), the
curriculum developer has to pass them through two screens: the *philosophy
screen and the **psychology screen. Resulting from this are specific
instructional objectives which state the kind of outcomes that are observable
are measurable.
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Wheelers Model
1
Aims, goals and
objectives
5 2
Evaluation Selection of
learning experiences
4 3
Organisation and Selection of
content
integration of
experiences
Aims are formulated from the general to the specific in curriculum planning.
This results in the formulation of objectives at both an enabling and a terminal
level.
Tutorial Task
1. Diagnosis of needs.
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2. Formulation of objectives.
3. Selection of content.
4. Organization of content.
5. Selection of learning experiences.
6. Organization of learning experiences.
7. Determination of what to evaluate and the ways and means of doing it.
This procedure has defined curriculum design since that time. Curriculum
design became little more than a determination of goals, activities, content,
delivery systems and assessment techniques. Curriculum design became
basically little more than an exercise in solving a series of problems.
1) Scope - Scope refers to both the breadth and depth of content and
includes all topics, learning experiences and organising threads found in the
curriculum plan. Scope not only refers to cognitive learning but also affective
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learning, and some would argue spiritual learning (Goodland & Zhixin Su,
1992). Sometimes the scope of a curriculum is narrow, consisting of just a
simple listing of key topics and activities.
The basis of NPEs philosophy is that humans are steadfast in their belief in
god and their religion. The ultimate aim of education based on this
philosophy therefore is to develop every aspect of individuals in a
harmonious and balanced manner so as to preserve their wellbeing.
Knowledge and education should path the way to goods ethics and moral
values as responsible and learned members of the community and nation.
A core concept of the NPE is the value and role of knowledge in the
development of individuals and their role in the community. More importantly,
the value of knowledge lies in the truth of the matter which serves not only to
inform but also to transform and shape individuals to serve the community.
This power of knowledge that is able to transform individuals and their
networks makes it a very valuable commodity. Education is a lifelong process
and man is constantly in need to expand, explore and verify existing
knowledge. Experience does not only enrich and strengthen knowledge but
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KSSR has one new word in it Standard. In this new curriculum, there are set
standards of learning that our children have to achieve at the different levels
of their schooling. This means that when our children complete a particular
level of schooling, they are expected to have achieved a preset standard of
knowledge, skills and values. At specific times at each level these learning
standards will be measured to ensure that no child gets left behind. If a child
fails to meet the required standard, the teacher is required to do more
revision activities with the child until he or she eventually achieves the
required standard.
In KSSR, for the primary school, the English Language syllabus is divided
into two separate levels. KSSR Level 1 is made up of Year One, Year Two
and Year Three while KSSR Level 2 comprises of Year Four, Year Five and
Year Six.
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Although the KBSR was student centered, the KSSR seem to be even more
focused to make learning fun and meaningful to the young learners. The
classroom atmosphere is more relaxed where students are given more room
for decision-making and encouraged to voice their opinions. Apart from the
3Ms (reading, writing and counting), the new curriculum has 4Ms, with
Reasoning added to the original 3Ms. The need for our children to think and
reason, of making connections between their actions and consequences is
now stressed. There is a shift from rote learning where students simply
followed instructions and are overly dependent on teachers. Students are
now being taught to be active decision makers and be accountable for their
actions. There also seems to be time allocated for Chinese and Tamil
languages within the school timetable to ensure that students need not
remain in school for long hours. The new curriculum also appears to be
moving away from an exam-oriented system and the streaming of students
according to their academic ability is discouraged. In the KSSR, students are
encouraged to work together and help each other rather than being focused
on competing to being the best. Although academic achievement is
important, it is no longer everything. Character development and values are
also given prominence.
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The Integrated Primary School Curriculum is divided into two phases that is
Phase 1 (Year1-3) and Phase II (Year 4-6). The curriculum emphasises the
mastery, reinforcement and application of the 3Rs and the acquisition of
complex skills and knowledge. Also, emphasised is the development of
positive attitudes and values. The content is divided into six components:
basic skills, humanities, art and recreation, values and attitudes, living skills
and communication skills.
The compulsory subjects are Bahasa Malaysia, English, mathematics,
Islamic Education, moral education, music, art, physical education, science,
local studies and living skills.
Reflection
Do you think that the curriculum used in our country is based on a particular
curriculum design model?
Summary
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3.0 SYNOPSIS
Considerations in
designing
curriculum
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3.3 CONTENT
Tutorial Task
Needs Analysis
Assessment &
Evaluation
Consideration in
Curriculum
Design
Monitoring &
Content
Support
Learning theories,
Material Selection approaches &
methods
Personnel
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Need analysis
Target Group
What are the available delivery options and methods for transferring the new
skills to the workplace? What is the instructional setting; e.g. lectures,
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The stated aims of a curriculum tell students what are the results of studying
it is likely to be. (what would they gain by learning from it).Aims are not the
same as desired learning outcomes.
a) aims should relate to the combined impact of the curriculum, the pedagogy
and the assessment of the various elements.
b) desired learning outcomes need to be student oriented, and should point
to theknowledge, skills, competencies and attitudes of those students who
successfully complete the course.
Aims and Learning Objectives - Aim statements are broad and all
encompassing, while, desired objective/learning outcomes are
specific, behavioural, student- focussed statements.
Content selection
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When selecting content for curriculum, you should bear in mind the following
principles:
3) it should be up-to-date.
The students should be aware of whats happening around them and
the world.
The content should be constantly updated.
Most curriculum designs can be grouped into the following three basic
designs; namely, subject-centred designs, learner-centred designs and
problem-centred designs.
Subject-Centred Designs include 5 types of designs: academic subject
designs, discipline designs, broad field designs, correlation designs
and process designs.
Learner-Centred Designs include 3 types of designs identified as child-
centred, romantic/radical designs and humanistic designs.
Problem-Centred Designs include 3 types of designs identified as life-
situations design, core design and social problems design.
1) Subject-centred design
Subject-Centred Designs are by far the most popular and widely used
curriculum design. This is because knowledge and content are well accepted
as integral parts of the curriculum. Since acquiring a body of content is
integral in any school system, much thought has focused on how best to
present the knowledge, skills and values of the subjects to learners and the
following five approaches have been proposed:
Why is this model of curriculum design widely adopted? One reason given is
that it is much easily interpreted in textbooks and commercially available
support materials. Since teaching is essentially a verbal activity (whether it be
lecture, recitation, group discussion) teachers find it easier to communicate
the ideas and knowledge of a subject presented in verbal form in textbooks.
Also, people are familiar with this format, having gone through it themselves
when in school.
However, critics argue that this design deemphasises the learner by taking
away their rights to choose the content that is most meaningful to them. The
focus on the subject matter fails to foster social, psychological and physical
development and to some extent, fosters an elite ruling class based on
knowledge (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998).
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about life during that time period. However, each subject retains its own
distinct identity.
2) Learner-centred design
in Soetard, M., 1994, p.423). This did not mean children were allowed to run
free. Children need to be guided by the teacher according to their level of
development.
Perhaps, the most well-known advocate of the child-centred design is John
Dewey. He argued that children are not blank slates and they bring with them
four basic impulses the impulse to communicate, to compare and contrast,
to inquire and to express themselves through language. In the child-centred
design, teaching and learning draw on the experiences of learners and the
vast amount of information they bring to the classroom. Using this design,
teachers and students negotiate what is of interest to learners and what
content is to be included in the curriculum. Teachers and students participate
in planning lesson units, its purposes, the focus of the content and the
learning activities to be introduced in the teaching and learning situations.
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The humanistic design became popular in the 60s and 70s in response to
excessive overemphasis on the disciplines during the 50s and early 60s in
the United States. Proponents of the humanistic design based their
arguments on the principles of humanistic psychology. A basic question
asked is whether the curriculum has allowed a person to truly achieve his or
her full potential. The curriculum should be designed to empower learners to
be involved in the process of realising their potential. Greater emphasis was
placed on the affective domain to permit students to feel and to value. One
of the proponents of the humanistic curriculum design was Carl Rogers
(1902-1987) who argued that the aim of education is the facilitation of
learning. To facilitate learning, the teacher accepts learners as persons,
placing importance on their feelings and their opinions; while caring for them.
In other words, the teacher is able to view the world through the students
eyes. With such a curriculumZ design stresses the development of positive
self-concept and interpersonal skills of learners. The humanistic curriculum
requires teacher with great skills and competence in dealing with individuals.
This may be difficult to obtain in all teachers. There is also a tendency to
overemphasise the individual and ignore the needs of the society.
3) Problem-centred design
In any society, there are persistent life situations that are crucial to a societys
successful functioning. Examples of such life situations are healthy living, use
of leisure time, ethics, racial tolerance, citizenship skills and so forth. It was
argued by its advocates that it makes educational sense to organise a
curriculum around such life situations. Students will direct relevance in
studying such social issues when they are related to their world. Also, having
students study social or life situations will encourage them to seek ways to
improve society. The life situations that need to be emphasised in schools will
depend on what students need before they enter the working world and
assume adult responsibilities. However, some needs and interests have
already been met by the family, religious institutions and other community
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organisations. So, the schools should address those needs not met by these
institutions.
The life-centred situations curriculum has been criticised because students
do not learn much subject matter. However, proponents of the model state
that this is not true because the design draws heavily from the traditional
subject areas. The content is organised in a manner that allows students to
see problems faced by society. In addressing society's pressing problems,
content is drawn from different subject areas to explain and find solutions to
current issues
(b) Core-design
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Constraints
What are the program constraints? Technological: ICT, lab, LCDs etc.
-Timing: Implementation, Readiness
- Duration: Length lectures,
- Co-curriculum, practicum, internship, etc
Who is going to provide the cost of the training? Allowances, other
payments etc
Summary
Curriculum design is a complex activity both conceptually and its
implementation. Designing a curriculum requires a vision of educations
meaning and purpose. Curriculum design must be carefully considered so
that the curriculum imparts essential knowledge, skills and attitudes.
Relax and move on to the next topic when you are ready.
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4.0 SYNOPSIS
Curriculum
and the
teacher
Role of a Relationship
teacher between teacher
beliefs and
curriculum
implementation
CONTENT
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A teacher's role may vary among cultures. Teachers may provide instruction
in literacy and numeracy, craftsmanship or vocational training, the arts,
religion, civics, community roles, or life skills.
Exercise 1
a. Define a teacher?
b. What are the roles of teachers in curriculum development?
Factors Description
School ethos Overall school beliefs towards the new curriculum.
Status of the curriculum as viewed by staff,
administrators and community; e.g. school
administration recognises the importance of the
subject in the overall school curriculum.
Professional Support for teachers from both within the school and
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Leader who can inspire and influence students through expert and
referent power but never coercive power. This teacher knows his
students well and is kind and respectful towards his students. He has
high standards and expectations coexisting with encouragement,
support and flexibility. The teacher empower students and get them to
do things of which they did not think they were capable.
Coach/guide who helps students to improve on their skills and
insights.
Disseminator of knowledge and skills
Role model to the student; practises what he preaches. He upholds
moral values and humanitarian principles in all his actions. Teachers
conduct their day by-day doing in such a way that their behaviour can
be cherished by the learners. Teachers should be a human model for
learners therefore, they must uphold all codes of ethical conduct that
are necessary and essential in human modeling and moral education.
Innovator, creative, resourceful and encourages diversity and
individuality in his students.
4.3.2 Code of Ethics
1. Education arises from two Latin terms that is educare and educere.
Educare is to lead, draw or bring out; to unsheathe/uncover. The
etymology emphasizes the militaristic aspect of the word; the word
involved leading or bringing out the troops or unsheathing ones
sword- the notion of preparing for battle.
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encouragement to learn, and can seek out and assimilate the required
body of knowledge.
4.3.7 Researcher
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The role of teacher is often formal and ongoing, carried out at a school or
other place of formal education. In many countries, a person who wishes to
become a teacher must first obtain specified professional qualifications or
credentials from a university or college. These professional qualifications may
include the study of pedagogy, the science of teaching. Teachers, like other
professionals, may have to continue their education after they qualify, a
process known as continuing professional development.
In some countries, formal education can take place through home schooling.
Informal learning may be assisted by a teacher occupying a transient or
ongoing role, such as a family member, or by anyone with knowledge or skills
in the wider community setting.
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Exercise 2
How do I do it?
Will I ever get the hang of it?
Who can I trust to help me ?
Am I getting it right?
Is it really helping my students?
Know it is going to take time...
Tutorial Task
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Summary
5.0 SYNOPSIS
Exercise
Tutorial Task
The Teacher
The Learners
From your experience, you are aware that no meaningful teaching and
learning take place without adequate resource materials. This applies to
curriculum implementation as well.
For the officially designed curriculum to be fully implemented as per plan, the
government or Ministry of Education should supply schools with adequate
resource materials such as textbooks, teaching aids and stationery in order to
enable teachers and learners to play their role satisfactorily in the curriculum
implementation process. In CurriculumImplementation (University of
Zimbabwe, 1995), it issuggested that the central government must also
provide physical facilities such as classrooms, laboratories, workshops,
libraries and sports fields in order to create an environment in which
implementation can take place. The availability and quality of resource
material and the availability of appropriate facilities have a great influence on
curriculum implementation.
Interest Groups
Can you identify interest groups in your country that could influence the
implementation of curricula?
A number of these groups exist in almost all Southern African Development
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Instructional Supervision
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Assessment
Self-Assessment
From what you have read so far, list what you can identify as determinants of
curriculum implementation.
5.5.1 Literacy
Literacy is the ability to read and write. The inability to do so is called illiteracy or
analphabetism. Visual literacy also includes the ability to understand visual forms of
communication such as body language, pictures, maps, and video. Evolving
definitions of literacy often include all the symbol systems relevant to a particular
community. Literacy encompasses a complex set of abilities to understand and use
the dominant symbol systems of a culture for personal and community development.
In a technological society, the concept of literacy is expanding to include the media
and electronic text, in addition to alphabetic and number systems. These abilities
vary in different social and cultural contexts according to need, demand and
education.
The primary sense of literacy still represents the lifelong, intellectual process of
gaining meaning from a critical interpretation of the written or printed text. The key to
all literacy is reading development, a progression of skills that begins with the ability
to understand spoken words and decode written words, and culminates in the deep
understanding of text. Reading development involves a range of complex language
underpinnings including awareness of speech sounds (phonology), spelling patterns
(orthography), word meaning (semantics), grammar (syntax) and patterns of word
formation (morphology), all of which provide a necessary platform for reading fluency
and comprehension. Once these skills are acquired, the reader can attain full
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language literacy, which includes the abilities to approach printed material with
critical analysis, inference and synthesis; to write with accuracy and coherence; and
to use information and insights from text as the basis for informed decisions and
creative thought.
Equitable access
Across the globe, UNICEF is committed to nothing less than full and complete
access to free, quality education for every child. Universal access to quality
education is not a privilege it is a basic human right.
With progress towards universal enrolment slowing, it is now without doubt that the
world will not meet its most prominent global education. The current financial crisis
has put extra pressure on stretched public funding. The aid to education has fallen
by 10 per cent since 2010. If funds become scarcer, access to education will
continue to stagnate and the quality of schools will decline, denying the most
vulnerable children in the worlds poorest countries their basic human right to quality
education: without it, their future opportunities are dramatically limited.
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circumstances; and the emphasis in A World Fit for Childrenon ensuring equal
access to and achievement in basic education of good quality.
In education, the term equity refers to the principle of fairness. While it is often used
interchangeably with the related principle of equality, equity encompasses a wide
variety of educational models, programs and strategies that may be considered fair,
but not necessarily equal. It is has been said that equity is the process; equality is
the outcome, given that equitywhat is fair and justmay not, in the process of
educating students, reflect strict equalitywhat is applied, allocated, or distributed
equally.
The growing importance of education equity is based on the premise that now, more
than ever before, an individuals level of education is directly correlated to the quality
of life he or she will live in the future. Therefore, an academic system that practices
educational equity is a strong foundation of a society that is fair and thriving.
However, inequity in education is challenging to avoid, and can be broken down into
inequity due to socioeconomic standing, race, gender or disability.
Income has always played an important role in shaping academic success. Those
who come from a family of a higher socioeconomic status (SES) are privileged with
more opportunities than those of lower SES. Those who come from a higher SES
can afford things like better tutors, rigorous SAT/ACT prep classes, impressive
programs, and so on. Parents generally feel more comfortable intervening on behalf
of their children to acquire better grades or more qualified teachers. Parents of a
higher SES are more willing to donate large sums of money to a certain institution to
better improve their child's chances of acceptance, along with other extravagant
measures. This creates an unfair advantage and distinct class barrier.
Costs of education
The extraordinarily high cost of the many prestigious high schools and universities in
the United States makes an attempt at a "level playing field" for all students not so
level. High-achieving low-income students do not have the means to attend selective
schools that better prepare a student for later success. Because of this, low-income
students do not even attempt to apply to the top-tier schools for which they are more
than qualified. In addition, neighborhoods generally segregated by class leave lower-
income students in lower-quality schools. For higher-quality schooling, students in
low-income areas would be required to take public transport which they do not have
the means to pay for. Fewer than 30 percent of students in the bottom quarter of
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incomes even enroll in a four-year school and among that group, fewer than half
graduate.
Higher education has become too expensive and doesnt do enough to help lower
income students succeed.
Tracking
From a scientific point of view, the human species is a single race. It is therefore
misleading to use terms such as races and racial groups. Nevertheless, the term
racial group is enshrined in legislation, and phrases such as race equality and race
relations are in widespread official use. Racial equity in education means the
assignment of students to public schools and within schools without regard to their
race. This includes providing students with a full opportunity for participation in all
educational programs regardless of their race.
The educational system and its response to racial concerns in education vary from
country to country. Below are some examples of countries that have to deal with
racial discrimination in education.
to the schooling and education of girls and racial, national origin, and
language groups not from the dominant culture. Approaches and resources
for achieving equality and equity in the public schooling of girls and ethnic,
racial, and language minority groups are still evolving.
South Africa : A major task of South Africa's new government in 1994 was to
promote racial equity in the state education system. During the apartheid era,
which began when the National Party won control of Parliament in 1948 and
ended with a negotiated settlement more than four decades later, the
provision of education was racially unequal by design. Resources were
lavished on schools serving white students while schools serving the black
majority were systematically deprived of qualified teachers, physical
resources and teaching aids such as textbook and stationary. The rationale
for such inequity was a matter of public record.
Higher education
Higher education plays a vital role in preparing students for the employment market
and active citizenship both nationally and internationally. By embedding race equality
in teaching and learning, institutions can ensure that they acknowledge the
experiences and values of all students, including minority ethnic and international
students.
Gender equity in practicality refers to both male and female concerns, yet most of
the gender bias is against women in the developing world. Gender discrimination in
education has been very evident and underlying problem in many countries,
especially in developing countries where cultural and societal stigma continue to
hinder growth and prosperity for women. Global Campaign for Education (GCE)
followed a survey called "Gender Discrimination in Violation of Rights of Women and
Girls" states that one tenth of girls in primary school are 'unhappy' and this number
increases to one fifth by the time they reach secondary schools. Some of the
reasonings that girls provided include harassment, restorations to freedom, and an
inherent lack of opportunities, compared to boys. United Nations Educational,
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Question 1
Why do you think inequities occur in the education system? List down your
recommendations and solutions.
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Discussion
5.5.4 Multilingualism
The definition of multilingualism is a subject of debate in the very same way as the
definition of language fluency. On one end of a sort of linguistic continuum, one may
define multilingualism as complete competence and mastery in another language.
The speaker would presumably have complete knowledge and control over the
language so as to sound native. On the opposite end of the spectrum would be
people who know enough phrases to get around as a tourist using the alternate
language. Since 1992, Vivian Cook has argued that most multilingual speakers fall
somewhere between minimal and maximal definitions. Cook calls these people multi-
competent.
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Multilingual individuals
Multilingual speakers have acquired and maintained at least one language during
childhood, the so-called first language (L1). The first language (sometimes also
referred to as the mother tongue) is acquired without formal education. Children
acquiring two languages in this way are called simultaneous bilinguals. Even in the
case of simultaneous bilinguals, one language usually dominates over the other.
In multilingual societies, not all speakers need to be multilingual. Some states can
have multilingual policies and recognise several official languages, such as Canada
(English and French). In some states, particular languages may be associated with
particular regions in the state (e.g., Canada) or with particular ethnicities (e.g.,
Malaysia and Singapore). When all speakers are multilingual, linguists classify the
community according to the functional distribution of the languages involved:
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India. Ambilingualism also can manifest in specific regions of larger states that
have both a clearly dominant state language (be it de jure or de facto) and a
protected minority language that is limited in terms of distribution of speakers
within the country. This tendency is especially pronounced when, even though
the local language is widely spoken, there is a reasonable assumption that all
citizens speak the predominant state tongue (e.g., English in Quebec vs.
Canada; Spanish in Catalonia vs. Spain). This phenomenon can also occur in
border regions with many cross-border contacts.
Thinking question
1. Use of computers in the classroom: Computers have evolved and they have
changed they way the look and the way they function. Now days we have both
desktop computers and portable computers commonly known as notebooks or
laptops. New technologies have also emerged and birthed some new computer
related gadgets like the iPad or Galaxy tablet. These computers can be used by
teachers to assign work to students and study groups in a classroom. Also teachers
can use computers to illustrate visual related subjects which help students to learn
easily. Modern computers come with installed applications which can help students
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study well. For example, students can use internet explorer to search the internet,
they can use word processing application to write notes. Teachers can also help
their students to learn complicated applications on these computers as a way of
making it easier for students to learn and also make the teachers job easier.
2. Creating class websites and blogs: It is very easy to create a website or blog
using WordPress or any other content management software. Teachers can create
class blogs were they post assignments. If the school has no website sever to host
these class blogs, the teacher can use free website hosting services like
wordpress.com or blogger.com. Via these platforms, the teacher will create a blog
under a sub domain of that host. For example, matchclass.wordpress.com, so
students will find all academic assignments via that blog. It is very easy to manage
and post data to a blog, because they have simple HTML editors.
4. Use of mobile devices: Teachers and students can use smart-phones for
academic purposes in the classroom. Mobile learning is becoming so popular. It is
similar to e-learning or long distance education. Though its based on mobile phones.
M-Learning is convenient because it is accessible from anywhere. Mobile phones
are very light yet they can also have the same application a simple PC can have, a
student can access academic information like assignments via an educational mobile
application (APP). Teachers can tell their students to use mobile apps like
PIAZZA to access course materials and also to post questions about specific
subjects, all this can be done in the classroom or outside the classroom.
5. Use of smart interactive Whiteboards: Modern smart white boards have a touch
screen functionality, so the teacher can illustrate points using a pen or their finger.
Using a projector, teachers can display visual images on these white boards which
improves the learning process. Students will learn more easily with visual images.
Also students can use a white board to draw, write or manipulate images. Smart
whiteboards come in various sizes, the wide ones are better, because they can show
a lager image and can also be used by two students at a time. Most of them are
electronically powered , so they can be switched on with a button, and they can also
save teachers work for latter use.
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6. Use of online media: Teachers and students can both use online streaming
Medias to learn in the classroom. With the aid of a projector, computer, internet and
a white board, a teacher displays a real-time example using sites like Youtube.com.
This website has videos which can be used for academic reference. Lets take a
simple example on how a Geography class can use technology. Teachers can
explain volcanic activities and its impacts on the environment using live stream
YouTube videos about the subject. This type of illustration will attract the students
attention and they will learn easily.
7. Use of online study tools : Online study tools like Dynamic Periodic Table
(ptable.com) which can be used by Chemistry students in keeping elements apart ,
Foldit (fold.it) this tool can help biology students easily understand basics about
proteins. Mathway (Mathway.com) this helps math students solve math challenges,
students can simply select a subject and hit solve, the equation will be solved by the
tool. All these academic tools can improve the way students learn.
Question 2
Malaysias unique diversity - ethnic, religious, and cultural - has always been its
greatest strength, and its greatest challenge. As Malaysia increasingly finds itself in a
world where differences can divide, it has never been more important for Malaysians
to forge a Malaysian identity and to embrace our diverse heritage. As a shared
space for all Malaysians, schools have a unique potential to be a place to foster
unity. The challenge is that to date, the system has struggled to measure unity in a
systematic manner. The best available data suggests that student and teacher
diversity in National schools has decreased, although there is still a fair degree of
interactivity across ethnicities inside and outside the classroom.
Unity, a vital component in Malaysias truly unique social context, is a key factor in
realising a society of balanced and harmonious individuals as envisioned in the
National Education Philosophy. To that end, the Ministry has taken a range of
actions, from ensuring that all ethnicities are fairly represented in the teaching
materials used in schools, to organising school-based programmes explicitly focused
on building unity. The critical question, however, is how unity can be measured. This
section considers several possible measures to paint a picture of where the system
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stands. Student enrolment in the overall public education system remains broadly
reflective of national demographics. However, there are specific schooling options
that have homogenous environments. For example, primary school students across
all optionsare in highly homogeneous environments. The challenge is that these
homogeneous environments make it less likely for students to receive exposure to
students of different cultures and ethnic groups, and thus less likely to develop the
respect for diversity critical for unity. However, there is some convergence in
secondary school. Most students from the various primary schools enrol in a single
secondary school format; the SMK. Nevertheless, some students still receive limited
exposure to diversity; for example, a child who transfers from a SJK(C) to an
independent Chinese school or that moves from an SK to a National religious
secondary school or Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama (SMKA). In addition,
there is a small but growing minority of students that leave the public education
system and enrol in private schools, and therefore move beyond the Ministrys
sphere of influence.
The Malaysian education system comprises over 20 schooling options at both the
primary and secondary levels.
a) Public primary schools. The primary level comprises three main types of
schools: SK, SJK(C), and SJK(T). Each type of school is defined by different
mediums of instruction and jointly accounts for almost 99% of total primary
enrolments. In addition, there are numerous school types serving niche groups, such
as religious(Islamic) and special education schools.
c) Private schools. A small but growing number of students enrol in private schools.
These schools operate at both the primary and secondary level and include private
schools that teach the national curriculum, international schools, religious schools,
and Independent Chinese schools. Currently, private schools comprise 1% of total
primary enrolments and 4% of total secondary enrolments.
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Special needs education is the practice of educating students with special needs in a
way that addresses their individual differences and needs. Ideally, this process
involves the individually planned and systematically monitored arrangement of
teaching procedures, adapted equipment and materials, accessible settings. These
interventions are designed to help learners with special needs achieve a higher level
of personal self-sufficiency and success in school and their community, than may be
available if the student were only given access to a typical classroom education.
In the United Kingdom, special needs often refers to special needs within an
educational context. This is also referred to as special educational needs (SEN). In
the United States, 18.5 percent of all children under the age of 18 (over 13.5 million
children) had special health care needs as of 2005.
More narrowly, it is a legal term applying in foster care in the United States, derived
from the language in the Adoption and Safe Families Act of 1997. It is a diagnosis
used to classify children as needing "more" services than those children without
special needs who are in the foster care system. It is a diagnosis based on behavior,
childhood and family history and is usually made by a health care professional.
Trouble learning the alphabet, rhyming words, and connecting letters to sounds.
Making many mistakes when reading aloud
Not understanding what they are reading
Awkward pencil grip and poor handwriting skills
Trouble understanding jokes and sarcasm
Trouble following multiple directions
Trouble organizing thoughts and what they want to say
Not following social rules of conversation
Confusing mathematical symbols and numbers
Not being able to tell a story in order
Not knowing where to begin a task
Emotional and/or social issues
Trouble sleeping or getting along with family
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No one knows for sure what causes learning disorders. Sometimes there is no
apparent reason.
Problems during Pregnancy or Birth: Disabilities can result from fetal exposure
to alcohol or drugs, low birth weight, oxygen deprivation or by premature birth.
Accidents After Birth: Head injury, malnutrition or toxic exposure can increase a
child's risk.
Individual needs
Students with special needs are assessed to determine their specific strengths and
weaknesses. Placement, resources, and goals are determined on the basis of the
student's needs. Accommodations and Modifications to the regular program may
include changes in the curriculum, supplementary aides or equipment, and the
provision of specialized physical adaptations that allow students to participate in the
educational environment as much as possible. Students may need this help to
access subject matter, physically gain access to the school, or meet their emotional
needs. For example, if the assessment determines that the student cannot write by
hand because of a physical disability, then the school might provide a computer for
typing assignments, or allow the student to answer questions verbally instead. If the
school determines that the student is severely distracted by the normal activities in a
large, busy classroom, then the student might be placed in a smaller classroom such
as a resource room.
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Special schools
A special school is a school catering for students who have special educational
needs due to severe learning difficulties, physical disabilities or behavioural
problems. Special schools may be specifically designed, staffed and resourced to
provide appropriate special education for children with additional needs. Students
attending special schools generally do not attend any classes in mainstream
schools.
In recent times, places available in special schools are declining as more children
with special needs are educated in mainstream schools. However, there will always
be some children, whose learning needs cannot be appropriately met in a regular
classroom setting and will require specialised education and resources to provide the
level of support they require. An example of a disability that may require a student to
attend a special school is intellectual disability. However this practice is often
frowned upon by school districts in the USA in the light of Least Restrictive
Environment as mandated in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act.
Instructional strategies
Different instructional techniques are used for some students with special
educational needs. Instructional strategies are classified as being either
accommodations or modifications.
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Examples of modifications:
Examples of accommodations:
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notes during lectures or using a talking calculator rather than one with only a
visual display.
Setting accommodations: Taking a test in a quieter room. Moving the class to
a room that is physically accessible, e.g., on the first floor of a building or near
an elevator. Arranging seating assignments to benefit the student, e.g., by
sitting at the front of the classroom.
Scheduling accommodations: Students may be given rest breaks or extended
time on tests (may be considered a modification, if speed is a factor in the
test).
Summary
Relax for a while. When you are ready, move on to the next Topic.
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1.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 6 introduces you to the key concepts and issues related to curriculum
evaluation. It provides insights to the various forms of evaluation in curriculum. It also
discusses a variety of methods and tools can be used to conduct evaluation.
Curriculum
Evaluation
Definition Evaluation
Forms Purposes
of Methods
Of Of
Curriculum Evaluation and
Evaluation Evaluation
Tools
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CONTENT
Evaluations should:
provide assessments of what works and why, highlight intended and
unintended results, and provide strategic lessons to guide decision-makers
and inform stakeholders;
provide evidence-based information that is credible, reliable and useful,
enabling thetimely incorporation of findings, recommendations and lessons;
feed into management and decision-making processes as a key component
to managingfor results;
inform the planning, programming, budgeting, implementation and reporting
cycle;
improve the institutional relevance and the achievement of results, optimize
the use ofresources, provide client satisfaction and maximize the impact of
activities; and
involve a rigorous, systematic and objective process in the design, analysis
and
interpretation of information to answer specific questions, based on agreed
criteria andbenchmarks among key partners and stakeholders.
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As such curriculum assessment is concerned about the assessment of the merit and
worth of a program of studies, a field of study, or a course of study. Curriculum
evaluation should be concerned with assessing the value of a program of study (all
the planned learning experiences over a multiyear period for a given group of
learners), a field of study (all the planned learning experiences over a multiyear
period in a given discipline or area of study), and a course of study (all the planned
learning experiences for a period of 1 year or less in a given field of
study).Curriculum evaluation can be defined as the collection and provision of
evidence, on the basis of which decisions can be taken about the feasibility,
effectiveness and educational value of curricula.
Gay (1985) argued that the aim of curriculum evaluation is to identify its
weaknesses and strengths as well as problems encountered in implementation; to
improve the curriculum development process; to determine the effectiveness of the
curriculum and the returns on finance allocated.
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evaluation can beconsidered to be the process that looks for evidence of successor
failure of a curriculum programme, a syllabus or a subjecttaught during
implementation.
In formative evaluation, one would evaluate the fit between the instructional strategies
and materials used, and the learning outcomes or what it aims to achieve. Sometimes,
the learning outcomes in a curriculum plan and the learning activities may not fit or
match. For example, teachers may want their students to develop speaking skills but
there are no learning activities which provide opportunities for students to practise
speaking skills. Review of the curriculum plan through formative evaluation may
provide useful information for modifying or adapting selected strategies.
As the term summative indicates, data is collected at the end of the implementation
of the curriculum programme. The effectiveness of a programme can be
throughsummative evaluation which can be done after new course materials have
been implemented in full or several months to years after the materials have been
implemented in full. This type of evaluation assesses whether or not the project
orprogramme can perform as the designersintended. It considers cost effectiveness
in terms of money,time and personnel. It also assesses the training that
teachersmight need in order to implement a programme successfully. Itdetermines
whether a new curriculum programme, syllabus orsubject is better than the one it is
intended to replace or otheralternatives. These evaluation outcomes can be
determined through formal assessment tasks such as marks obtained in tests and
examinations. Other than quantitative data to determine how well students met
specified objectives, data could also be collected through qualitative methods such
as interviews, direct observations, and document analyses
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The methods of data collection and the instruments used are more or less similar for
both formative and summative evaluation. The common evaluation methods used in
curriculum evaluation are interviews, observations, tests, survey, documents and
portfolios which are record of work or products.
Survey is a useful data collection method if one needs to quickly and easily get lots of
information from people in a non threatening way. Questionnairesare the common
instrument used in this data collection method. Questionnaires can be completed
anonymously, can be administered to many people and is relatively inexpensive to
administer. Data collected from this method is quantitative in nature, thus, it is easy to
compare and analyse. Massive amount of data can be obtained through
questionnaires.As there are many sample questionnaires already in existence,
questionnaires are relatively easy to design.One of its weaknesses is the information
obtained may not be accurate as it relies on how truthfully subjects respond to the
items in the questionnaire. In addition, there is also the fear that the wordings used can
bias respondents responses. Questionnaires are also impersonal. Moreover, since
only a sample of subjects is given the instrument, we not get the whole picture.
There are two general types of interviews depending on the extent to which the
responses required which are unstructured or structured. In an unstructured interview,
the interviewer does not follow a rigid script and there is a great deal of flexibility in the
responses. Since the response from the interviewee may be varied,it makes the task of
keeping track of responses more difficult. The open-endedness of the question will
require that the interviewer record all responses and analyse and interpret the data
later. However, one of the advantages of the unstructured interview is that it allows
one to gather a variety of information, especially in relation to the interviewees
knowledge, beliefs or feelings toward a particular situation.
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In a structured interview, the questions asked usually require very specific responses.
Regardless of which type of interview is used, evaluators should ensure that each
question is relevant for its intended purpose. The data collected isto be translated into
a form that can be analysed and this is to be done well to ensure accuracy and to
maintain the sense of the data. The advantage of interviews is that it can get a full
range and depth of information and it develops a relationship with teachers and
students and it is more flexible. However, interview is time consuming, can be hard to
analyze and compare, can be costly and the interviewer can be biased
towardsrespondents responses.
Observationis useful data collection method o gather accurate information about how
a program actually operates, particularly about processes especially to view
operations of a program as they are actually occurring. The instrument generally
used is a check list.
1.2.4.4Documents
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Exercise
3. What data collection methods and instruments can be used to evaluate the
effectiveness of the KSSR English language curriculum?
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1.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 6 introduces you to the key concepts and issues related to curriculum change.
It provides definitions of curriculum change and innovation. It also discusses context
of curriculum change, strategies of evaluation and planning an implementation of
curriculum change.
Curriculum
Change
Definition
Contexts
of Strategies
Of Planning and Implementation
Curriculum Change and Innovation of Evaluation
Curriculum Change
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CONTENT
At the national level, curriculum change and innovation arisefrom deliberate policy
decisions. Changes in the education system in Malaysia occur when the central
authority decides to adopt a new idea. This change is usually made known througha
circular. One such example is the introduction of the Kurikulum Standard Sekolah
Rendah (KSSR) or the Primary School Standard Curriculum.
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Another reason for curriculum change and innovation is the desire ofauthorities at
various levels to deliberately change establishedpractices in order to tackle existing
problems or identify newproblems and seek ways of dealing with these problems.
Curriculumchange and innovation can also be a due to development in technology.
For example, computers are being usedin almost every aspects of our society. Thus,
the education systemand its curriculum must adapt to this new development.
Computers must not be seen as merely a tool for administrative purposes, but also
to makethe computer and related technological advancements part and parcel of the
curriculum.
Change can occur in the different forms. In substitution, one element replaces
anotherpreviously in use. For example new textbooks, new equipmentor the
replacement of teachers and administrators. Alteration on the other hand involves
change in existing structures ratherthan a complete replacement of the whole
curriculum, syllabusor course of study. Addition is the introduction of a new
component withoutchanging old elements or patterns. New elements are added
tothe existing programme without seriously disturbing the mainstructure and content
of the prescribed curriculum. Thesecould be support inputs such as audio-visual
aids, workshopsand equipment.Restructuring involves the rearrangement of
thecurriculum in order to implement desired changes. It may alsoinvolve the sharing
of resources among a group of schools orinstitutions.
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In thismodel, an innovation is thought out at the head or centre andthen fed into the
system. This views the processes of change asa logical sequence of phases in
which an innovation is:
1. invented or discovered,
2. developed,
3. produced, and
4. disseminated to the user.
This model is built with the user ofthe innovation in mind. The user of the innovation
would follow the steps below.
1. Determine the problem.
2. Search for an innovation.
3. Evaluate the trials.
4. Implement the innovation.
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The innovation
This involves executing the changeitself; in other words putting it into use or
operation.
This relates to the person or group ofpeople at which the innovation is directed.
Time
These factors interact with change andare changed by each other during the process
of innovation. The curriculum change agent isinvolved with the process, the planning
and the strategies, andis also frequently the user of the innovation.
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Innovation Planning
Effective planning for innovation cannot take place unless thefollowing elements are
considered in the process:
the personnel to be employed
the specification of the actual task
the strategy or procedure to be used to undertake thetask
the equipment needed
the buildings and conducive environment
the costs involved
social contexts
time involved
sequencing of activities
rationale for undertaking the innovation
evaluation of the consequences or effects of the innovation.
Potential usersof an innovation are more likely to accept it if the conditionsbelow are
met.
The innovation must be relevant to them.
It must be feasible in their particular organizationalcontext.
It must be compatible with the practices, values andcharacteristics of their
system.
It must pose little or no threat to the usergroups identity, integrity and territory.
The innovationmust be seen to be tolerable and non-threatening.
The innovation must yield material or non-materialbenefits. Gains in social
status or recognition may be some of the non-material benefits
It must be flexible and adaptable.
Exercise:
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