Artificial Intelligence - Wikipedia

8/18/2017 ArtificialintelligenceWikipedia
Artificialintelligence
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Artificialintelligence(AI,alsomachineintelligence,MI)isintelligenceexhibitedbymachines,ratherthan
humansorotheranimals(naturalintelligence,NI).Incomputerscience,thefieldofAIresearchdefinesitself
asthestudyof"intelligentagents":anydevicethatperceivesitsenvironmentandtakesactionsthatmaximize
itschanceofsuccessatsomegoal.[1]Colloquially,theterm"artificialintelligence"isappliedwhenamachine
mimics"cognitive"functionsthathumansassociatewithotherhumanminds,suchas"learning"and"problem
solving".[2]
ThescopeofAIisdisputed:asmachinesbecomeincreasinglycapable,taskconsideredasrequiring
"intelligence"areoftenremovedfromthedefinition,aphenomenonknownastheAIeffect,leadingtothequip
"AIiswhateverhasn'tbeendoneyet."[3]Forinstance,opticalcharacterrecognitionisfrequentlyexcludedfrom
"artificialintelligence",havingbecomearoutinetechnology.[4]CapabilitiesgenerallyclassifiedasAI,asof
2017,includesuccessfullyunderstandinghumanspeech,[5]competingatahighlevelinstrategicgamesystems
(suchaschessandGo[6]),autonomouscars,intelligentroutingincontentdeliverynetworks,military
simulations,andinterpretingcomplexdata.
AIresearchisdividedintosubfields[7]thatfocusonspecificproblems,approaches,theuseofaparticulartool,
ortowardssatisfyingparticularapplications.
Thecentralproblems(orgoals)ofAIresearchincludereasoning,knowledge,planning,learning,natural
languageprocessing(communication),perceptionandtheabilitytomoveandmanipulateobjects.[8]General
intelligenceisamongthefield'slongtermgoals.[9]Approachesincludestatisticalmethods,computational
intelligence,andtraditionalsymbolicAI.ManytoolsareusedinAI,includingversionsofsearchand
mathematicaloptimization,logic,methodsbasedonprobabilityandeconomics.TheAIfielddrawsupon
computerscience,mathematics,psychology,linguistics,philosophy,neuroscience,artificialpsychologyand
manyothers.
Thefieldwasfoundedontheclaimthathumanintelligence"canbesopreciselydescribedthatamachinecan
bemadetosimulateit".[10]Thisraisesphilosophicalargumentsaboutthenatureofthemindandtheethicsof
creatingartificialbeingsendowedwithhumanlikeintelligence,issueswhichhavebeenexploredbymyth,
fictionandphilosophysinceantiquity.[11]SomepeoplealsoconsiderAIadangertohumanityifitprogresses
unabatedly.[12]Attemptstocreateartificialintelligencehaveexperiencedmanysetbacks,includingtheALPAC
reportof1966,theabandonmentofperceptronsin1970,theLighthillReportof1973,thesecondAIwinter
19871993andthecollapseoftheLispmachinemarketin1987.
Inthetwentyfirstcentury,AItechniques,bothhard(usingasymbolicapproach)andsoft(subsymbolic),have
experiencedaresurgencefollowingconcurrentadvancesincomputerpower,sizesoftrainingsets,and
theoreticalunderstanding,andAItechniqueshavebecomeanessentialpartofthetechnologyindustry,helping
tosolvemanychallengingproblemsincomputerscience.[13]RecentadvancementsinAI,andspecificallyin
machinelearning,havecontributedtothegrowthofAutonomousThingssuchasdronesandselfdrivingcars,
becomingthemaindriverofinnovationintheautomotiveindustry.
Contents
1 History
2 Goals
2.1 Reasoning,problemsolving
2.2 Knowledgerepresentation
2.3 Planning
2.4 Learning
2.5 Naturallanguageprocessing
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence 1/42
2.6 Perception
2.7 Motionandmanipulation
2.8 Socialintelligence
2.9 Creativity
2.10 Generalintelligence
3 Approaches
3.1 Cyberneticsandbrainsimulation
3.2 Symbolic
3.3 Subsymbolic
3.4 Integratingtheapproaches
4 Tools
4.1 Searchandoptimization
4.2 Logic
4.3 Probabilisticmethodsforuncertainreasoning
4.4 Classifiersandstatisticallearningmethods
4.5 Neuralnetworks
4.6 Deepfeedforwardneuralnetworks
4.7 Deeprecurrentneuralnetworks
4.8 Controltheory
4.9 Languages
4.10 Evaluatingprogress
5 Applications
5.1 Competitionsandprizes
5.2 Healthcare
5.3 Automotive
5.4 Finance
5.5 Videogames
6 Platforms
6.1 PartnershiponAI
7 Philosophyandethics
7.1 Thelimitsofartificialgeneralintelligence
7.2 Potentialrisksandmoralreasoning
7.3 Machineconsciousness,sentienceandmind
7.4 Superintelligence
8 Infiction
9 Seealso
10 Notes
11 References
11.1 AItextbooks
11.2 HistoryofAI
11.3 Othersources
12 Furtherreading
13 Externallinks
History
Whilethoughtcapableartificialbeingsappearedasstorytellingdevicesinantiquity,[14]theideaofactually
tryingtobuildamachinetoperformusefulreasoningmayhavebegunwithRamonLlull(c.1300CE).Withhis
Calculusratiocinator,GottfriedLeibnizextendedtheconceptofthecalculatingmachine(WilhelmSchickard
engineeredthefirstonearound1623),intendingtoperformoperationsonconceptsratherthannumbers.[15]
Sincethe19thcentury,artificialbeingsarecommoninfiction,asinMaryShelley'sFrankensteinorKarel
apek'sR.U.R.(Rossum'sUniversalRobots).[16]
Thestudyofmechanicalor"formal"reasoningbeganwithphilosophersandmathematiciansinantiquity.The
studyofmathematicallogicleddirectlytoAlanTuring'stheoryofcomputation,whichsuggestedthata
machine,byshufflingsymbolsassimpleas"0"and"1",couldsimulateanyconceivableactofmathematical
deduction.Thisinsight,thatdigitalcomputerscansimulateanyprocessofformalreasoning,isknownasthe
ChurchTuringthesis.[17]Alongwithconcurrentdiscoveriesinneurology,informationtheoryandcybernetics,
thisledresearcherstoconsiderthepossibilityofbuildinganelectronicbrain.[18]Thefirstworkthatisnow
generallyrecognizedasAIwasMcCullouchandPitts'1943formaldesignforTuringcomplete"artificial
neurons".[15]
ThefieldofAIresearchwasbornataworkshopatDartmouthCollegein1956.[19]AttendeesAllenNewell
(CMU),HerbertSimon(CMU),JohnMcCarthy(MIT),MarvinMinsky(MIT)andArthurSamuel(IBM)
becamethefoundersandleadersofAIresearch.[20]Theyandtheirstudentsproducedprogramsthatthepress
describedas"astonishing":[21]computerswerewinningatcheckers,solvingwordproblemsinalgebra,proving
logicaltheoremsandspeakingEnglish.[22]Bythemiddleofthe1960s,researchintheU.S.washeavilyfunded
bytheDepartmentofDefense[23]andlaboratorieshadbeenestablishedaroundtheworld.[24]AI'sfounders
wereoptimisticaboutthefuture:HerbertSimonpredicted,"machineswillbecapable,withintwentyyears,of
doinganyworkamancando".MarvinMinskyagreed,writing,"withinageneration...theproblemofcreating
'artificialintelligence'willsubstantiallybesolved".[25]
Theyfailedtorecognizethedifficultyofsomeoftheremainingtasks.Progressslowedandin1974,inresponse
tothecriticismofSirJamesLighthill[26]andongoingpressurefromtheUSCongresstofundmoreproductive
projects,boththeU.S.andBritishgovernmentscutoffexploratoryresearchinAI.Thenextfewyearswould
laterbecalledan"AIwinter",[27]aperiodwhenobtainingfundingforAIprojectswasdifficult.
Intheearly1980s,AIresearchwasrevivedbythecommercialsuccessofexpertsystems,[28]aformofAI
programthatsimulatedtheknowledgeandanalyticalskillsofhumanexperts.By1985themarketforAIhad
reachedoverabilliondollars.Atthesametime,Japan'sfifthgenerationcomputerprojectinspiredtheU.Sand
Britishgovernmentstorestorefundingforacademicresearch.[29]However,beginningwiththecollapseofthe
LispMachinemarketin1987,AIonceagainfellintodisrepute,andasecond,longerlastinghiatusbegan.[30]
Inthelate1990sandearly21stcentury,AIbegantobeusedforlogistics,datamining,medicaldiagnosisand
otherareas.[13]Thesuccesswasduetoincreasingcomputationalpower(seeMoore'slaw),greateremphasison
solvingspecificproblems,newtiesbetweenAIandotherfieldsandacommitmentbyresearchersto
mathematicalmethodsandscientificstandards.[31]DeepBluebecamethefirstcomputerchessplayingsystem
tobeatareigningworldchesschampion,GarryKasparovon11May1997.[32]
Advancedstatisticaltechniques(looselyknownasdeeplearning),accesstolargeamountsofdataandfaster
computersenabledadvancesinmachinelearningandperception.[33]Bythemid2010s,machinelearning
applicationswereusedthroughouttheworld.[34]InaJeopardy!quizshowexhibitionmatch,IBM'squestion
answeringsystem,Watson,defeatedthetwogreatestJeopardychampions,BradRutterandKenJennings,bya
significantmargin.[35]TheKinect,whichprovidesa3DbodymotioninterfacefortheXbox360andtheXbox
OneusealgorithmsthatemergedfromlengthyAIresearch[36]asdointelligentpersonalassistantsin
smartphones.[37]InMarch2016,AlphaGowon4outof5gamesofGoinamatchwithGochampionLee
Sedol,becomingthefirstcomputerGoplayingsystemtobeataprofessionalGoplayerwithout
handicaps.[6][38]Inthe2017FutureofGoSummit,AlphaGowonathreegamematchwithKeJie,[39]whoat
thetimecontinuouslyheldtheworldNo.1rankingfortwoyears[40][41]
AccordingtoBloomberg'sJackClark,2015wasalandmarkyearforartificialintelligence,withthenumberof
softwareprojectsthatuseAIwithinGoogleincreasedfroma"sporadicusage"in2012tomorethan2,700
projects.Clarkalsopresentsfactualdataindicatingthaterrorratesinimageprocessingtaskshavefallen
significantlysince2011.[42]Heattributesthistoanincreaseinaffordableneuralnetworks,duetoarisein
cloudcomputinginfrastructureandtoanincreaseinresearchtoolsanddatasets.Othercitedexamplesinclude
Microsoft'sdevelopmentofaSkypesystemthatcanautomaticallytranslatefromonelanguagetoanotherand
Facebook'ssystemthatcandescribeimagestoblindpeople.[42]
Goals
Theoverallresearchgoalofartificialintelligenceistocreatetechnologythatallowscomputersandmachines
tofunctioninanintelligentmanner.Thegeneralproblemofsimulating(orcreating)intelligencehasbeen
brokendownintosubproblems.Theseconsistofparticulartraitsorcapabilitiesthatresearchersexpectan
intelligentsystemtodisplay.Thetraitsdescribedbelowhavereceivedthemostattention.[8]
ErikSandwellemphasizesplanningandlearningthatisrelevantandapplicabletothegivensituation.[43]
Reasoning,problemsolving
Earlyresearchersdevelopedalgorithmsthatimitatedstepbystepreasoningthathumansusewhentheysolve
puzzlesormakelogicaldeductions.[44]Bythelate1980sand1990s,AIresearchhaddevelopedmethodsfor
dealingwithuncertainorincompleteinformation,employingconceptsfromprobabilityandeconomics.[45]
Fordifficultproblems,algorithmscanrequireenormouscomputationalresourcesmostexperiencea
"combinatorialexplosion":theamountofmemoryorcomputertimerequiredbecomesastronomicalfor
problemsofacertainsize.Thesearchformoreefficientproblemsolvingalgorithmsisahighpriority.[46]
Humanbeingsordinarilyusefast,intuitivejudgmentsratherthanstepbystepdeductionthatearlyAIresearch
wasabletomodel.[47]AIhasprogressedusing"subsymbolic"problemsolving:embodiedagentapproaches
emphasizetheimportanceofsensorimotorskillstohigherreasoningneuralnetresearchattemptstosimulate
thestructuresinsidethebrainthatgiverisetothisskillstatisticalapproachestoAImimicthehumanabilityto
guess.
Knowledgerepresentation
KnowledgerepresentationandknowledgeengineeringarecentraltoAI
research.Manyoftheproblemsmachinesareexpectedtosolvewill
requireextensiveknowledgeabouttheworld.AmongthethingsthatAI
needstorepresentare:objects,properties,categoriesandrelations
betweenobjectssituations,events,statesandtimecausesandeffects
knowledgeaboutknowledge(whatweknowaboutwhatotherpeople
know)andmanyother,lesswellresearcheddomains.Arepresentation
of"whatexists"isanontology:thesetofobjects,relations,concepts,
andpropertiesformallydescribedsothatsoftwareagentscaninterpret
them.Thesemanticsofthesearecapturedasdescriptionlogicconcepts,
roles,andindividuals,andtypicallyimplementedasclasses,properties,
andindividualsintheWebOntologyLanguage.[48]Themostgeneral
ontologiesarecalledupperontologies,whichactasmediatorsbetween Anontologyrepresentsknowledgeasa
setofconceptswithinadomainandthe
domainontologiesthatcoverspecificknowledgeaboutaparticular
relationshipsbetweenthoseconcepts.
knowledgedomain(fieldofinterestorareaofconcern).Suchformal
knowledgerepresentationsaresuitableforcontentbasedindexingand
retrieval,sceneinterpretation,clinicaldecisionsupport,knowledge
discoveryviaautomatedreasoning(inferringnewstatementsbasedonexplicitlystatedknowledge),etc.Video
eventsareoftenrepresentedasSWRLrules,whichcanbeused,amongothers,toautomaticallygenerate
subtitlesforconstrainedvideos.[49].
Amongthemostdifficultproblemsinknowledgerepresentationare:
Defaultreasoningandthequalificationproblem
Manyofthethingspeopleknowtaketheformof"workingassumptions".Forexample,ifabirdcomes
upinconversation,peopletypicallypictureananimalthatisfistsized,sings,andflies.Noneofthese
thingsaretrueaboutallbirds.JohnMcCarthyidentifiedthisproblemin1969[50]asthequalification
problem:foranycommonsenserulethatAIresearcherscaretorepresent,theretendtobeahugenumber
ofexceptions.Almostnothingissimplytrueorfalseinthewaythatabstractlogicrequires.AIresearch
hasexploredanumberofsolutionstothisproblem.[51]
Thebreadthofcommonsenseknowledge
Thenumberofatomicfactsthattheaveragepersonknowsisverylarge.Researchprojectsthatattemptto
buildacompleteknowledgebaseofcommonsenseknowledge(e.g.,Cyc)requireenormousamountsof
laboriousontologicalengineeringtheymustbebuilt,byhand,onecomplicatedconceptatatime.[52]A
majorgoalistohavethecomputerunderstandenoughconceptstobeabletolearnbyreadingfrom
sourcesliketheInternet,andthusbeabletoaddtoitsownontology.
Thesubsymbolicformofsomecommonsenseknowledge
Muchofwhatpeopleknowisnotrepresentedas"facts"or"statements"thattheycouldexpressverbally.
Forexample,achessmasterwillavoidaparticularchesspositionbecauseit"feelstooexposed"[53]oran
artcriticcantakeonelookatastatueandrealizethatitisafake.[54]Thesearenonconsciousandsub
symbolicintuitionsortendenciesinthehumanbrain.[55]Knowledgelikethisinforms,supportsand
providesacontextforsymbolic,consciousknowledge.Aswiththerelatedproblemofsubsymbolic
reasoning,itishopedthatsituatedAI,computationalintelligence,orstatisticalAIwillprovidewaysto
representthiskindofknowledge.[55]
Planning
Intelligentagentsmustbeabletosetgoalsandachievethem.[56]They
needawaytovisualizethefuturearepresentationofthestateofthe
worldandbeabletomakepredictionsabouthowtheiractionswill
changeitandbeabletomakechoicesthatmaximizetheutility(or
"value")ofavailablechoices.[57]
Inclassicalplanningproblems,theagentcanassumethatitistheonly
systemactingintheworld,allowingtheagenttobecertainofthe
consequencesofitsactions.[58]However,iftheagentisnottheonly
actor,thenitrequiresthattheagentcanreasonunderuncertainty.This
callsforanagentthatcannotonlyassessitsenvironmentandmake
predictions,butalsoevaluateitspredictionsandadaptbasedonits Ahierarchicalcontrolsystemisaform
assessment.[59] ofcontrolsysteminwhichasetof
devicesandgoverningsoftwareis
Multiagentplanningusesthecooperationandcompetitionofmany arrangedinahierarchy.
agentstoachieveagivengoal.Emergentbehaviorsuchasthisisused
byevolutionaryalgorithmsandswarmintelligence.[60]
Learning
Machinelearning,afundamentalconceptofAIresearchsincethefield'sinception,[61]isthestudyofcomputer
algorithmsthatimproveautomaticallythroughexperience.[62][63]
Unsupervisedlearningistheabilitytofindpatternsinastreamofinput.Supervisedlearningincludesboth
classificationandnumericalregression.Classificationisusedtodeterminewhatcategorysomethingbelongsin,
afterseeinganumberofexamplesofthingsfromseveralcategories.Regressionistheattempttoproducea
functionthatdescribestherelationshipbetweeninputsandoutputsandpredictshowtheoutputsshouldchange
astheinputschange.Inreinforcementlearning[64]theagentisrewardedforgoodresponsesandpunishedfor
badones.Theagentusesthissequenceofrewardsandpunishmentstoformastrategyforoperatinginits
problemspace.Thesethreetypesoflearningcanbeanalyzedintermsofdecisiontheory,usingconceptslike
utility.Themathematicalanalysisofmachinelearningalgorithmsandtheirperformanceisabranchof
theoreticalcomputerscienceknownascomputationallearningtheory.[65]
Withindevelopmentalrobotics,developmentallearningapproachesareelaboratedupontoallowrobotsto
accumulaterepertoiresofnovelskillsthroughautonomousselfexploration,socialinteractionwithhuman
teachers,andtheuseofguidancemechanisms(activelearning,maturation,motorsynergies,etc.).[66][67][68][69]
Naturallanguageprocessing
Naturallanguageprocessing[70]givesmachinestheabilitytoreadand
understandhumanlanguage.Asufficientlypowerfulnaturallanguage
processingsystemwouldenablenaturallanguageuserinterfacesand
theacquisitionofknowledgedirectlyfromhumanwrittensources,such
asnewswiretexts.Somestraightforwardapplicationsofnatural
languageprocessingincludeinformationretrieval,textmining,question
answering[71]andmachinetranslation.[72]
Acommonmethodofprocessingandextractingmeaningfromnatural
languageisthroughsemanticindexing.Althoughtheseindexesrequire
alargevolumeofuserinput,itisexpectedthatincreasesinprocessor
speedsanddecreasesindatastoragecostswillresultingreater
efficiency.
Aparsetreerepresentsthesyntactic
structureofasentenceaccordingto
Perception someformalgrammar.
Machineperception[73]istheabilitytouseinputfromsensors(suchas
cameras,microphones,tactilesensors,sonarandothers)todeduceaspectsoftheworld.Computervision[74]is
theabilitytoanalyzevisualinput.Afewselectedsubproblemsarespeechrecognition,[75]facialrecognition
andobjectrecognition.[76]
Motionandmanipulation
Thefieldofrobotics[77]iscloselyrelatedtoAI.Intelligenceisrequiredforrobotstohandletaskssuchasobject
manipulation[78]andnavigation,withsubproblemssuchaslocalization,mapping,andmotionplanning.These
systemsrequirethatanagentisableto:Bespatiallycognizantofitssurroundings,learnfromandbuildamap
ofitsenvironment,figureouthowtogetfromonepointinspacetoanother,andexecutethatmovement(which
ofteninvolvescompliantmotion,aprocesswheremovementrequiresmaintainingphysicalcontactwithan
object).[79][80]
Socialintelligence
Affectivecomputingisthestudyanddevelopmentofsystemsthatcan
recognize,interpret,process,andsimulatehumanaffects.[82][83]Itisan
interdisciplinaryfieldspanningcomputersciences,psychology,and
cognitivescience.[84]Whiletheoriginsofthefieldmaybetracedasfar
backastheearlyphilosophicalinquiriesintoemotion,[85]themore
modernbranchofcomputerscienceoriginatedwithRosalindPicard's
1995paper[86]on"affectivecomputing".[87][88]Amotivationforthe
researchistheabilitytosimulateempathy,wherethemachinewouldbe
abletointerprethumanemotionsandadaptsitsbehaviortogivean
appropriateresponsetothoseemotions.
Kismet,arobotwithrudimentarysocial
skills[81]
Emotionandsocialskills[89]areimportanttoanintelligentagentfor
tworeasons.First,beingabletopredicttheactionsofothersby
understandingtheirmotivesandemotionalstatesallowanagentto
makebetterdecisions.Conceptssuchasgametheory,decisiontheory,necessitatethatanagentbeableto
detectandmodelhumanemotions.Second,inanefforttofacilitatehumancomputerinteraction,anintelligent
machinemaywanttodisplayemotions(evenifitdoesnotexperiencethoseemotionsitself)toappearmore
sensitivetotheemotionaldynamicsofhumaninteraction.
Creativity
AsubfieldofAIaddressescreativityboththeoretically(thephilosophicalpsychologicalperspective)and
practically(thespecificimplementationofsystemsthatgeneratenovelandusefuloutputs).
Generalintelligence
Manyresearchersthinkthattheirworkwilleventuallybeincorporatedintoamachinewithartificialgeneral
intelligence,combiningalltheskillsmentionedaboveandevenexceedinghumanabilityinmostorallthese
areas.[9][90]Afewbelievethatanthropomorphicfeatureslikeartificialconsciousnessoranartificialbrainmay
berequiredforsuchaproject.[91][92]
Manyoftheproblemsabovealsorequirethatgeneralintelligencebesolved.Forexample,evenspecific
straightforwardtasks,likemachinetranslation,requirethatamachinereadandwriteinbothlanguages(NLP),
followtheauthor'sargument(reason),knowwhatisbeingtalkedabout(knowledge),andfaithfullyreproduce
theauthor'soriginalintent(socialintelligence).Aproblemlikemachinetranslationisconsidered"AI
complete",butalloftheseproblemsneedtobesolvedsimultaneouslyinordertoreachhumanlevelmachine
performance.
Approaches
ThereisnoestablishedunifyingtheoryorparadigmthatguidesAIresearch.Researchersdisagreeaboutmany
issues.[93]Afewofthemostlongstandingquestionsthathaveremainedunansweredarethese:shouldartificial
intelligencesimulatenaturalintelligencebystudyingpsychologyorneurology?Orishumanbiologyas
irrelevanttoAIresearchasbirdbiologyistoaeronauticalengineering?[94]Canintelligentbehaviorbe
describedusingsimple,elegantprinciples(suchaslogicoroptimization)?Ordoesitnecessarilyrequire
solvingalargenumberofcompletelyunrelatedproblems?[95]Canintelligencebereproducedusinghighlevel
symbols,similartowordsandideas?Ordoesitrequire"subsymbolic"processing?[96]JohnHaugeland,who
coinedthetermGOFAI(GoodOldFashionedArtificialIntelligence),alsoproposedthatAIshouldmore
properlybereferredtoassyntheticintelligence,[97]atermwhichhassincebeenadoptedbysomenonGOFAI
researchers.[98][99]
StuartShapirodividesAIresearchintothreeapproaches,whichhecallscomputationalpsychology,
computationalphilosophy,andcomputerscience.Computationalpsychologyisusedtomakecomputer
programsthatmimichumanbehavior.[100]Computationalphilosophy,isusedtodevelopanadaptive,free
flowingcomputermind.[100]Implementingcomputerscienceservesthegoalofcreatingcomputersthatcan
performtasksthatonlypeoplecouldpreviouslyaccomplish.[100]Together,thehumanesquebehavior,mind,
andactionsmakeupartificialintelligence.
Cyberneticsandbrainsimulation
Inthe1940sand1950s,anumberofresearchersexploredtheconnectionbetweenneurology,information
theory,andcybernetics.Someofthembuiltmachinesthatusedelectronicnetworkstoexhibitrudimentary
intelligence,suchasW.GreyWalter'sturtlesandtheJohnsHopkinsBeast.Manyoftheseresearchersgathered
formeetingsoftheTeleologicalSocietyatPrincetonUniversityandtheRatioClubinEngland.[18]By1960,
thisapproachwaslargelyabandoned,althoughelementsofitwouldberevivedinthe1980s.
Symbolic
Whenaccesstodigitalcomputersbecamepossibleinthemiddle1950s,AIresearchbegantoexplorethe
possibilitythathumanintelligencecouldbereducedtosymbolmanipulation.Theresearchwascenteredin
threeinstitutions:CarnegieMellonUniversity,StanfordandMIT,andeachonedevelopeditsownstyleof
research.JohnHaugelandnamedtheseapproachestoAI"goodoldfashionedAI"or"GOFAI".[101]Duringthe
1960s,symbolicapproacheshadachievedgreatsuccessatsimulatinghighlevelthinkinginsmall
demonstrationprograms.Approachesbasedoncyberneticsorneuralnetworkswereabandonedorpushedinto
thebackground.[102]Researchersinthe1960sandthe1970swereconvincedthatsymbolicapproacheswould
eventuallysucceedincreatingamachinewithartificialgeneralintelligenceandconsideredthisthegoaloftheir
field.
Cognitivesimulation
EconomistHerbertSimonandAllenNewellstudiedhumanproblemsolvingskillsandattemptedtoformalize
them,andtheirworklaidthefoundationsofthefieldofartificialintelligence,aswellascognitivescience,
operationsresearchandmanagementscience.Theirresearchteamusedtheresultsofpsychological
experimentstodevelopprogramsthatsimulatedthetechniquesthatpeopleusedtosolveproblems.This
tradition,centeredatCarnegieMellonUniversitywouldeventuallyculminateinthedevelopmentoftheSoar
architectureinthemiddle1980s.[103][104]
Logicbased
UnlikeNewellandSimon,JohnMcCarthyfeltthatmachinesdidnotneedtosimulatehumanthought,but
shouldinsteadtrytofindtheessenceofabstractreasoningandproblemsolving,regardlessofwhetherpeople
usedthesamealgorithms.[94]HislaboratoryatStanford(SAIL)focusedonusingformallogictosolveawide
varietyofproblems,includingknowledgerepresentation,planningandlearning.[105]Logicwasalsothefocus
oftheworkattheUniversityofEdinburghandelsewhereinEuropewhichledtothedevelopmentofthe
programminglanguagePrologandthescienceoflogicprogramming.[106]
Antilogicorscruffy
ResearchersatMIT(suchasMarvinMinskyandSeymourPapert)[107]foundthatsolvingdifficultproblemsin
visionandnaturallanguageprocessingrequiredadhocsolutionstheyarguedthattherewasnosimpleand
generalprinciple(likelogic)thatwouldcapturealltheaspectsofintelligentbehavior.RogerSchankdescribed
their"antilogic"approachesas"scruffy"(asopposedtothe"neat"paradigmsatCMUandStanford).[95]
Commonsenseknowledgebases(suchasDougLenat'sCyc)areanexampleof"scruffy"AI,sincetheymustbe
builtbyhand,onecomplicatedconceptatatime.[108]
Knowledgebased
Whencomputerswithlargememoriesbecameavailablearound1970,researchersfromallthreetraditions
begantobuildknowledgeintoAIapplications.[109]This"knowledgerevolution"ledtothedevelopmentand
deploymentofexpertsystems(introducedbyEdwardFeigenbaum),thefirsttrulysuccessfulformofAI
software.[28]Theknowledgerevolutionwasalsodrivenbytherealizationthatenormousamountsof
knowledgewouldberequiredbymanysimpleAIapplications.
Subsymbolic
Bythe1980sprogressinsymbolicAIseemedtostallandmanybelievedthatsymbolicsystemswouldneverbe
abletoimitatealltheprocessesofhumancognition,especiallyperception,robotics,learningandpattern
recognition.Anumberofresearchersbegantolookinto"subsymbolic"approachestospecificAI
problems.[96]Subsymbolicmethodsmanagetoapproachintelligencewithoutspecificrepresentationsof
knowledge.
Embodiedintelligence
Thisincludesembodied,situated,behaviorbased,andnouvelleAI.Researchersfromtherelatedfieldof
robotics,suchasRodneyBrooks,rejectedsymbolicAIandfocusedonthebasicengineeringproblemsthat
wouldallowrobotstomoveandsurvive.[110]Theirworkrevivedthenonsymbolicviewpointoftheearly
cyberneticsresearchersofthe1950sandreintroducedtheuseofcontroltheoryinAI.Thiscoincidedwiththe
developmentoftheembodiedmindthesisintherelatedfieldofcognitivescience:theideathataspectsofthe
body(suchasmovement,perceptionandvisualization)arerequiredforhigherintelligence.
Computationalintelligenceandsoftcomputing
Interestinneuralnetworksand"connectionism"wasrevivedbyDavidRumelhartandothersinthemiddleof
1980s.[111]Neuralnetworksareanexampleofsoftcomputingtheyaresolutionstoproblemswhichcannot
besolvedwithcompletelogicalcertainty,andwhereanapproximatesolutionisoftensufficient.Othersoft
computingapproachestoAIincludefuzzysystems,evolutionarycomputationandmanystatisticaltools.The
applicationofsoftcomputingtoAIisstudiedcollectivelybytheemergingdisciplineofcomputational
intelligence.[112]
Machinelearningandstatistics
Inthe1990s,AIresearchersdevelopedsophisticatedmathematicaltoolstosolvespecificsubproblems.These
toolsaretrulyscientific,inthesensethattheirresultsarebothmeasurableandverifiable,andtheyhavebeen
responsibleformanyofAI'srecentsuccesses.Thesharedmathematicallanguagehasalsopermittedahigh
levelofcollaborationwithmoreestablishedfields(likemathematics,economicsoroperationsresearch).Stuart
RussellandPeterNorvigdescribethismovementasnothinglessthana"revolution"and"thevictoryofthe
neats".[31]Criticsarguethatthesetechniques(withfewexceptions[113])aretoofocusedonparticularproblems
andhavefailedtoaddressthelongtermgoalofgeneralintelligence.[114]Thereisanongoingdebateaboutthe
relevanceandvalidityofstatisticalapproachesinAI,exemplifiedinpartbyexchangesbetweenPeterNorvig
andNoamChomsky.[115][116]
Integratingtheapproaches
Intelligentagentparadigm
Anintelligentagentisasystemthatperceivesitsenvironmentandtakesactionswhichmaximizeits
chancesofsuccess.Thesimplestintelligentagentsareprogramsthatsolvespecificproblems.More
complicatedagentsincludehumanbeingsandorganizationsofhumanbeings(suchasfirms).The
paradigmgivesresearcherslicensetostudyisolatedproblemsandfindsolutionsthatarebothverifiable
anduseful,withoutagreeingononesingleapproach.Anagentthatsolvesaspecificproblemcanuseany
approachthatworkssomeagentsaresymbolicandlogical,somearesubsymbolicneuralnetworksand
othersmayusenewapproaches.Theparadigmalsogivesresearchersacommonlanguageto
communicatewithotherfieldssuchasdecisiontheoryandeconomicsthatalsouseconceptsof
abstractagents.Theintelligentagentparadigmbecamewidelyacceptedduringthe1990s.[1]
Agentarchitecturesandcognitivearchitectures
Researchershavedesignedsystemstobuildintelligentsystemsoutofinteractingintelligentagentsina
multiagentsystem.[117]Asystemwithbothsymbolicandsubsymboliccomponentsisahybrid
intelligentsystem,andthestudyofsuchsystemsisartificialintelligencesystemsintegration.A
hierarchicalcontrolsystemprovidesabridgebetweensubsymbolicAIatitslowest,reactivelevelsand
traditionalsymbolicAIatitshighestlevels,whererelaxedtimeconstraintspermitplanningandworld
modelling.[118]RodneyBrooks'subsumptionarchitecturewasanearlyproposalforsuchahierarchical
system.[119]
Tools
Inthecourseof60+yearsofresearch,AIhasdevelopedalargenumberoftoolstosolvethemostdifficult
problemsincomputerscience.Afewofthemostgeneralofthesemethodsarediscussedbelow.
Searchandoptimization
ManyproblemsinAIcanbesolvedintheorybyintelligentlysearchingthroughmanypossiblesolutions:[120]
Reasoningcanbereducedtoperformingasearch.Forexample,logicalproofcanbeviewedassearchingfora
paththatleadsfrompremisestoconclusions,whereeachstepistheapplicationofaninferencerule.[121]
Planningalgorithmssearchthroughtreesofgoalsandsubgoals,attemptingtofindapathtoatargetgoal,a
processcalledmeansendsanalysis.[122]Roboticsalgorithmsformovinglimbsandgraspingobjectsuselocal
searchesinconfigurationspace.[78]Manylearningalgorithmsusesearchalgorithmsbasedonoptimization.
Simpleexhaustivesearches[123]arerarelysufficientformostrealworldproblems:thesearchspace(the
numberofplacestosearch)quicklygrowstoastronomicalnumbers.Theresultisasearchthatistooslowor
nevercompletes.Thesolution,formanyproblems,istouse"heuristics"or"rulesofthumb"thateliminate
choicesthatareunlikelytoleadtothegoal(called"pruningthesearchtree").Heuristicssupplytheprogram
witha"bestguess"forthepathonwhichthesolutionlies.[124]Heuristicslimitthesearchforsolutionsintoa
smallersamplesize.[79]
Averydifferentkindofsearchcametoprominenceinthe1990s,basedonthemathematicaltheoryof
optimization.Formanyproblems,itispossibletobeginthesearchwithsomeformofaguessandthenrefine
theguessincrementallyuntilnomorerefinementscanbemade.Thesealgorithmscanbevisualizedasblind
hillclimbing:webeginthesearchatarandompointonthelandscape,andthen,byjumpsorsteps,wekeep
movingourguessuphill,untilwereachthetop.Otheroptimizationalgorithmsaresimulatedannealing,beam
searchandrandomoptimization.[125]
Evolutionarycomputationusesaformofoptimizationsearch.Forexample,theymaybeginwithapopulation
oforganisms(theguesses)andthenallowthemtomutateandrecombine,selectingonlythefittesttosurvive
eachgeneration(refiningtheguesses).Formsofevolutionarycomputationincludeswarmintelligence
algorithms(suchasantcolonyorparticleswarmoptimization)[126]andevolutionaryalgorithms(suchas
geneticalgorithms,geneexpressionprogramming,andgeneticprogramming).[127]
Logic
Logic[128]isusedforknowledgerepresentationandproblemsolving,butitcanbeappliedtootherproblemsas
well.Forexample,thesatplanalgorithmuseslogicforplanning[129]andinductivelogicprogrammingisa
methodforlearning.[130]
SeveraldifferentformsoflogicareusedinAIresearch.Propositionalorsententiallogic[131]isthelogicof
statementswhichcanbetrueorfalse.Firstorderlogic[132]alsoallowstheuseofquantifiersandpredicates,
andcanexpressfactsaboutobjects,theirproperties,andtheirrelationswitheachother.Fuzzylogic,[133]isa
versionoffirstorderlogicwhichallowsthetruthofastatementtoberepresentedasavaluebetween0and1,
ratherthansimplyTrue(1)orFalse(0).Fuzzysystemscanbeusedforuncertainreasoningandhavebeen
widelyusedinmodernindustrialandconsumerproductcontrolsystems.Subjectivelogic[134]models
uncertaintyinadifferentandmoreexplicitmannerthanfuzzylogic:agivenbinomialopinionsatisfiesbelief+
disbelief+uncertainty=1withinaBetadistribution.Bythismethod,ignorancecanbedistinguishedfrom
probabilisticstatementsthatanagentmakeswithhighconfidence.
Defaultlogics,nonmonotoniclogicsandcircumscription[51]areformsoflogicdesignedtohelpwithdefault
reasoningandthequalificationproblem.Severalextensionsoflogichavebeendesignedtohandlespecific
domainsofknowledge,suchas:descriptionlogics[135]situationcalculus,eventcalculusandfluentcalculus
(forrepresentingeventsandtime)[136]causalcalculus[137]beliefcalculus[138]andmodallogics.[139]
Probabilisticmethodsforuncertainreasoning
ManyproblemsinAI(inreasoning,planning,learning,perceptionandrobotics)requiretheagenttooperate
withincompleteoruncertaininformation.AIresearchershavedevisedanumberofpowerfultoolstosolve
theseproblemsusingmethodsfromprobabilitytheoryandeconomics.[140]
Bayesiannetworks [141] areaverygeneraltoolthatcanbeusedforalargenumberofproblems:reasoning
Bayesiannetworks[141]areaverygeneraltoolthatcanbeusedforalargenumberofproblems:reasoning
(usingtheBayesianinferencealgorithm),[142]learning(usingtheexpectationmaximizationalgorithm),[143]
planning(usingdecisionnetworks)[144]andperception(usingdynamicBayesiannetworks).[145]Probabilistic
algorithmscanalsobeusedforfiltering,prediction,smoothingandfindingexplanationsforstreamsofdata,
helpingperceptionsystemstoanalyzeprocessesthatoccurovertime(e.g.,hiddenMarkovmodelsorKalman
filters).[145]
Akeyconceptfromthescienceofeconomicsis"utility":ameasureofhowvaluablesomethingistoan
intelligentagent.Precisemathematicaltoolshavebeendevelopedthatanalyzehowanagentcanmakechoices
andplan,usingdecisiontheory,decisionanalysis,[146]andinformationvaluetheory.[57]Thesetoolsinclude
modelssuchasMarkovdecisionprocesses,[147]dynamicdecisionnetworks,[145]gametheoryandmechanism
design.[148]
Classifiersandstatisticallearningmethods
ThesimplestAIapplicationscanbedividedintotwotypes:classifiers("ifshinythendiamond")andcontrollers
("ifshinythenpickup").Controllersdo,however,alsoclassifyconditionsbeforeinferringactions,and
thereforeclassificationformsacentralpartofmanyAIsystems.Classifiersarefunctionsthatusepattern
matchingtodetermineaclosestmatch.Theycanbetunedaccordingtoexamples,makingthemveryattractive
foruseinAI.Theseexamplesareknownasobservationsorpatterns.Insupervisedlearning,eachpattern
belongstoacertainpredefinedclass.Aclasscanbeseenasadecisionthathastobemade.Alltheobservations
combinedwiththeirclasslabelsareknownasadataset.Whenanewobservationisreceived,thatobservation
isclassifiedbasedonpreviousexperience.[149]
Aclassifiercanbetrainedinvariouswaystherearemanystatisticalandmachinelearningapproaches.The
mostwidelyusedclassifiersaretheneuralnetwork,[150]kernelmethodssuchasthesupportvector
machine,[151]knearestneighboralgorithm,[152]Gaussianmixturemodel,[153]naiveBayesclassifier,[154]and
decisiontree.[155]Theperformanceoftheseclassifiershavebeencomparedoverawiderangeoftasks.
Classifierperformancedependsgreatlyonthecharacteristicsofthedatatobeclassified.Thereisnosingle
classifierthatworksbestonallgivenproblemsthisisalsoreferredtoasthe"nofreelunch"theorem.
Determiningasuitableclassifierforagivenproblemisstillmoreanartthanscience.[156]
Neuralnetworks
Thestudyofnonlearningartificialneuralnetworks[150]beganinthe
decadebeforethefieldofAIresearchwasfounded,intheworkof
WalterPittsandWarrenMcCullouch.FrankRosenblattinventedthe
perceptron,alearningnetworkwithasinglelayer,similartotheold
conceptoflinearregression.EarlypioneersalsoincludeAlexey
GrigorevichIvakhnenko,TeuvoKohonen,StephenGrossberg,
KunihikoFukushima,ChristophvonderMalsburg,DavidWillshaw,
ShunIchiAmari,BernardWidrow,JohnHopfield,EduardoR.
Caianiello,andothers.
Themaincategoriesofnetworksareacyclicorfeedforwardneural
networks(wherethesignalpassesinonlyonedirection)andrecurrent Aneuralnetworkisaninterconnected
neuralnetworks(whichallowfeedbackandshorttermmemoriesof groupofnodes,akintothevast
previousinputevents).Amongthemostpopularfeedforwardnetworks networkofneuronsinthehumanbrain.
areperceptrons,multilayerperceptronsandradialbasisnetworks.[157]
Neuralnetworkscanbeappliedtotheproblemofintelligentcontrol
(forrobotics)orlearning,usingsuchtechniquesasHebbianlearning,GMDHorcompetitivelearning.[158]
Today,neuralnetworksareoftentrainedbythebackpropagationalgorithm,whichhadbeenaroundsince1970
asthereversemodeofautomaticdifferentiationpublishedbySeppoLinnainmaa,[159][160]andwasintroduced
toneuralnetworksbyPaulWerbos.[161][162][163]
Hierarchicaltemporalmemoryisanapproachthatmodelssomeofthestructuralandalgorithmicpropertiesof
theneocortex.[164]
Deepfeedforwardneuralnetworks
Deeplearninginartificialneuralnetworkswithmanylayershastransformedmanyimportantsubfieldsof
artificialintelligence,includingcomputervision,speechrecognition,naturallanguageprocessingand
others.[165][166][167]
Accordingtoasurvey,[168]theexpression"DeepLearning"wasintroducedtotheMachineLearning
communitybyRinaDechterin1986[169]andgainedtractionafterIgorAizenbergandcolleaguesintroducedit
toArtificialNeuralNetworksin2000.[170]ThefirstfunctionalDeepLearningnetworkswerepublishedby
AlexeyGrigorevichIvakhnenkoandV.G.Lapain1965.[171]Thesenetworksaretrainedonelayeratatime.
Ivakhnenko's1971paper[172]describesthelearningofadeepfeedforwardmultilayerperceptronwitheight
layers,alreadymuchdeeperthanmanylaternetworks.In2006,apublicationbyGeoffreyHintonandRuslan
Salakhutdinovintroducedanotherwayofpretrainingmanylayeredfeedforwardneuralnetworks(FNNs)one
layeratatime,treatingeachlayerinturnasanunsupervisedrestrictedBoltzmannmachine,thenusing
supervisedbackpropagationforfinetuning.[173]Similartoshallowartificialneuralnetworks,deepneural
networkscanmodelcomplexnonlinearrelationships.Overthelastfewyears,advancesinbothmachine
learningalgorithmsandcomputerhardwarehaveledtomoreefficientmethodsfortrainingdeepneural
networksthatcontainmanylayersofnonlinearhiddenunitsandaverylargeoutputlayer.[174]
Deeplearningoftenusesconvolutionalneuralnetworks(CNNs),whoseoriginscanbetracedbacktothe
NeocognitronintroducedbyKunihikoFukushimain1980.[175]In1989,YannLeCunandcolleaguesapplied
backpropagationtosuchanarchitecture.Intheearly2000s,inanindustrialapplicationCNNsalready
processedanestimated10%to20%ofallthecheckswrittenintheUS.[176]Since2011,fastimplementations
ofCNNsonGPUshavewonmanyvisualpatternrecognitioncompetitions.[167]
DeepfeedforwardneuralnetworkswereusedinconjunctionwithreinforcementlearningbyAlphaGo,Google
Deepmind'sprogramthatwasthefirsttobeataprofessionalhumanGoplayer.[177]
Deeprecurrentneuralnetworks
Earlyon,deeplearningwasalsoappliedtosequencelearningwithrecurrentneuralnetworks(RNNs)[178]
whicharegeneralcomputersandcanrunarbitraryprogramstoprocessarbitrarysequencesofinputs.Thedepth
ofanRNNisunlimitedanddependsonthelengthofitsinputsequence.[167]RNNscanbetrainedbygradient
descent[179][180][181]butsufferfromthevanishinggradientproblem.[165][182]In1992,itwasshownthat
unsupervisedpretrainingofastackofrecurrentneuralnetworkscanspeedupsubsequentsupervisedlearning
ofdeepsequentialproblems.[183]
NumerousresearchersnowusevariantsofadeeplearningrecurrentNNcalledthelongshorttermmemory
(LSTM)networkpublishedbyHochreiter&Schmidhuberin1997.[184]LSTMisoftentrainedby
ConnectionistTemporalClassification(CTC).[185]AtGoogle,MicrosoftandBaiduthisapproachhas
revolutionisedspeechrecognition.[186][187][188]Forexample,in2015,Google'sspeechrecognition
experiencedadramaticperformancejumpof49%throughCTCtrainedLSTM,whichisnowavailablethrough
GoogleVoicetobillionsofsmartphoneusers.[189]GooglealsousedLSTMtoimprovemachine
translation,[190]LanguageModeling[191]andMultilingualLanguageProcessing.[192]LSTMcombinedwith
CNNsalsoimprovedautomaticimagecaptioning[193]andaplethoraofotherapplications.
Controltheory
Controltheory,thegrandchildofcybernetics,hasmanyimportantapplications,especiallyinrobotics.[194]
Languages
AIresearchershavedevelopedseveralspecializedlanguagesforAIresearch,includingLisp
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence
[195] and 12/42
AIresearchershavedevelopedseveralspecializedlanguagesforAIresearch,includingLisp[195]and
Prolog.[196]
Evaluatingprogress
In1950,AlanTuringproposedageneralproceduretotesttheintelligenceofanagentnowknownastheTuring
test.Thisprocedureallowsalmostallthemajorproblemsofartificialintelligencetobetested.However,itisa
verydifficultchallengeandatpresentallagentsfail.[197]
Artificialintelligencecanalsobeevaluatedonspecificproblemssuchassmallproblemsinchemistry,hand
writingrecognitionandgameplaying.SuchtestshavebeentermedsubjectmatterexpertTuringtests.Smaller
problemsprovidemoreachievablegoalsandthereareaneverincreasingnumberofpositiveresults.[198]
Forexample,performanceatdraughts(i.e.checkers)isoptimal,[199]performanceatchessishighhumanand
nearingsuperhuman(seecomputerchess:computersversushuman)andperformanceatmanyeverydaytasks
(suchasrecognizingafaceorcrossingaroomwithoutbumpingintosomething)issubhuman.
Aquitedifferentapproachmeasuresmachineintelligencethroughtestswhicharedevelopedfrom
mathematicaldefinitionsofintelligence.Examplesofthesekindsoftestsstartinthelateninetiesdevising
intelligencetestsusingnotionsfromKolmogorovcomplexityanddatacompression.[200]Twomajor
advantagesofmathematicaldefinitionsaretheirapplicabilitytononhumanintelligencesandtheirabsenceofa
requirementforhumantesters.
AderivativeoftheTuringtestistheCompletelyAutomatedPublicTuringtesttotellComputersandHumans
Apart(CAPTCHA).Asthenameimplies,thishelpstodeterminethatauserisanactualpersonandnota
computerposingasahuman.IncontrasttothestandardTuringtest,CAPTCHAadministeredbyamachineand
targetedtoahumanasopposedtobeingadministeredbyahumanandtargetedtoamachine.Acomputerasksa
usertocompleteasimpletestthengeneratesagradeforthattest.Computersareunabletosolvetheproblem,
socorrectsolutionsaredeemedtobetheresultofapersontakingthetest.AcommontypeofCAPTCHAisthe
testthatrequiresthetypingofdistortedletters,numbersorsymbolsthatappearinanimageundecipherableby
acomputer.[201]
Applications
AIisrelevanttoanyintellectualtask.[202]Modernartificialintelligence
techniquesarepervasiveandaretoonumeroustolisthere.Frequently,
whenatechniquereachesmainstreamuse,itisnolongerconsidered
artificialintelligencethisphenomenonisdescribedastheAI
effect.[203]
HighprofileexamplesofAIincludeautonomousvehicles(suchas
dronesandselfdrivingcars),medicaldiagnosis,creatingart(suchas
poetry),provingmathematicaltheorems,playinggames(suchasChess
orGo),searchengines(suchasGooglesearch),onlineassistants(such
asSiri),imagerecognitioninphotographs,spamfiltering,predictionof
judicialdecisions[204]andtargetingonline
advertisements.[202][205][206]
WithsocialmediasitesovertakingTVasasourcefornewsforyoung
peopleandnewsorganisationsincreasinglyreliantonsocialmedia
Anautomatedonlineassistant
platformsforgeneratingdistribution,[207]majorpublishersnowuse
providingcustomerserviceonaweb
artificialintelligence(AI)technologytopoststoriesmoreeffectively
pageoneofmanyveryprimitive
andgeneratehighervolumesoftraffic.[208]
applicationsofartificialintelligence.
Competitionsandprizes
Thereareanumberofcompetitionsandprizestopromoteresearchinartificialintelligence.Themainareas
promotedare:generalmachineintelligence,conversationalbehavior,datamining,roboticcars,robotsoccer
andgames.
Healthcare
Artificialintelligenceisbreakingintothehealthcareindustrybyassistingdoctors.AccordingtoBloomberg
Technology,MicrosofthasdevelopedAItohelpdoctorsfindtherighttreatmentsforcancer.[209]Thereisa
greatamountofresearchanddrugsdevelopedrelatingtocancer.Indetail,therearemorethan800medicines
andvaccinestotreatcancer.Thisnegativelyaffectsthedoctors,becausetherearewaytoomanyoptionsto
choosefrom,makingitmoredifficulttochoosetherightdrugsforthepatients.Microsoftisworkingona
projecttodevelopamachinecalled"Hanover".Itsgoalistomemorizeallthepapersnecessarytocancerand
helppredictwhichcombinationsofdrugswillbemosteffectiveforeachpatient.Oneprojectthatisbeing
workedonatthemomentisfightingmyeloidleukemia,afatalcancerwherethetreatmenthasnotimprovedin
decades.Anotherstudywasreportedtohavefoundthatartificialintelligencewasasgoodastraineddoctorsin
identifyingskincancers.[210]Anotherstudyisusingartificialintelligencetotryandmonitormultiplehighrisk
patients,andthisisdonebyaskingeachpatientnumerousquestionsbasedondataacquiredfromlivedoctorto
patientinteractions.[211]
AccordingtoCNN,therewasarecentstudybysurgeonsattheChildren'sNationalMedicalCenterin
Washingtonwhichsuccessfullydemonstratedsurgerywithanautonomousrobot.Theteamsupervisedtherobot
whileitperformedsofttissuesurgery,stitchingtogetherapig'sbowelduringopensurgery,anddoingsobetter
thanahumansurgeon,theteamclaimed.[212]
Automotive
AdvancementsinAIhavecontributedtothegrowthoftheautomotiveindustrythroughthecreationand
evolutionofselfdrivingvehicles.Asof2016,thereareover30companiesutilizingAIintothecreationof
driverlesscars.AfewcompaniesinvolvedwithAIincludeTesla,Google,andApple.[213]
Manycomponentscontributetothefunctioningofselfdrivingcars.Thesevehiclesincorporatesystemssuchas
braking,lanechanging,collisionprevention,navigationandmapping.Together,thesesystems,aswellashigh
performancecomputersareintegratedintoonecomplexvehicle.[214]
Onemainfactorthatinfluencestheabilityforadriverlesscartofunctionismapping.Ingeneral,thevehicle
wouldbepreprogrammedwithamapoftheareabeingdriven.Thismapwouldincludedataonthe
approximationsofstreetlightandcurbheightsinorderforthevehicletobeawareofitssurroundings.
However,Googlehasbeenworkingonanalgorithmwiththepurposeofeliminatingtheneedforpre
programmedmapsandinstead,creatingadevicethatwouldbeabletoadjusttoavarietyofnew
surroundings.[215]Someselfdrivingcarsarenotequippedwithsteeringwheelsorbrakes,sotherehasalso
beenresearchfocusedoncreatinganalgorithmthatiscapableofmaintainingasafeenvironmentforthe
passengersinthevehiclethroughawarenessofspeedanddrivingconditions.[216]
Finance
Financialinstitutionshavelongusedartificialneuralnetworksystemstodetectchargesorclaimsoutsideofthe
norm,flaggingtheseforhumaninvestigation.
UseofAIinbankingcanbetrackedbackto1987whenSecurityPacificNationalBankinUSAsetupaFraud
PreventionTaskforcetocountertheunauthoriseduseofdebitcards.AppslikeKasisitoandMoneystreamare
usingAIinfinancialservices
Banksuseartificialintelligencesystemstoorganizeoperations,maintainbookkeeping,investinstocks,and
manageproperties.AIcanreacttochangesovernightorwhenbusinessisnottakingplace.[217]InAugust2001,
robotsbeathumansinasimulatedfinancialtradingcompetition.[218]
AIhasalsoreducedfraudandcrimebymonitoringbehavioralpatternsofusersforanychangesor
anomalies.[219]
Videogames
Artificialintelligenceisusedtogenerateintelligentbehaviorsprimarilyinnonplayercharacters(NPCs),often
simulatinghumanlikeintelligence.[220]
Platforms
Aplatform(or"computingplatform")isdefinedas"somesortofhardwarearchitectureorsoftwareframework
(includingapplicationframeworks),thatallowssoftwaretorun".AsRodneyBrookspointedoutmanyyears
ago,[221]itisnotjusttheartificialintelligencesoftwarethatdefinestheAIfeaturesoftheplatform,butrather
theactualplatformitselfthataffectstheAIthatresults,i.e.,thereneedstobeworkinAIproblemsonreal
worldplatformsratherthaninisolation.
AwidevarietyofplatformshasalloweddifferentaspectsofAItodevelop,rangingfromexpertsystemssuch
asCyctodeeplearningframeworkstorobotplatformssuchastheRoombawithopeninterface.[222]Recent
advancesindeepartificialneuralnetworksanddistributedcomputinghaveledtoaproliferationofsoftware
libraries,includingDeeplearning4j,TensorFlow,TheanoandTorch.
CollectiveAIisaplatformarchitecturethatcombinesindividualAIintoacollectiveentity,inordertoachieve
globalresultsfromindividualbehaviors.[223][224]Withitscollectivestructure,developerscancrowdsource
informationandextendthefunctionalityofexistingAIdomainsontheplatformfortheirownuse,aswellas
continuetocreateandsharenewdomainsandcapabilitiesforthewidercommunityandgreatergood.[225]As
developerscontinuetocontribute,theoverallplatformgrowsmoreintelligentandisabletoperformmore
requests,providingascalablemodelforgreatercommunalbenefit.[224]OrganizationslikeSoundHoundInc.
andtheHarvardJohnA.PaulsonSchoolofEngineeringandAppliedScienceshaveusedthiscollaborativeAI
model.[226][224]
PartnershiponAI
Amazon,Google,Facebook,IBM,andMicrosofthaveestablishedanonprofitpartnershiptoformulatebest
practicesonartificialintelligencetechnologies,advancethepublic'sunderstanding,andtoserveasaplatform
aboutartificialintelligence.[227]Theystated:"ThispartnershiponAIwillconductresearch,organize
discussions,providethoughtleadership,consultwithrelevantthirdparties,respondtoquestionsfromthe
publicandmedia,andcreateeducationalmaterialthatadvancetheunderstandingofAItechnologiesincluding
machineperception,learning,andautomatedreasoning."[227]Applejoinedothertechcompaniesasafounding
memberofthePartnershiponAIinJanuary2017.Thecorporatememberswillmakefinancialandresearch
contributionstothegroup,whileengagingwiththescientificcommunitytobringacademicsontothe
board.[228][224]
Philosophyandethics
TherearethreephilosophicalquestionsrelatedtoAI:
1.Isartificialgeneralintelligencepossible?Canamachinesolveanyproblemthatahumanbeingcansolve
usingintelligence?Oraretherehardlimitstowhatamachinecanaccomplish?
2.Areintelligentmachinesdangerous?Howcanweensurethatmachinesbehaveethicallyandthattheyare
usedethically?
3.Canamachinehaveamind,consciousnessandmentalstatesinexactlythesamesensethathuman
beingsdo?Canamachinebesentient,andthusdeservecertainrights?Canamachineintentionallycause
harm?
Thelimitsofartificialgeneralintelligence
Canamachinebeintelligent?Canit"think"?
Turing's"politeconvention"
Weneednotdecideifamachinecan"think"weneedonlydecideifamachinecanactasintelligentlyas
ahumanbeing.Thisapproachtothephilosophicalproblemsassociatedwithartificialintelligenceforms
thebasisoftheTuringtest.[197]
TheDartmouthproposal
"Everyaspectoflearningoranyotherfeatureofintelligencecanbesopreciselydescribedthatamachine
canbemadetosimulateit."ThisconjecturewasprintedintheproposalfortheDartmouthConferenceof
1956,andrepresentsthepositionofmostworkingAIresearchers.[229]
NewellandSimon'sphysicalsymbolsystemhypothesis
"Aphysicalsymbolsystemhasthenecessaryandsufficientmeansofgeneralintelligentaction."Newell
andSimonarguethatintelligenceconsistsofformaloperationsonsymbols.[230]HubertDreyfusargued
that,onthecontrary,humanexpertisedependsonunconsciousinstinctratherthanconscioussymbol
manipulationandonhavinga"feel"forthesituationratherthanexplicitsymbolicknowledge.(See
Dreyfus'critiqueofAI.)[231][232]
Gdelianarguments
Gdelhimself,[233]JohnLucas(in1961)andRogerPenrose(inamoredetailedargumentfrom1989
onwards)madehighlytechnicalargumentsthathumanmathematicianscanconsistentlyseethetruthof
theirown"Gdelstatements"andthereforehavecomputationalabilitiesbeyondthatofmechanical
Turingmachines.[234]However,themodernconsensusinthescientificandmathematicalcommunityis
thatthese"Gdelianarguments"fail.[235][236][237]
Theartificialbrainargument
Thebraincanbesimulatedbymachinesandbecausebrainsareintelligent,simulatedbrainsmustalsobe
intelligentthusmachinescanbeintelligent.HansMoravec,RayKurzweilandothershavearguedthatit
istechnologicallyfeasibletocopythebraindirectlyintohardwareandsoftware,andthatsucha
simulationwillbeessentiallyidenticaltotheoriginal.[92]
TheAIeffect
Machinesarealreadyintelligent,butobservershavefailedtorecognizeit.WhenDeepBluebeatGarry
Kasparovinchess,themachinewasactingintelligently.However,onlookerscommonlydiscountthe
behaviorofanartificialintelligenceprogrambyarguingthatitisnot"real"intelligenceafterallthus
"real"intelligenceiswhateverintelligentbehaviorpeoplecandothatmachinesstillcannot.Thisis
knownastheAIEffect:"AIiswhateverhasn'tbeendoneyet."
Potentialrisksandmoralreasoning
Widespreaduseofartificialintelligencecouldhaveunintendedconsequencesthataredangerousorundesirable.
ScientistsfromtheFutureofLifeInstitute,amongothers,describedsomeshorttermresearchgoalstobehow
AIinfluencestheeconomy,thelawsandethicsthatareinvolvedwithAIandhowtominimizeAIsecurity
risks.Inthelongterm,thescientistshaveproposedtocontinueoptimizingfunctionwhileminimizingpossible
securityrisksthatcomealongwithnewtechnologies.[238]
Machineswithintelligencehavethepotentialtousetheirintelligencetomakeethicaldecisions.Researchin
thisareaincludes"machineethics","artificialmoralagents",andthestudyof"malevolentvs.friendlyAI".
Existentialrisk
Thedevelopmentoffullartificialintelligencecouldspelltheendofthehumanrace.Oncehumans
developartificialintelligence,itwilltakeoffonitsownandredesignitselfataneverincreasing
rate.Humans,whoarelimitedbyslowbiologicalevolution,couldn'tcompeteandwouldbe
superseded.
StephenHawking[239]
Acommonconcernaboutthedevelopmentofartificialintelligenceisthepotentialthreatitcouldposeto
mankind.ThisconcernhasrecentlygainedattentionaftermentionsbycelebritiesincludingStephenHawking,
BillGates,[240]andElonMusk.[241]AgroupofprominenttechtitansincludingPeterThiel,AmazonWeb
ServicesandMuskhavecommitted$1billiontoOpenAIanonprofitcompanyaimedatchampioning
responsibleAIdevelopment.[242]Theopinionofexpertswithinthefieldofartificialintelligenceismixed,with
sizablefractionsbothconcernedandunconcernedbyriskfromeventualsuperhumanlycapableAI.[243]
InhisbookSuperintelligence,NickBostromprovidesanargumentthatartificialintelligencewillposeathreat
tomankind.HearguesthatsufficientlyintelligentAI,ifitchoosesactionsbasedonachievingsomegoal,will
exhibitconvergentbehaviorsuchasacquiringresourcesorprotectingitselffrombeingshutdown.IfthisAI's
goalsdonotreflecthumanity'soneexampleisanAItoldtocomputeasmanydigitsofpiaspossibleit
mightharmhumanityinordertoacquiremoreresourcesorpreventitselffrombeingshutdown,ultimatelyto
betterachieveitsgoal.
Forthisdangertoberealized,thehypotheticalAIwouldhavetooverpoweroroutthinkallofhumanity,which
aminorityofexpertsargueisapossibilityfarenoughinthefuturetonotbeworthresearching.[244][245]Other
counterargumentsrevolvearoundhumansbeingeitherintrinsicallyorconvergentlyvaluablefromthe
perspectiveofanartificialintelligence.[246]
Concernoverriskfromartificialintelligencehasledtosomehighprofiledonationsandinvestments.In
January2015,ElonMuskdonatedtenmilliondollarstotheFutureofLifeInstitutetofundresearchon
understandingAIdecisionmaking.Thegoaloftheinstituteisto"growwisdomwithwhichwemanage"the
growingpoweroftechnology.MuskalsofundscompaniesdevelopingartificialintelligencesuchasGoogle
DeepMindandVicariousto"justkeepaneyeonwhat'sgoingonwithartificialintelligence.[247]Ithinkthereis
potentiallyadangerousoutcomethere."[248][249]
Developmentofmilitarizedartificialintelligenceisarelatedconcern.Currently,50+countriesareresearching
battlefieldrobots,includingtheUnitedStates,China,Russia,andtheUnitedKingdom.Manypeopleconcerned
aboutriskfromsuperintelligentAIalsowanttolimittheuseofartificialsoldiers.[250]
Devaluationofhumanity
JosephWeizenbaumwrotethatAIapplicationscannot,bydefinition,successfullysimulategenuinehuman
empathyandthattheuseofAItechnologyinfieldssuchascustomerserviceorpsychotherapy[251]wasdeeply
misguided.WeizenbaumwasalsobotheredthatAIresearchers(andsomephilosophers)werewillingtoview
thehumanmindasnothingmorethanacomputerprogram(apositionnowknownascomputationalism).To
WeizenbaumthesepointssuggestthatAIresearchdevalueshumanlife.[252]
Decreaseindemandforhumanlabor
MartinFord,authorofTheLightsintheTunnel:Automation,AcceleratingTechnologyandtheEconomyofthe
Future,[253]andothersarguethatspecializedartificialintelligenceapplications,roboticsandotherformsof
automationwillultimatelyresultinsignificantunemploymentasmachinesbegintomatchandexceedthe
capabilityofworkerstoperformmostroutineandrepetitivejobs.Fordpredictsthatmanyknowledgebased
occupationsandinparticularentryleveljobswillbeincreasinglysusceptibletoautomationviaexpert
systems,machinelearning[254]andotherAIenhancedapplications.AIbasedapplicationsmayalsobeusedto
amplifythecapabilitiesoflowwageoffshoreworkers,makingitmorefeasibletooutsourceknowledge
work.[255]
Artificialmoralagents
ThisraisestheissueofhowethicallythemachineshouldbehavetowardsbothhumansandotherAIagents.
ThisissuewasaddressedbyWendellWallachinhisbooktitledMoralMachinesinwhichheintroducedthe
conceptofartificialmoralagents(AMA).[256]ForWallach,AMAshavebecomeapartoftheresearch
landscapeofartificialintelligenceasguidedbyitstwocentralquestionswhichheidentifiesas"DoesHumanity
WantComputersMakingMoralDecisions"[257]and"Can(Ro)botsReallyBeMoral".[258]ForWallachthe
questionisnotcenteredontheissueofwhethermachinescandemonstratetheequivalentofmoralbehaviorin
contrasttotheconstraintswhichsocietymayplaceonthedevelopmentofAMAs.[259]
Machineethics
Thefieldofmachineethicsisconcernedwithgivingmachinesethicalprinciples,oraprocedurefordiscovering
awaytoresolvetheethicaldilemmastheymightencounter,enablingthemtofunctioninanethically
responsiblemannerthroughtheirownethicaldecisionmaking.[260]ThefieldwasdelineatedintheAAAIFall
2005SymposiumonMachineEthics:"Pastresearchconcerningtherelationshipbetweentechnologyandethics
haslargelyfocusedonresponsibleandirresponsibleuseoftechnologybyhumanbeings,withafewpeople
beinginterestedinhowhumanbeingsoughttotreatmachines.Inallcases,onlyhumanbeingshaveengagedin
ethicalreasoning.Thetimehascomeforaddinganethicaldimensiontoatleastsomemachines.Recognitionof
theethicalramificationsofbehaviorinvolvingmachines,aswellasrecentandpotentialdevelopmentsin
machineautonomy,necessitatethis.Incontrasttocomputerhacking,softwarepropertyissues,privacyissues
andothertopicsnormallyascribedtocomputerethics,machineethicsisconcernedwiththebehaviorof
machinestowardshumanusersandothermachines.Researchinmachineethicsiskeytoalleviatingconcerns
withautonomoussystemsitcouldbearguedthatthenotionofautonomousmachineswithoutsucha
dimensionisattherootofallfearconcerningmachineintelligence.Further,investigationofmachineethics
couldenablethediscoveryofproblemswithcurrentethicaltheories,advancingourthinkingaboutEthics."[261]
Machineethicsissometimesreferredtoasmachinemorality,computationalethicsorcomputationalmorality.
Avarietyofperspectivesofthisnascentfieldcanbefoundinthecollectededition"MachineEthics"[260]that
stemsfromtheAAAIFall2005SymposiumonMachineEthics.[261]
MalevolentandfriendlyAI
PoliticalscientistCharlesT.RubinbelievesthatAIcanbeneitherdesignednorguaranteedtobe
benevolent.[262]Hearguesthat"anysufficientlyadvancedbenevolencemaybeindistinguishablefrom
malevolence."Humansshouldnotassumemachinesorrobotswouldtreatusfavorably,becausethereisnoa
priorireasontobelievethattheywouldbesympathetictooursystemofmorality,whichhasevolvedalong
withourparticularbiology(whichAIswouldnotshare).Hyperintelligentsoftwaremaynotnecessarilydecide
tosupportthecontinuedexistenceofmankind,andwouldbeextremelydifficulttostop.Thistopichasalso
recentlybeguntobediscussedinacademicpublicationsasarealsourceofriskstocivilization,humans,and
planetEarth.
PhysicistStephenHawking,MicrosoftfounderBillGates,andSpaceXfounderElonMuskhaveexpressed
concernsaboutthepossibilitythatAIcouldevolvetothepointthathumanscouldnotcontrolit,withHawking
theorizingthatthiscould"spelltheendofthehumanrace".[263]
OneproposaltodealwiththisistoensurethatthefirstgenerallyintelligentAIis'FriendlyAI',andwillthenbe
abletocontrolsubsequentlydevelopedAIs.Somequestionwhetherthiskindofcheckcouldreallyremainin
place.
LeadingAIresearcherRodneyBrookswrites,"Ithinkitisamistaketobeworryingaboutusdeveloping
malevolentAIanytimeinthenextfewhundredyears.Ithinktheworrystemsfromafundamentalerrorinnot
distinguishingthedifferencebetweentheveryrealrecentadvancesinaparticularaspectofAI,andthe
enormityandcomplexityofbuildingsentientvolitionalintelligence."[264]
Machineconsciousness,sentienceandmind
IfanAIsystemreplicatesallkeyaspectsofhumanintelligence,willthatsystemalsobesentientwillithavea
mindwhichhasconsciousexperiences?Thisquestioniscloselyrelatedtothephilosophicalproblemastothe
natureofhumanconsciousness,generallyreferredtoasthehardproblemofconsciousness.
Consciousness
Computationalismandfunctionalism
Computationalismisthepositioninthephilosophyofmindthatthehumanmindorthehumanbrain(orboth)
isaninformationprocessingsystemandthatthinkingisaformofcomputing.[265]Computationalismargues
thattherelationshipbetweenmindandbodyissimilaroridenticaltotherelationshipbetweensoftwareand
hardwareandthusmaybeasolutiontothemindbodyproblem.Thisphilosophicalpositionwasinspiredbythe
workofAIresearchersandcognitivescientistsinthe1960sandwasoriginallyproposedbyphilosophersJerry
FodorandHilaryPutnam.
StrongAIhypothesis
ThephilosophicalpositionthatJohnSearlehasnamed"strongAI"states:"Theappropriatelyprogrammed
computerwiththerightinputsandoutputswouldtherebyhaveamindinexactlythesamesensehumanbeings
haveminds."[266]SearlecountersthisassertionwithhisChineseroomargument,whichasksustolookinside
thecomputerandtrytofindwherethe"mind"mightbe.[267]
Robotrights
MaryShelley'sFrankensteinconsidersakeyissueintheethicsofartificialintelligence:ifamachinecanbe
createdthathasintelligence,coulditalsofeel?Ifitcanfeel,doesithavethesamerightsasahuman?Theidea
alsoappearsinmodernsciencefiction,suchasthefilmA.I.:ArtificialIntelligence,inwhichhumanoid
machineshavetheabilitytofeelemotions.Thisissue,nowknownas"robotrights",iscurrentlybeing
consideredby,forexample,California'sInstitutefortheFuture,althoughmanycriticsbelievethatthe
discussionispremature.[268]Somecriticsoftranshumanismarguethatanyhypotheticalrobotrightswouldlie
onaspectrumwithanimalrightsandhumanrights.[269]Thesubjectisprofoundlydiscussedinthe2010
documentaryfilmPlug&Pray.[270]
Superintelligence
Aretherelimitstohowintelligentmachinesorhumanmachinehybridscanbe?Asuperintelligence,
hyperintelligence,orsuperhumanintelligenceisahypotheticalagentthatwouldpossessintelligencefar
surpassingthatofthebrightestandmostgiftedhumanmind.Superintelligencemayalsorefertotheformor
degreeofintelligencepossessedbysuchanagent.[90]
Technologicalsingularity
IfresearchintoStrongAIproducedsufficientlyintelligentsoftware,itmightbeabletoreprogramandimprove
itself.Theimprovedsoftwarewouldbeevenbetteratimprovingitself,leadingtorecursiveself
improvement.[271]Thenewintelligencecouldthusincreaseexponentiallyanddramaticallysurpasshumans.
SciencefictionwriterVernorVingenamedthisscenario"singularity".[272]Technologicalsingularityiswhen
acceleratingprogressintechnologieswillcausearunawayeffectwhereinartificialintelligencewillexceed
humanintellectualcapacityandcontrol,thusradicallychangingorevenendingcivilization.Becausethe
capabilitiesofsuchanintelligencemaybeimpossibletocomprehend,thetechnologicalsingularityisan
occurrencebeyondwhicheventsareunpredictableorevenunfathomable.[272][90]
RayKurzweilhasusedMoore'slaw(whichdescribestherelentlessexponentialimprovementindigital
technology)tocalculatethatdesktopcomputerswillhavethesameprocessingpowerashumanbrainsbythe
year2029,andpredictsthatthesingularitywilloccurin2045.[272]
Transhumanism
Youawakeonemorningtofindyourbrainhasanotherlobefunctioning.Invisible,thisauxiliary
lobeanswersyourquestionswithinformationbeyondtherealmofyourownmemory,suggests
plausiblecoursesofaction,andasksquestionsthathelpbringoutrelevantfacts.Youquicklycome
torelyonthenewlobesomuchthatyoustopwonderinghowitworks.Youjustuseit.Thisisthe
dreamofartificialintelligence.
Byte,April1985[273]
RobotdesignerHansMoravec,cyberneticistKevinWarwickandinventorRayKurzweilhavepredictedthat
humansandmachineswillmergeinthefutureintocyborgsthataremorecapableandpowerfulthaneither.[274]
Thisidea,calledtranshumanism,whichhasrootsinAldousHuxleyandRobertEttinger,hasbeenillustratedin
fictionaswell,forexampleinthemangaGhostintheShellandthesciencefictionseriesDune.
Inthe1980sartistHajimeSorayama'sSexyRobotsserieswerepaintedandpublishedinJapandepictingthe
actualorganichumanformwithlifelikemuscularmetallicskinsandlater"theGynoids"bookfollowedthat
wasusedbyorinfluencedmoviemakersincludingGeorgeLucasandothercreatives.Sorayamanever
consideredtheseorganicrobotstoberealpartofnaturebutalwaysunnaturalproductofthehumanmind,a
fantasyexistinginthemindevenwhenrealizedinactualform.
EdwardFredkinarguesthat"artificialintelligenceisthenextstageinevolution",anideafirstproposedby
SamuelButler's"DarwinamongtheMachines"(1863),andexpandeduponbyGeorgeDysoninhisbookofthe
samenamein1998.[275]
Infiction
Thoughtcapableartificialbeingshaveappearedasstorytellingdevicessinceantiquity.[14]
Theimplicationsofaconstructedmachineexhibitingartificialintelligencehavebeenapersistentthemein
sciencefictionsincethetwentiethcentury.Earlystoriestypicallyrevolvedaroundintelligentrobots.Theword
"robot"itselfwascoinedbyKarelapekinhis1921playR.U.R.,thetitlestandingfor"Rossum'sUniversal
Robots".Later,theSFwriterIsaacAsimovdevelopedtheThreeLawsofRoboticswhichhesubsequently
exploredinalongseriesofrobotstories.Asimov'slawsareoftenbroughtupduringlaymandiscussionsof
machineethics[276]whilealmostallartificialintelligenceresearchersarefamiliarwithAsimov'slawsthrough
popularculture,theygenerallyconsiderthelawsuselessformanyreasons,oneofwhichistheirambiguity.[277]
ThenovelDoAndroidsDreamofElectricSheep?,byPhilipK.Dick,tellsasciencefictionstoryabout
Androidsandhumansclashinginafuturisticworld.Elementsofartificialintelligenceincludetheempathybox,
moodorgan,andtheandroidsthemselves.Throughoutthenovel,Dickportraystheideathathumansubjectivity
isalteredbytechnologycreatedwithartificialintelligence.[278]
NowadaysAIisfirmlyrootedinpopularcultureintelligentrobotsappearininnumerableworks.HAL,the
murderouscomputerinchargeofthespaceshipin2001:ASpaceOdyssey(1968),isanexampleofthe
common"roboticrampage"archetypeinsciencefictionmovies.TheTerminator(1984)andTheMatrix(1999)
provideadditionalwidelyfamiliarexamples.Incontrast,therareloyalrobotssuchasGortfromTheDaythe
EarthStoodStill(1951)andBishopfromAliens(1986)arelessprominentinpopularculture.[279]
Seealso
Abductivereasoning
Casebasedreasoning
Commonsensereasoning
Emergentalgorithm
Evolutionarycomputing
Glossaryofartificialintelligence
Machinelearning
Mathematicaloptimization
Softcomputing
Swarmintelligence
Notes
1.Theintelligentagentparadigm:
Russell&Norvig2003,pp.27,3258,968972
Poole,Mackworth&Goebel1998,pp.721
Luger&Stubblefield2004,pp.235240
Hutter2005,pp.125126
Thedefinitionusedinthisarticle,intermsofgoals,actions,perceptionandenvironment,isdueto
Russell&Norvig(2003).Otherdefinitionsalsoincludeknowledgeandlearningasadditionalcriteria.
2.Russell&Norvig2009,p.2.
3.Hofstadter(1980,p.601)
4.Schank,RogerC.(1991)."Where'stheAI".AImagazine.Vol.12no.4.p.38.
5.Russell&Norvig2009.
6."AlphaGoGoogleDeepMind"(https://deepmind.com/alphago.html).
7.PamelaMcCorduck(2004,pp.424)writesof"theroughshatteringofAIinsubfieldsvision,natural
language,decisiontheory,geneticalgorithms,robotics...andthesewithownsubsubfieldthatwould
hardlyhaveanythingtosaytoeachother."
8.ThislistofintelligenttraitsisbasedonthetopicscoveredbythemajorAItextbooks,including:
Russell&Norvig2003
Luger&Stubblefield2004
Poole,Mackworth&Goebel1998
Nilsson1998
9.Generalintelligence(strongAI)isdiscussedinpopularintroductionstoAI:
Kurzweil1999andKurzweil2005
10.SeetheDartmouthproposal,underPhilosophy,below.
11.ThisisacentralideaofPamelaMcCorduck'sMachinesWhoThink.Shewrites:"Iliketothinkof
artificialintelligenceasthescientificapotheosisofavenerableculturaltradition."(McCorduck2004,
p.34)"ArtificialintelligenceinoneformoranotherisanideathathaspervadedWesternintellectual
history,adreaminurgentneedofbeingrealized."(McCorduck2004,p.xviii)"Ourhistoryisfullof
attemptsnutty,eerie,comical,earnest,legendaryandrealtomakeartificialintelligences,to
reproducewhatistheessentialusbypassingtheordinarymeans.Backandforthbetweenmythand
reality,ourimaginationssupplyingwhatourworkshopscouldn't,wehaveengagedforalongtimeinthis
oddformofselfreproduction."(McCorduck2004,p.3)ShetracesthedesirebacktoitsHellenisticroots
andcallsittheurgeto"forgetheGods."(McCorduck2004,pp.340400)
12."StephenHawkingbelievesAIcouldbemankind'slastaccomplishment"(https://betanews.com/2016/10/
21/artificialintelligencestephenhawking/).BetaNews.21October2016.
13.AIapplicationswidelyusedbehindthescenes:
Russell&Norvig2003,p.28
Kurzweil2005,p.265
NRC1999,pp.216222
14.AIinmyth:
McCorduck2004,pp.45
16.AIinearlysciencefiction.
McCorduck2004,pp.1725
17.Formalreasoning:
Berlinski,David(2000).TheAdventoftheAlgorithm.HarcourtBooks.ISBN0156013916.
OCLC46890682(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/46890682).
18.AI'simmediateprecursors:
Crevier1993,pp.2732
Russell&Norvig2003,pp.15,940
Moravec1988,p.3
19.Dartmouthconference:
Crevier1993,pp.4749,whowrites"theconferenceisgenerallyrecognizedastheofficial
birthdateofthenewscience."
Russell&Norvig2003,p.17,whocalltheconference"thebirthofartificialintelligence."
NRC1999,pp.200201
20.HegemonyoftheDartmouthconferenceattendees:
Russell&Norvig2003,p.17,whowrite"forthenext20yearsthefieldwouldbedominatedby
thesepeopleandtheirstudents."
22."Goldenyears"ofAI(successfulsymbolicreasoningprograms19561973):
Crevier1993,pp.52107
Moravec1988,p.9
Russell&Norvig2003,pp.1821
TheprogramsdescribedareArthurSamuel'scheckersprogramfortheIBM701,DanielBobrow's
STUDENT,NewellandSimon'sLogicTheoristandTerryWinograd'sSHRDLU.
23.DARPApoursmoneyintoundirectedpureresearchintoAIduringthe1960s:
Crevier1993,pp.51,6465
NRC1999,pp.204205
24.AIinEngland:
Howe1994
25.OptimismofearlyAI:
HerbertSimonquote:Simon1965,p.96quotedinCrevier1993,p.109.
MarvinMinskyquote:Minsky1967,p.2quotedinCrevier1993,p.109.
26.Lighthill1973.
27.FirstAIWinter,MansfieldAmendment,Lighthillreport
NRC1999,pp.212213
Howe1994
28.Expertsystems:
ACM1998,I.2.1
Nilsson1998,chpt.17.4
McCorduck2004,pp.327335,434435
Crevier1993,pp.14562,197203
29.Boomofthe1980s:riseofexpertsystems,FifthGenerationProject,Alvey,MCC,SCI:
Crevier1993,pp.161162,197203,211,240
NRC1999,pp.210211
30.SecondAIwinter:
NRC1999,pp.214216
31.Formalmethodsarenowpreferred("Victoryoftheneats"):
32.McCorduck2004,pp.480483.
33.Deeplearning:
citationinprogress
34.MachinelearningandAI'ssuccessesintheearly21stcentury:
citationinprogress
35.Markoff2011.
36.Administrator."Kinect'sAIbreakthroughexplained"(http://www.iprogrammer.info/news/105artificiali
ntelligence/2176kinectsaibreakthroughexplained.html).iprogrammer.info.
37.Rowinski,Dan(15January2013)."VirtualPersonalAssistants&TheFutureOfYourSmartphone
[Infographic]"(http://readwrite.com/2013/01/15/virtualpersonalassistantsthefutureofyoursmartphon
einfographic).ReadWrite.
38."Artificialintelligence:Google'sAlphaGobeatsGomasterLeeSedol"(http://www.bbc.com/news/techn
ology35785875).BBCNews.12March2016.Retrieved1October2016.
39."AfterWininChina,AlphaGosDesignersExploreNewAI"(https://www.wired.com/2017/05/winchina
alphagosdesignersexplorenewai/).20170527.
40."World'sGoPlayerRatings"(http://www.goratings.org/).May2017.
41."19"(http://sports.sina.com.cn/go/20160802/docifxun
yya3020238.shtml)(inChinese).May2017.
42.Clark,Jack(8December2015)."Why2015WasaBreakthroughYearinArtificialIntelligence"(https://
www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/20151208/why2015wasabreakthroughyearinartificialintellige
nce).BloombergNews.Retrieved23November2016."Afterahalfdecadeofquietbreakthroughsin
artificialintelligence,2015hasbeenalandmarkyear.Computersaresmarterandlearningfasterthan
ever."
43.Sandewall,Erik."TheGoalsofArtificialIntelligenceResearchABriefintroduction".Knowledge
RepresentationFrameworkProjectLinkopingUniversity.N.p.,8August2010.8December2016.
44.Problemsolving,puzzlesolving,gameplayinganddeduction:
Russell&Norvig2003,chpt.39,
Poole,Mackworth&Goebel1998,chpt.2,3,7,9,
Luger&Stubblefield2004,chpt.3,4,6,8,
Nilsson1998,chpt.712
45.Uncertainreasoning:
Russell&Norvig2003,pp.452644,
Poole,Mackworth&Goebel1998,pp.345395,
Luger&Stubblefield2004,pp.333381,
Nilsson1998,chpt.19
46.Intractabilityandefficiencyandthecombinatorialexplosion:
47.Psychologicalevidenceofsubsymbolicreasoning:
Wason&Shapiro(1966)showedthatpeopledopoorlyoncompletelyabstractproblems,butifthe
problemisrestatedtoallowtheuseofintuitivesocialintelligence,performancedramatically
improves.(SeeWasonselectiontask)
Kahneman,Slovic&Tversky(1982)haveshownthatpeopleareterribleatelementaryproblems
thatinvolveuncertainreasoning.(Seelistofcognitivebiasesforseveralexamples).
Lakoff&Nez(2000)havecontroversiallyarguedthatevenourskillsatmathematicsdependon
knowledgeandskillsthatcomefrom"thebody",i.e.sensorimotorandperceptualskills.(See
WhereMathematicsComesFrom)
48.Sikos,LeslieF.(June2017).DescriptionLogicsinMultimediaReasoning(http://www.springer.com/us/b
ook/9783319540658).Cham:Springer.ISBN9783319540665.doi:10.1007/9783319540665(http
s://doi.org/10.1007%2F9783319540665).
49.Bertini,MDelBimbo,ATorniai,C(2006)."Automaticannotationandsemanticretrievalofvideo
sequencesusingmultimediaontologies".MM06Proceedingsofthe14thACMinternationalconference
onMultimedia.14thACMinternationalconferenceonMultimedia.SantaBarbara:ACM.pp.679682.
50.Qualificationproblem:
McCarthy&Hayes1969
Russell&Norvig2003
WhileMcCarthywasprimarilyconcernedwithissuesinthelogicalrepresentationofactions,Russell&
Norvig2003applythetermtothemoregeneralissueofdefaultreasoninginthevastnetworkof
assumptionsunderlyingallourcommonsenseknowledge.
51.Defaultreasoninganddefaultlogic,nonmonotoniclogics,circumscription,closedworldassumption,
abduction(Pooleetal.placesabductionunder"defaultreasoning".Lugeretal.placesthisunder
"uncertainreasoning"):
Poole,Mackworth&Goebel1998,pp.248256,323335,
Nilsson1998,~18.3.3
52.Breadthofcommonsenseknowledge:
Russell&Norvig2003,p.21,
Crevier1993,pp.113114,
Moravec1988,p.13,
Lenat&Guha1989(Introduction)
53.Dreyfus&Dreyfus1986.
54.Gladwell2005.
55.Expertknowledgeasembodiedintuition:
Dreyfus&Dreyfus1986(HubertDreyfusisaphilosopherandcriticofAIwhowasamongthe
firsttoarguethatmostusefulhumanknowledgewasencodedsubsymbolically.SeeDreyfus'
critiqueofAI)
Gladwell2005(Gladwell'sBlinkisapopularintroductiontosubsymbolicreasoningand
knowledge.)
Hawkins&Blakeslee2005(Hawkinsarguesthatsubsymbolicknowledgeshouldbetheprimary
focusofAIresearch.)
56.Planning:
ACM1998,~I.2.8,
Nilsson1998,chpt.10.12,22
57.Informationvaluetheory:
58.Classicalplanning:
Nilsson1998,chpt.10.12,22
59.Planningandactinginnondeterministicdomains:conditionalplanning,executionmonitoring,
replanningandcontinuousplanning:
60.Multiagentplanningandemergentbehavior:
61.AlanTuringdiscussedthecentralityoflearningasearlyas1950,inhisclassicpaper"Computing
MachineryandIntelligence".(Turing1950)In1956,attheoriginalDartmouthAIsummerconference,
RaySolomonoffwroteareportonunsupervisedprobabilisticmachinelearning:"AnInductiveInference
Machine".(Solomonoff1956)
62.ThisisaformofTomMitchell'swidelyquoteddefinitionofmachinelearning:"Acomputerprogramis
settolearnfromanexperienceEwithrespecttosometaskTandsomeperformancemeasurePifits
performanceonTasmeasuredbyPimproveswithexperienceE."
63.Learning:
ACM1998,I.2.6,
Nilsson1998,chpt.3.3,10.3,17.5,20
64.Reinforcementlearning:
65.Computationallearningtheory:
CITATIONINPROGRESS.
66.Wengetal.2001.
67.Lungarellaetal.2003.
68.Asadaetal.2009.
69.Oudeyer2010.
70.Naturallanguageprocessing:
ACM1998,I.2.7
71."Versatilequestionansweringsystems:seeinginsynthesis"(https://www.academia.edu/2475776/Versatil
e_question_answering_systems_seeing_in_synthesis),Mittaletal.,IJIIDS,5(2),119142,2011
72.Applicationsofnaturallanguageprocessing,includinginformationretrieval(i.e.textmining)and
machinetranslation:
73.Machineperception:
Nilsson1998,~chpt.6
74.Computervision:
ACM1998,I.2.10
Nilsson1998,chpt.6
75.Speechrecognition:
ACM1998,~I.2.7
76.Objectrecognition:
77.Robotics:
ACM1998,I.2.9,
78.Movingandconfigurationspace:
79.Tecuci2012.
80.Roboticmapping(localization,etc):
81.Kismet.
82.Thro1993.
83.Edelson1991.
84.Tao&Tan2005.
85.James1884.
86.Picard1995.
87.KleineCosack2006:"TheintroductionofemotiontocomputersciencewasdonebyPickard(sic)who
createdthefieldofaffectivecomputing."
88.Diamond2003:"RosalindPicard,agenialMITprofessor,isthefield'sgodmotherher1997book,
AffectiveComputing,triggeredanexplosionofinterestintheemotionalsideofcomputersandtheir
users."
89.Emotionandaffectivecomputing:
Minsky2006
90.Roberts,Jacob(2016)."ThinkingMachines:TheSearchforArtificialIntelligence"(https://www.chemhe
ritage.org/distillations/magazine/thinkingmachinesthesearchforartificialintelligence).Distillations.2
(2):1423.Retrieved17February2017.
91.GeraldEdelman,IgorAleksanderandothershavearguedthatartificialconsciousnessisrequiredfor
strongAI.(Aleksander1995Edelman2007)
92.Artificialbrainarguments:AIrequiresasimulationoftheoperationofthehumanbrain
Crevier1993,pp.271and279
Afewofthepeoplewhomakesomeformoftheargument:
Moravec1988
Kurzweil2005,p.262
Hawkins&Blakeslee2005
Themostextremeformofthisargument(thebrainreplacementscenario)wasputforwardbyClark
Glymourinthemid1970sandwastouchedonbyZenonPylyshynandJohnSearlein1980.
93.NilsNilssonwrites:"Simplyput,thereiswidedisagreementinthefieldaboutwhatAIisallabout"
(Nilsson1983,p.10).
94.Biologicalintelligencevs.intelligenceingeneral:
Russell&Norvig2003,pp.23,whomaketheanalogywithaeronauticalengineering.
McCorduck2004,pp.100101,whowritesthatthereare"twomajorbranchesofartificial
intelligence:oneaimedatproducingintelligentbehaviorregardlessofhowitwasaccomplioshed,
andtheotheraimedatmodelingintelligentprocessesfoundinnature,particularlyhumanones."
Kolata1982,apaperinScience,whichdescribesMcCarthy'sindifferencetobiologicalmodels.
KolataquotesMcCarthyaswriting:"ThisisAI,sowedon'tcareifit'spsychologicallyreal"[1](htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=PEkqAAAAMAAJ&q=%22we+don't+care+if+it's+psychologica
lly+real%22&dq=%22we+don't+care+if+it's+psychologically+real%22&output=html&pgis=1).
McCarthyrecentlyreiteratedhispositionattheAI@50conferencewherehesaid"Artificial
intelligenceisnot,bydefinition,simulationofhumanintelligence"(Maker2006).
95.Neatsvs.scruffies:
McCorduck2004,pp.421424,486489
Crevier1993,pp.168
Nilsson1983,pp.1011
96.Symbolicvs.subsymbolicAI:
Nilsson(1998,p.7),whousestheterm"subsymbolic".
97.Haugeland1985,p.255.
98.Law1994.
99.Bach2008.
100.Shapiro,StuartC.(1992),"ArtificialIntelligence",inStuartC.Shapiro(ed.),EncyclopediaofArtificial
Intelligence,2ndedition(NewYork:JohnWiley&Sons):5457.4December2016.
101.Haugeland1985,pp.112117
102.ThemostdramaticcaseofsubsymbolicAIbeingpushedintothebackgroundwasthedevastating
critiqueofperceptronsbyMarvinMinskyandSeymourPapertin1969.SeeHistoryofAI,AIwinter,or
FrankRosenblatt.
103.Cognitivesimulation,NewellandSimon,AIatCMU(thencalledCarnegieTech):
McCorduck2004,pp.139179,245250,322323(EPAM)
104.Soar(history):
105.McCarthyandAIresearchatSAILandSRIInternational:
Crevier1993
106.AIresearchatEdinburghandinFrance,birthofProlog:
Howe1994
107.AIatMITunderMarvinMinskyinthe1960s:
Crevier1993,pp.83102,163176
108.Cyc:
McCorduck2004,p.489,whocallsit"adeterminedlyscruffyenterprise"
Lenat&Guha1989
109.Knowledgerevolution:
McCorduck2004,pp.266276,298300,314,421
110.EmbodiedapproachestoAI:
Brooks1990
Moravec1988
111.Revivalofconnectionism:
112.Computationalintelligence
IEEEComputationalIntelligenceSociety(http://www.ieeecis.org/)
113.Hutter2012.
114.Langley2011.
115.Katz2012.
116.Norvig2012.
117.Agentarchitectures,hybridintelligentsystems:
Russell&Norvig(2003,pp.27,932,970972)
Nilsson(1998,chpt.25)
118.Hierarchicalcontrolsystem:
Albus2002
119.Subsumptionarchitecture:
CITATIONINPROGRESS.
120.Searchalgorithms:
Luger&Stubblefield2004,pp.79164,193219
121.Forwardchaining,backwardchaining,Hornclauses,andlogicaldeductionassearch:
Poole,Mackworth&Goebel1998,pp.~4652
Nilsson1998,chpt.4.2,7.2
122.Statespacesearchandplanning:
123.Uninformedsearches(breadthfirstsearch,depthfirstsearchandgeneralstatespacesearch):
Nilsson1998,chpt.8
124.Heuristicorinformedsearches(e.g.,greedybestfirstandA*):
Poole,Mackworth&Goebel1998,pp.pp.132147,
Nilsson1998,chpt.9
125.Optimizationsearches:
126.Artificiallifeandsocietybasedlearning:
127.Geneticprogrammingandgeneticalgorithms:
Nilsson1998,chpt.4.2,
Holland1975,
Koza1992,
Poli,Langdon&McPhee2008.
128.Logic:
ACM1998,~I.2.3,
129.Satplan:
Nilsson1998,chpt.21
130.Explanationbasedlearning,relevancebasedlearning,inductivelogicprogramming,casebased
reasoning:
Luger&Stubblefield2004,pp.~422442,
Nilsson1998,chpt.10.3,17.5
131.Propositionallogic:
Nilsson1998,chpt.13
132.Firstorderlogicandfeaturessuchasequality:
ACM1998,~I.2.4,
Nilsson1998,chpt.15
133.Fuzzylogic:
134.Subjectivelogic:
CITATIONINPROGRESS.
135.Representingcategoriesandrelations:Semanticnetworks,descriptionlogics,inheritance(including
framesandscripts):
136.Representingeventsandtime:Situationcalculus,eventcalculus,fluentcalculus(includingsolvingthe
frameproblem):
137.Causalcalculus:
138."TheBeliefCalculusandUncertainReasoning",YenTehHsia
139.Representingknowledgeaboutknowledge:Beliefcalculus,modallogics:
140.Stochasticmethodsforuncertainreasoning:
ACM1998,~I.2.3,
Luger&Stubblefield2004,pp.165191,333381,
Nilsson1998,chpt.19
141.Bayesiannetworks:
Luger&Stubblefield2004,pp.~182190,363379,
142.Bayesianinferencealgorithm:
Luger&Stubblefield2004,pp.~363379,
Nilsson1998,chpt.19.4&7
143.Bayesianlearningandtheexpectationmaximizationalgorithm:
Nilsson1998,chpt.20
144.BayesiandecisiontheoryandBayesiandecisionnetworks:
145.Stochastictemporalmodels:
DynamicBayesiannetworks:
HiddenMarkovmodel:
(Russell&Norvig2003,pp.549551)
Kalmanfilters:
146.decisiontheoryanddecisionanalysis:
147.Markovdecisionprocessesanddynamicdecisionnetworks:
148.Gametheoryandmechanismdesign:
149.Statisticallearningmethodsandclassifiers:
150.Neuralnetworksandconnectionism:
Nilsson1998,chpt.3
151.kernelmethodssuchasthesupportvectormachine:
152.Knearestneighboralgorithm:
153.Gaussianmixturemodel:
154.NaiveBayesclassifier:
155.Decisiontree:
156.Classifierperformance:
vanderWalt&Bernard2006
157.Feedforwardneuralnetworks,perceptronsandradialbasisnetworks:
158.Competitivelearning,Hebbiancoincidencelearning,Hopfieldnetworksandattractornetworks:
159.SeppoLinnainmaa(1970).Therepresentationofthecumulativeroundingerrorofanalgorithmasa
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160.Griewank,Andreas(2012).WhoInventedtheReverseModeofDifferentiation?.OptimizationStories,
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161.PaulWerbos,"BeyondRegression:NewToolsforPredictionandAnalysisintheBehavioralSciences",
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164.Hierarchicaltemporalmemory:
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184.Hochreiter,SeppandSchmidhuber,JrgenLongShortTermMemory,NeuralComputation,9(8):1735
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187.HasimSakandAndrewSeniorandFrancoiseBeaufays(2014).LongShortTermMemoryrecurrent
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188.XiangangLi,XihongWu(2015).ConstructingLongShortTermMemorybasedDeepRecurrentNeural
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189.HaimSak,AndrewSenior,KanishkaRao,FranoiseBeaufaysandJohanSchalkwyk(September2015):
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190.IlyaSutskever,OriolVinyals,andQuocV.Le(2014).SequencetoSequenceLearningwithNeural
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191.RafalJozefowicz,OriolVinyals,MikeSchuster,NoamShazeer,YonghuiWu(2016).Exploringthe
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192.DanGillick,CliffBrunk,OriolVinyals,AmarnagSubramanya(2015).MultilingualLanguage
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193.OriolVinyals,AlexanderToshev,SamyBengio,andDumitruErhan(2015).ShowandTell:ANeural
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194.Controltheory:
ACM1998,~I.2.8,
195.Lisp:
Crevier1993,pp.5962,
196.Prolog:
Luger&Stubblefield2004,pp.641676,575581
197.TheTuringtest:
Turing'soriginalpublication:
Turing1950
Historicalinfluenceandphilosophicalimplications:
Haugeland1985,pp.69
Crevier1993,p.24
Russell&Norvig2003,pp.23and948
198.SubjectmatterexpertTuringtest:
CITATIONINPROGRESS.
199.GameAI:
CITATIONINPROGRESS.
200.Mathematicaldefinitionsofintelligence:
HernandezOrallo2000
Dowe&Hajek1997
HernandezOrallo&Dowe2010
201.O'Brien&Marakas2011.
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229.Dartmouthproposal:
McCarthyetal.1955(theoriginalproposal)
Crevier1993,p.49(historicalsignificance)
230.Thephysicalsymbolsystemshypothesis:
Newell&Simon1976,p.116
McCorduck2004,p.153
231.Dreyfuscriticizedthenecessaryconditionofthephysicalsymbolsystemhypothesis,whichhecalledthe
"psychologicalassumption":"Themindcanbeviewedasadeviceoperatingonbitsofinformation
accordingtoformalrules."(Dreyfus1992,p.156)
232.Dreyfus'critiqueofartificialintelligence:
Dreyfus1972,Dreyfus&Dreyfus1986
233.Gdel1951:inthislecture,KurtGdelusestheincompletenesstheoremtoarriveatthefollowing
disjunction:(a)thehumanmindisnotaconsistentfinitemachine,or(b)thereexistDiophantine
equationsforwhichitcannotdecidewhethersolutionsexist.Gdelfinds(b)implausible,andthusseems
tohavebelievedthehumanmindwasnotequivalenttoafinitemachine,i.e.,itspowerexceededthatof
anyfinitemachine.Herecognizedthatthiswasonlyaconjecture,sinceonecouldneverdisprove(b).Yet
heconsideredthedisjunctiveconclusiontobea"certainfact".
234.TheMathematicalObjection:
MakingtheMathematicalObjection:
Lucas1961
Penrose1989
RefutingMathematicalObjection:
Turing1950under"(2)TheMathematicalObjection"
Hofstadter1979
Background:
Gdel1931,Church1936,Kleene1935,Turing1937
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252.JosephWeizenbaum'scritiqueofAI:
Weizenbaum1976
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themisuseofartificialintelligencehasthepotentialtodevaluehumanlife.
253.Ford,2009&Thelightsinthetunnel.
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267.Searle'sChineseroomargument:
Searle1980.Searle'soriginalpresentationofthethoughtexperiment.
Searle1999.
Discussion:
268.Robotrights:
BBCNews2006
Prematurityof:
Henderson2007
Infiction:
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272.Technologicalsingularity:
Vinge1993
Kurzweil2005
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274.Transhumanism:
Moravec1988
Kurzweil2005
275.AIasevolution:
EdwardFredkinisquotedinMcCorduck(2004,p.401).
Butler1863
Dyson1998
276.Anderson,SusanLeigh."Asimovs"threelawsofrobotics"andmachinemetaethics."AI&Society22.4
(2008):477493.
277.McCauley,Lee(2007)."AIarmageddonandthethreelawsofrobotics".EthicsandInformation
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382).
278.Galvan,Jill(19970101)."EnteringthePosthumanCollectiveinPhilipK.Dick's"DoAndroidsDream
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Furtherreading
TechCastArticleSeries,JohnSagi,"FramingConsciousness"(https://web.archive.org/web/20150713184
128/https://www.techcastglobal.com/documents/10193/34869/ConsciousnessSagifinalversion)
Boden,Margaret,MindAsMachine,OxfordUniversityPress,2006
Gopnik,Alison,"MakingAIMoreHuman:Artificialintelligencehasstagedarevivalbystartingto
incorporatewhatweknowabouthowchildrenlearn",ScientificAmerican,vol.316,no.6(June2017),
pp.6065.
Johnston,John(2008)TheAllureofMachinicLife:Cybernetics,ArtificialLife,andtheNewAI,MIT
Press
Marcus,Gary,"AmIHuman?:Researchersneednewwaystodistinguishartificialintelligencefromthe
naturalkind",ScientificAmerican,vol.316,no.3(March2017),pp.5863.Multipletestsofartificial
intelligenceefficacyareneededbecause,"justasthereisnosingletestofathleticprowess,therecannot
beoneultimatetestofintelligence."Onesuchtest,a"ConstructionChallenge",wouldtestperception
andphysicalaction"twoimportantelementsofintelligentbehaviorthatwereentirelyabsentfromthe
originalTuringtest."Anotherproposalhasbeentogivemachinesthesamestandardizedtestsofscience
andotherdisciplinesthatschoolchildrentake.Asofarinsuperablestumblingblocktoartificial
intelligenceisanincapacityforreliabledisambiguation."[V]irtuallyeverysentence[thatpeople
generate]isambiguous,ofteninmultipleways."Aprominentexampleisknownasthe"pronoun
disambiguationproblem":amachinehasnowayofdeterminingtowhomorwhatapronounina
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Myers,CourtneyBoyded.(2009)."TheAIReport"(http://www.forbes.com/2009/06/22/singularityrobo
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