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ConstitutionalLaw:SELECTEDCONSTITUTIONSOFTHEWORLD

[SIZE="2"]

________________________________________
CONSTITUTIONALLAW
STUDYOFSELECTIVECONSTITUTIONSOFTHEWORLD
COMPILEDBY:AHMEDALISHAH
FORCSSPREPARATION
________________________________________


CHAPTERS

1.THECONSTITUTIONOFUNITEDSTATESOFAMERICA

2.THECONSTITUTIONOFGREATBRITAIN

3.THECONSTITUTIONOFFRANCE

4.THECONSTITUTIONOFINDIA

5.THECONSTITUTIONOFRUSSIANFEDERATION&FORMERU.S.S.R

6.THECONSTITUTIONOFISLAMICREPUBLICOFPAKISTAN
7.COMPARISONOFFEATURESOFSELECTEDCONSTITUTIONSOFTHEWORLD.(optionalactivity
maynotbecompiledandposted)
_____________________________
Quote:

OriginallyPostedbyAHMEDALISHAH(Author/Compiler)
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chapter#1

TheConstitutionOfUnitedStatesOfAmerica
________________________________________

Contents:

1.1.Introduction,ConstitutionalHistory&Development,&SalientFeatures.

1.2.FederalGovernmentAndItsElements

1.3.ThePresident,ThePresidentialCabinet&TheVicePresident

1.4.TheCongress
1.5.JudicialSystem

1.6.PoliticalParties
__________________
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1.1INTRODUCTION,CONSTITUTIONALHISTORY&
DEVELOPMENT,&SALIENTFEATURES.
________________________________________

INTRODUCTION

TheUnitedStatesofAmericaisa"federalrepublic"offiftystateslocatedprimarilyincentralnorth
America,withexceptofHawaiiandAlaska,whicharenotcontiguouswithanyof48States.Hawaiiisa
farwesterIsland,whileAlaskaonlysharesitslandborderwithCanada.ItislocatedintheNorthWestof
centralAmerica.

ItisuncontestedthatUSAistheoneofthegreatestdemocracyintheworld.ItisaSuperPower,a
championofhumanrights,freedomandliberty.Ithasthemostsuccessfulfederalgovernmentsystemin
theworld.ItisnosecretthatUSowesitssuccesstotheSystemofTrial&ErrorandCorrection.The
systemhasbeenintroducedbytheUSconstitution,hencewhateverUShasachievedisbecauseofits
Constitution.

TheUSconstitutionisoneoftheoldestwrittendocumentsofLaw,framedin1787andeffectivesince
1789.Theconstitutionismostdemocraticwhichprotectsrights,freedomandlibertiesofthecitizensof
US.

TheUSanditsconstitutionwerefoundedunderatraditionofgovernmentbasedontheconsentofthe
governedundertherepresentativedemocracymodel.TheperticularformofgovernmentofUS,called
PresidentialCongressionalhassincebeenadoptedbymanyothercountries,mostlyinCentralAmerica
andSouthAmerica.

CONSTITUTIONALHISTORY&DEVELOPMENT

Itwasthepeculiarsetupof13Colonies,whichledtotheevolutionofthefederation.Thecolonieswere
largelyofEnglishpopulation&ofthreeclasses,namely

1.CROWNCOLONIES:

Thesecolonieswereruledbygovernors,whowereappointedbytheBritishgovernmentassistedbythe
councilsintheoperationofadministration.

2.PROPRIETARYCOLONIES:

Thesecolonieswereunderthecontrolofindividuals,whohadbeengivenrighttoexercisepowersof
government.
3.CHARTERCOLONIES:

Inthesecolonies,thepowerofgovernmentwasconferreddirectlyuponthefreemenofthecolonies.

WecantracetheconstitutionalhistoryofAmericafromthefollowingevents:

1.VIRGINIAHOUSEOFBURGESS(1691):

In1691,Virginiahouseofburgesswasestablished.Itintroduced1strepresentativegovernmentin
America.ThefirstrepresentativelegislaturepassedsomelawsconcernedwithbothMoral&Economic
welfareofthepeople.

ItcanbesaidthatVirginiahouseofBurgesswas1stmovetosetuppoliticalsysteminAmerica.

2.MAYFLOWERCOMPACT(1620):

1yearaftertheestablishmentofVirginiaHouseofBurgess,agroupofPilgrimsconcludedMayflower
Compactforgoverningthemselves.Thecompactissaidtobe1stwrittenpoliticaldocumentinAmerican
History.ThepilgrimspledgedthemselvessolemnlyandmutuallyinpresenceofGodtocombinetogether
intoacivilbodyofpolitics.

ItcanbesaidthattheMayFlowercompactwasthe1stmovetowardstheestablishmentofPolitical
Party(s)inAmerica.

3.FUNDAMENTALORDERSOFCONNECTION(1639):

TheideaofFundamentalOrderscreatedauniqueformofgovernmentin1639,inwhichprovisionswere
madeforthreebranchesofgovernmentwithlegislature,executiveandjudicialfunctions.

4.THECOLONIALCONFLICT(1765):

BythesuccessionoftheEnglishCrowntoKingGeorgeIII,theconflictbetweentheBritishGovernment
andtheAmericanColoniesbegan.TheBritishGovernmentintroducednewtradingactsandleviedheavy
taxationwhichresultedinconflictbetweentheBritishandtheAmericanColonies.In1765,theBritish
introducedStampAct,whichrequiredaStampTaxtobepaidonlegaldocuments,circulating
newspaperandmarriagelicenses.

5.STAMPACTCONGRSS:

Thedelegationfrom9coloniesmetinNewYorkanddraftedaDeclarationofRightsprotestingthe
Crownsrighttolevyadirectinternaltaxwithouttheconsentofthecolonialassemblies.

6.SONSOFLIBERTY:

SonsoflibertywasanorganizationestablishedtospreadtheDeclarationofRightsandtokeepthe
oppositiontotheStampActalive.SonsofLibertyestablishedcommitteesofcorrespondenceinevery
colonytospreadthedoctrineofresistance.

7.FIRSTCONTINENTALCONGRESS(September5th,1774):

TheMassachusettsLegislaturecalledforameetingoffirstevercontinentalcongress.Themeetingwas
heldinPhiladelphiaonSeptember5th,1774.FiftySix(56)delegatesrepresenting12Coloniesattended
theCongress.ItadoptedaDeclarationofRightsdemandingnoTaxationwithoutColonial
representation.

Thedemandsputforwardbythe1stContinentalCongresswererejectedbytheBritish.

8.SECONDCONTINETALCONGRESS(10thMay,1775):
Withtherejectionof1stContinentalCongresssdemands,theconflictbetweentheColoniesandBritish
Governmentintensified.Thescenewasthuslaidforthe2ndcontinentalcongress.Themeetingwasagain
heldinPhiladelphiaonMay10th,1775.TheCongressestablishedatreasurydepartmentforColonies,
issuedcontinentalcurrency,establishedpostofficeandmostimportantlyestablishedanarmyandraised
anavy.GeorgeWashingtonwasappointedastheCommanderinChiefofthearmy.

9.DECLARATIONOFINDEPENDENCE(4thJuly,1776):

Themethodsadoptedbythe2ndcontinentalcongresswerepreliminarystepstowardstheindependence.
SoonitwasfollowedbyDeclarationofIndependenceon4thJuly,1776.

Itwasdeclared,AllColoniesarefreeandindependentStates.Theyareabsolvedfromallallegianceto
theBritishCrownandasfreeandindependentStates,havingfullpowertodeclarewar,concludepeace,
contractallianceandtodoallotheractsandthings,whichindependentstatesmayhaverighttodo.

10.ESTABLISHMENTOFCONFEDERATION(177515thNovember1777):

In1775,priortothedeclarationofindependence,acommitteewasconstituted,whichdraftedthe
ArticlesofConfederation.ThearticleswereapprovedbytheCongressofStateson15thNovember,
1777,ayearafterdeclarationofindependence.Thearticleswereasfollow

ARTICLE1:

ItnamedtheConfederationUnitedStatesofAmerica(USA).

ARTICLE2:

Itstatedthateachstateretainsitssovereignty,freedom,independence,jurisdictionandright,which
wasnotexpresslydelegatedtothecongress.

ARTICLE3:

Itstatedthatallstatesenteredintofriendshipwitheachotherfortheircommondefense,securityand
generalwelfareonaccountofreligion,sovereignty,tradeoranyotherpretence.

ARTICLE4:

Itstatedthat,congresswasestablishedconsistingofdelegatesofStates,tomakewarandpeace,to
settlealldisputesanddifferencesamongthestates,tocoinmoneyandregulatethecurrency.Noperson
couldbeadelegateformorethan3years.ThePresidingOfficercalledPresidentpossessedalmostno
executiveauthority.

ItwasclearthattheconfederationwasalooseUnionofStatesandthearticlesofconfederationwere
hardlyanythingmorethanconventions.Ithadnobindingforce.Althoughitwasdesignedtomanagethe
affairsoftheState,itpossessednorealpowersofitsown.Itwasmerelyanadvisoryandconsultative
bodyandcouldnotcompelanystatetoobeyitsdictates.

11.TREATYOFVERSAILLES(1783):

Thewarofindependencelastedforeightyears.ThetidesturnedinfavoroftheAmericanconfederation
whentheFrenchalliedwiththem.AfterthewartheBritishsurrenderedandacceptedtheAmerican
independencebysigningtheTreatyofVersaillesin1783.

12.THEANNAPOLISCONVENTION(September,1786):

AtthesuggestionofJamesMadison(PresidentofUSfrom1808to1812andfrom18121816.Won
electionsontheticketofDemocraticRepublicanParty),theVirginiaStateLegislaturecalledAnnapolis
ConventioninSeptember,1786.Commissionersfrom5Statesattendedtheconventiontodiscuss
adjustmentstotheArticlesofConfederation.SpecialemphasiswaslaidonimprovingCommerce.They
invitedrepresentativesofotherStatestoconveneinPhiladelphiatodiscussimprovementstotheFederal
Governments,buttheotherStatedelegationsrefusedtomeetunlesstherewasanagreementtorevise
theArticlesofConfederation.Afteralongdebate,theConfederationCongressendorsedtheplantorevise
thearticlesofconfederationinFebruary21st,1787,andtheStatesagreedtosendtheirdelegationsto
PhiladelphiaConvention.
13.THEPHILADELPHIACONVENTION(May,1787):

PhiladelphiaConventionisoneofthemostimportantmovesmadeintheAmericanhistoryandits
constitutionmaking.Seventyfour(74)delegatesfrom12States,exceptRohdeIsland,metin
PhiladelphiainMay,1787,toproposeamendmentstotheArticles.Variousplansweresuggestedbutthe
issueofrepresentationonpopulationbasesposedasadeadlockagainstthem.SmallerStateswith
smallerpopulationfeltleftoutwithlowrepresentationinthegovernment.Itwasbecauseofthis,
proposalslikeVirginalPlanorLargeStatePlan,NewJerseyPlanorSmallStatePlanandSouthCarolina
PlanorPinckneyPlanwererejected.Atlastaproposal,putforwardbyConnecticutdelegation,received
greaterattention.ThefamousproposalprovidedforTwoGoverningHousesattheCentre.Itproposed
forrepresentationinproportiontopopulationofStateintheLowerHouse,whileequalrepresentationin
theUpperHouse.TheConventionalsorecognizedthenecessityofgivingrealauthorityandpowertothe
federalgovernment,incoiningmoney,regulationofcommerceandtrade,declaringwarandmaking
peace.Withthesecompromises,agreementwasreachedonframingofanewconstitution.

14.THENEWCONSTITUTION(September17th,1787March4th,1789):

OnthecompromisesreachedinPhiladelphiaConvention,thefirstrealconstitutionofUSwasdrafted.It
wascompletedonSeptember17th,1787inPhiladelphiaandwasratifiedby9outof13States.In
additionGeorgeWashingtonwaselectedthefirstPresidentandJohnAdamsashisvice.OnMarch4th,
1789,afterfiercefightingoverratificationinmanyStatestheConstitutioncameintoforce.Laterwhen
otherStatesjoinedtheFederation,theytooagreedtothetermsoftheConstitution.Todaythereare50
StatesinUSA,workingundertheConstitutionof1789.

SALIENTFEATURESOFTHEU.SCONSTITUTION

AlthoughwecantracevariousinterestingfeaturesoftheUSconstitution,butthemostinterestingand
importantsalientfeaturesofthisconstitution,whichlaydownthebasicworkingsystemoftheUS
governmentandState,areasfollowed:

1.WrittenConstitution
2.Preamble
3.RigidConstitution
4.PopularSovereignty
5.LimitedGovernment
6.SeparationofPowers
7.ChecksandBalances
8.JudicialReview
9.BicameralLegislature
10.FederalSystem
11.PresidentialSystem
12.SystemofRepublic
13.BillofRights
14.DualCitizenship
15.SpoilSystem

1.WRITTENCONSTITUTION:

TheAmericanconstitutionisawrittenconstitution.Itwasframedin1787andeffectivesince1789.The
framersoftheconstitutionpresenteditasabrieflywrittendocumentwithsimpleandclearlanguage.The
constitutionnowconsistsof7articlesthreearticlesaredevotedtoLegislative,ExecutiveandJudicial
BranchesandfourarticlesareconcernedwiththepositionofStates,modesofamendments,supremacy
ofnationalpowerandratification.Thearticlesareasfollow:

ARTICLE1THELEGISLATURE:

EstablishesabicamerallegislativebodyofgovernmentcalledTheCongress,whichincludesanUpper
HousecalledTheSenateandaLowerHousecalledTheHouseofRepresentatives.

Establishesthemannerofelectionandqualificationofmembersofeachhouse.
Outlineslegislativeprocedureandindicatesthepowersofthelegislativebranch.

EstablisheslimitsonFederalandStatelegislativepowers.

Inaddition

ItprecludesCongressfromdeprivingaStateofequalrepresentationintheSenatewithitsconsent.

ItgrantsCongressthepowertoregulate,bothinternationalandinterState,TradeandCommerce.

Articleoneisthelongestofthe7articles.Unlikeotherarticlesoftheconstitution,theArticle1cannotbe
amended.Theamendmentsmadepriorto1808cannolongeraffectthe1stand4thclauseofsection9of
thisarticle.The1stclauseprohibitedtheCongressfromstoppingthetradingofSlaves,whilethe45h
clauseimposeddirecttaxtobeapportionedamongtheStatesaccordingtotheirpopulation,till1808.

ARTICLE2THEEXECUTIVE:

CallsPresidenttobetheChiefExecutiveoftheCountry

Describesprocedurefortheselection/electionofthePresident,qualificationsforthePresidentialoffice,
affirmingthePresidentsoath.DescribespowersanddutiesofthePresidentialOffice.

CallsfortheofficeofVicePresidentofUS,2ndtothePresident.HeistoreplacethePresident,ifthe
Presidentisincapacitatedorresigns.HehastoserveasapresidingofficerforanydebateintheSenate,
withavoteincaseofatie.

AllowsforimpeachmentofConstitutionalofficers,whichincludethePresident,theVicePresidentand
Judges.

ARTICLE3JUDICIARY:

DescribesthecourtSystem,includingtheworkingoftheSupremeCourt.

ItstatesthatthereshallbeaSupremeCourt.Congressatitsdiscretioncancreatelowercourts.The
judgesandordersoftheselowercourtsarereviewablebytheSupremeCourt.

CallsontrialbyJuryinallcriminalcases.

DefinescrimeandtreasonandempowersCongressforpunishmentforit.Butimposeslimitsonthe
punishment.

ARTICLE4,POSITIONOFSTATES:

DescribesrelationshipbetweentheFederatingStatesandtheFederalgovernment.

EstablishesextraditionbetweenStatesandlaysdownlegalbasisforfreedomofmovementandtravel
amongsttheStates.

ARTICLE5,MODESOFAMENDMENTS:

Itdescribesprocessnecessarytoamendtheconstitution.Itprovidesfortwomethodsforamendments
oneiscalledProposalforamendmentinwhicheithertheCongressortheConventionofStatespropose
amendmentstoconstitution,theotheriscalledratificationofproposalwhichrequiresratificationby
StatesLegislatureorbytheconventionsofState(ExplainedfurtherinFeatureNo.4TheRigid
Constitution.).Congressistochoosewhichmethoditwantsfortheratificationforamendment

ARTICLE6,SUPREMACYOFNATIONALPOWER:

Establishestheconstitutiontobethesupremelawoftheland.

Validatesnationaldebt,createdunderthearticlesofconfederation.

Requiresthatalllegislators,federalofficersandjudgestakeoathtosupportconstitution.

ARTICLE7RATIFICATION:

Setsfortherequirementsforratificationoftheconstitution.
All50StateshaveratifiedtheConstitution,whichmeanstheyacceptitastheSupremeLawoftheLand.
Initiallytherewere13Statesoutwhich9ratifiedtheconstitution.Manyhistorianscallthe9States,
whichratifiedtheconstitution,asthefirstFederatingStatesofUS.Whiletheremaining5arecalledas
actingindependentcountries,buteventuallytheytooratifiedtheconstitution.

2.PREAMBLE:

WethePeopleoftheUnitedStates,inOrdertoformamoreperfectUnion,establishJustice,insure
domesticTranquility,provideforthecommondefense,promotethegeneralWelfare,andsecurethe
BlessingsofLibertytoourselvesandourPosterity,doordainandestablishthisConstitutionfortheUnited
StatesofAmerica.

Likeotherconstitutions,theUSconstitutiontooconsistsofaWrittenPreamble.TheUSconstitution
consistsofasinglesentencethatintroducesthedocumentanditspurpose.Thepreambleitselfneither
grantsanypowersnorinhibitsanyactions.Itonlyexplainstherationalbehindtheconstitution.The
preamble,especiallythefirstthreewordswethepeopleisoneofthemostimportant,oftenquotedand
referredsectionoftheUSconstitution.

ThemajorgovernmentalgoalsstatedinthePreambleinclude:

ProvideforbetterCooperationamongtheStates
EnsuringJusticeandPeace
ProvidingforDefenseagainstinvasion
Promotethegeneralwellbeingofthepopulation
Securinglibertiesnowandinfuture.

3.RIGIDCONSTITUTION:

TheAmericanconstitutionisoneofthemostrigidconstitutionsoftheworld.Itmeansitcannotbe
amendedveryeasilyandhastogothroughdifficultandspecialprocedureofamendment.Thisprocedure
consistsoftwoparts,namely

TheProposalofAmendment:

Thetwothird(about67%)majorityofbothHousesshallproposeamendmentstotheconstitutionoron
theapplicationoflegislaturesoftwothird(about67%)ofStatesshallcallaconventionforproposing
amendment.

TheRatificationoftheProposal:

Theamendmentshallberatifiedbythelegislaturesofthreefourths(75%)ofallStatesorbythe
conventionsofthreefourth(75%)ofStates.

ItisbecauseofthisrigidityoftheUSconstitutionthatithasbeenamendedforonly27timesinover200
years.ButinspiteitsrigiditytheconstitutionhasadapteditselftotremendouschangesinAmerica,such
asthereisnomentionofpoliticalpartysystemintheoriginalconstitutionaldocument,yetthereare
politicalpartiesactinginUS.

4.POPULARSOVEREIGNTY:

TheprincipleofpopularsovereigntyisclearlyspelledoutinthepreambleoftheconstitutionWethe
people.doordainandestablishthisconstitutionforUnitedStatesofAmerica.

ItmeansthatInUSthepeoplereign,fortheydeterminethenatureofthepoliticalinstitutionsand
structureoftheStates.Thepeoplehavedelegatedtheirpowertothegovernmentandthegovernment
owesitsauthoritytothewillofpeople.

Thedoctrineofpopularsovereigntyisaconstitutionalchecktoanytendencytowardsarbitraryand
despoticgovernmentandaguaranteeoftherespectfortherightsofthecitizens.

5.LIMITEDGOVERNMENT:

Accordingtotheframersoftheconstitution,absolutepowermustnecessarilybearbitraryanddespotic,
hence,allpowersmustbelimitedotherwisetherewillbetyranny,oppression,endinginrevoltor
violence.ItwasbecauseofthistheyintroducedtheconceptofLimitedGovernmentintheconstitution.
TheconceptordoctrineofLimitedGovernment,intheconstitution,definesthepowers,whichthe
governmentistoexerciseandalsoimposesrestrictions,withinwhichthegovernmenthastooperate.By
this,theconstitutionhaslimitedthepowersofgovernmenttoavoidmissusageofit.Inadditionthe
conceptalsolaiddowntheplatformforanotherconceptordoctrinecalledSeparationofPowers.

6.SEPARATIONOFPOWERS:

Thisdoctrinedividespowersamongthreebranchesofgovernmentandrestrictsonebranchesof
governmentfrominterferingintooneandothersjurisdictions.ThePowerhasbeendividedamongstthe
Congress(HouseofRepresentativesandSenate),thePresidentandhiscabinet,andtheJudiciary.

Congress:

Itisthelegislatureandexerciseslegislativepowers.Itcannotallowanyagencyorpersontomakelaws
initsplace.Itpasseslaws,whichoutlinegeneralpoliciesandsetcertainstandards.

ThePresident:

Presidentpossestheexecutivepowershecanexecutelaws,enforcelaworcanadministerlaws.Heis
assistedbyhisCabinetandseveralotherdepartments,agenciesoffices,bureausandcommissionsin
exercisinghispowers.Howeverheispersonallyresponsibleforallactionsofexecutivebranch.

TheJudiciary:

TheSupremeCourtexercisesthejudicialpowers.Itinterpretsthelawsanddecidescasesand
controversies,inconformitywithlawandbythemethodsprescribedbythelaw.TheSupremeCourtis
assistedbyseveralsmallcourtsinexecutingthejudicialpowers.Thecourtsdonoinitiateactionthey
exercisetheirpoweronlywhendisputesarebroughtbeforethem,eitherbygovernment,aprivate
individualorsomeorganization.

7.CHECKS&BALANCES:

TheconceptofSeparationofPowersfurtherlaiddowntheconceptordoctrineofChecksand
Balances.Itdividespowersofonebranchinwaythatitputsacheckuponthepoweroftheother.

Example:

CongresshaspowertomakelawsbutPresidentcanvetoit.WhileCongresscanpasslegislationover
Presidentsvetobyatwothirdvoteineachhouse.ThiswayPresidenthascheckovertheCongressand
theCongressoverthePresident.Thisalsobalancesouttheirpowers.

TheCongresscanrefusetoappropriatefundsrequestedbythePresident.ThePresidenthaspowersof
appointment.HecanappointjudgestoSupremeCourt.TheSupremeCourthaspowertoapprove,reject
andreviewlawspassedbyCongress.ThePresidentcanappointJudgeswhichfavorhimoverthe
Congressandgethiswayaroundthecongress.Ontheotherhand,theSenatehaspowerstodisapprove
theappointmentsandtreatiesmadebythePresident.HenceitcanhaltPresidentfromappointingjudges
onhisbias.

Inadditiontothepowersofjudiciary,theSupremeCourtcanalsoapprove,rejectandreviewanyaction
takenbythePresident.

ThemainreasonforthesystemofChecks&Balancesistopreventunjustcombinationofthemajority.
Thesystemmakescompromisesnecessary,whichisasignofhealthydemocracy.Thesystemalso
restrictsthechaoticortyrannicalruleandhelpspreventtheriseofdictators.

8.JUDICIALREVIEW:

TheconstitutionhasvestedpowersforJudicialReviewintheSupremeCourt.TheSupremeCourtcan
declareanylegislationorexecutiveordernullorvoid,iffoundtobeinconsistentwiththeprovisionsof
theconstitution.

TheSupremeCourtalongwithseveralsmallercourts(togethercalledJudiciary)performsastheguardian
andcustodianoftheconstitutionandofBillofRightsamendedintheconstitution.

Underthecoverofjudicialreview,theSupremeCourthassointerpretedtheconstitutionthatithas
adapteditselftothechangingneedsofthesocietyandithasenlargedthepowersoftheCongress.Itis
becauseofthistheUSgovernmentiscalledgovernmentofthejudges.

9.BICAMERALLEGISLAUTE:

TheconstitutionofUSprovidesforabicamerallegislature.Itmeanstherewillbetwohousesatthe
Centrewhichhavethelegislativepowers.AccordingtotheArticle1Alllegislativepowersarevestedin
Congress.CongressisthebicamerallegislaturebodyoftheUSgovernment,consistingoftwohouses
theLowerHousecalledHouseofRepresentativesandtheUpperHousecalledSenate.

HouseofRepresentatives:

Itisthelowerhouse,consistingof435memberselectedbythepeopleonpopulationbasisthroughthe
methodofadultfranchise.ThemembersoftheHouseofRepresentativesareelectedforthetermoftwo
years.

Senate:

Itistheupperhouse,consistingof100memberselectedbytheStatelegislatureonparitybasisforsix
years.EachStatesendstwoSenatorsintheupperhouseandeachsenatorhasonevote,meaningeach
statehas2votesintheupperhouse.

Thetwohousesdonthaveequalpowers.Theupperhouseorthesenateisstrongerthanthelowerhouse
ortheHouseofRepresentatives.TheUSSenateisthemostpowerfulSenateoftheworld.

10.FEDERALSYSTEM:

TheUSconstitutionprovidesforafederalgovernment,whichmeansthatthegovernmentalauthorityis
dividedbetweenCentralorFederalGovernmentandfiftyfederatingStates.Thedivisionofpowerhas
beenestablishedthetwobodiesbytheconstitution.AccordingtotheSection8ofArticle1,theFederal
Governmenthasjurisdictionover18mattersofnationalinterestandimportance,whiletheresiduary
powersareentrustedtotheFederatingStates.

TheStatesareautonomousbodiesintheirownjurisdictionandtheFederalGovernmentcannotmeddle
intheiraffairs.Icaseofconflict,theSupremeCourtsettlesalldisputesbetweenthetwobodies.

11.PRESIDENTIALSYSTEM:

TheconstitutionprovidesforaPresidentialsystem.TheArticleIIoftheConstitutionsaysthatall
ExecutivepowersarevestedintheAmericanPresident.Heexercisesallthepowers,whichlawsand
constitutionconferuponhim.ThePresidentiselectedindirectlybythepeopleforthetermoffouryears.
HecannotberemovedbythevoteofnoconfidencebytheCongress.Thusheisnotresponsibletothe
Congress.Hedoesnotattenditssession,norinitiateslegislationdirectlyCongress.Hedoesnoteven
answertheCongressionalquestions.OntheotherhandthePresidentcannotdissolvetheCongress,nor
canheinterfereinlegislationsmadebyCongress,buthedoeshavepowertovetothelawpassedbythe
Congress.

ThePresidentisassistedbyhishandpickedcabinet,whichhelpshimrunhisexecutivepowers.The
CabinetmembersareneithermembersofCongressnordotheyanswertotheCongress.Theyarenot
evenallowedtositinCongressionalmeetings.

InadditionthePresidenthaspowerofappointments.Heappointsheadsofvariousdepartmentsandhe
alsoappointsthejudgesofSupremeCourt.ThePresidentalsohaspowerstomaketreaties.

12.REPUBLICANISM:

TheUSconstitutioncallsfortheStatetobeaRepublic,withaPresidentaselectedheadoftheState.The
constitutionderivesitsauthorityfromthepeople.Moreover,theconstitutioncallsuponallthefederating
Statestofollowthesystemofrepublicanism.TheconstitutionisSupremeLawoftheLand.Neither
CentrenorStatecanoversideit.

13.BILLOFRIGHTS:

Theoriginalconstitutiondidnotguaranteethefundamentalrightsofpeople.Butsoonafteritwas
affective,thelegislaturemadeamendmentstoincorporatethefundamentalrightsforpeopleinthe
constitution.Infactthefirsttenamendmentsmadeweretodoso.These1sttenamendmentsareknown
astheBillofRights.TheBillofRightsgrantsfundamentalrightsofperson,propertyandlibertyto
people.Italsoguaranteesfreedomofreligion,speech,pressandassembly.

ItisthejobofthejudiciarytoenforcetheBillofRights.TheSupremeCourtistheguardianofthe
ConstitutionandthusoftheBillofRights.

TheBillofRightscannotbesuspendedormodified,exceptbyaconstitutionalamendment.

14.DUALCITIZENSHIP:

TheAmericanconstitutionhasmadeprovisionsforDualcitizenship.ThismeansthatanAmericanisa
citizenofUnitedStatesaswellasoftheFederatingState,whereheorsheisdomiciled.

(GreatBritainandPakistanhaveSingleCitizenship)

15.SPOILSYSTTEM:

TheSpoilSystemconceptimpliesthat,asystemunderwhichpublicofficeisconsideredandusedas
spoilstobeenjoyedbythepoliticalpartyvictoriousatpolls.Underthissystemacivilservantappointed
onpoliticalconsiderationbyonePresidentcannotretainhisofficewhenanoppositionPresidentsecures
victoryatthepolls.ThenewPresidentistomakefreshnewappointmentsbydismissingtheprevious
ones.
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Cahpter1.2

1.2.FEDERALGOVERNMENT
________________________________________


CONTENTS:

1.INTRODUCTION

2.ELEMENTSOFFEDERALGOVERNMENT

3.FEDERALSTATERELATIONSHIP

4.FEDERALOBLIGATIONTOTHESTATES

5.STATEOBLIGATIONTOTHEFEDERALGOVERNMENT


________________________________________

1.INTRODUCTION
________________________________________

Theconstitutionof1789hasintroducedafederalsystemofgovernmentinAmerica.Itisthe1stfederal
constitutionoftheworld.ThefederalsystemofAmericanconstitutiondividesthepowersbetweenthe
federalgovernmentandthefederatingStatesgovernments.

AccordingtoARTICLI,section8,thefederalgovernmenthasbeengivenjurisdictionover18mattersof
nationalimportancei.e.Defense,ForeignAffairs,Commerce,Currencyetc.Theresiduarypowersareleft
tothefederatingStatesgovernments.ThesefederatingStatesandtheirgovernmentareindependentin
theirrespectivejurisdictions.ThecentreortheFederalGovernmentcannotmeddlewiththeaffairsof
theFederatingStatesandtheirgovernments.Anydisputebetweenthetwobodieswillbesettledviathe
SupremeCourt.AllStatesarelegallyequalandtheFederalGovernmenthastheconstitutional
responsibilitytoprotecttheStatesagainstanyexternalaggressionaswellasinternaldisturbance.

DespitethetremendousgrowthofpowersofFederalGovernment,theStatescontinuetoexert
themselvesandhavedisplayedgreatvitality.

________________________________________

2.ELEMENTSOFFEDERALGOVERNMENT
________________________________________

DistributionofPowers
Growthoffederalauthority

1.DISTRIBUTIONOFPOWERS:
TheUnitedStatesofAmericawascreatedbysurrenderingsomepowerstothememberstates.Therefor
thefederalgovernmenthasbeendelegatedandspecifieditspowers,whileresiduarypowersliewiththe
States.

TheARTICLE1oftheUSconstitutiondealswiththedistributionofpowersamongstfederationand
federatingunits.Theconstitutioncontainsthreelistsofsubjects,namely:

1.Whatcongressoffederationcando
2.Whatcongresscannotdo
3.Whatstateslegislativescannotdo

TheARTICLE1,Section8oftheconstitutionenumerates18powersfortheFederalGovernment.They
include:

1.TolayandcollectTaxes,Duties,ImpostsandExcises,topaytheDebtsandprovideforthecommon
DefenceandgeneralWelfareoftheUnitedStatesbutallDuties,ImpostsandExcisesshallbeuniform
throughouttheUnitedStates.

2.ToborrowMoneyonthecreditoftheUnitedStates.

3.ToregulateCommercewithforeignNations,andamongtheseveralStates,andwiththeIndianTribes.

4.ToestablishauniformRuleofNaturalization,anduniformLawsonthesubjectofBankruptcies
throughouttheUnitedStates.

5.TocoinMoney,regulatetheValuethereof,andofforeignCoin,andfixtheStandardofWeightsand
Measures.

6.ToprovideforthePunishmentofcounterfeitingtheSecuritiesandcurrentCoinoftheUnitedStates.

7.ToestablishPostOfficesandpostRoads.
8.TopromotetheProgressofScienceandusefulArts,bysecuringforlimitedTimestoAuthorsand
InventorstheexclusiveRighttotheirrespectiveWritingsandDiscoveries.

9.ToconstituteTribunalsinferiortotheSupremeCourt.

10.TodefineandpunishPiraciesandFeloniescommittedonthehighSeas,andOffencesagainsttheLaw
ofNations.

11.TodeclareWar,grantLettersofMarqueandReprisal,andmakeRulesconcerningCapturesonLand
andWater.

12.ToraiseandsupportArmies,butnoAppropriationofMoneytothatUseshallbeforalongerTerm
thantwoYears.

13.ToprovideandmaintainaNavy.

14.TomakeRulesfortheGovernmentandRegulationofthelandandnavalForces.

15.ToprovideforcallingforththeMilitiatoexecutetheLawsoftheUnion,suppressInsurrectionsand
repelInvasions.

16.Toprovidefororganizing,arming,anddisciplining,theMilitia,andforgoverningsuchPartofthemas
maybeemployedintheServiceoftheUnitedStates,reservingtotheStatesrespectively,the
AppointmentoftheOfficers,andtheAuthorityoftrainingtheMilitiaaccordingtothedisciplineprescribed
byCongress.

17.ToexerciseexclusiveLegislationinallCaseswhatsoever,oversuchDistrict(notexceedingtenMiles
square)asmay,byCessionofparticularStates,andtheAcceptanceofCongress,becometheSeatofthe
GovernmentoftheUnitedStates,andtoexerciselikeAuthorityoverallPlacespurchasedbytheConsent
oftheLegislatureoftheStateinwhichtheSameshallbe,fortheErectionofForts,Magazines,Arsenals,
dockYards,andotherneedfulBuildings.

18.TomakeallLawswhichshallbenecessaryandproperforcarryingintoExecutiontheforegoing
Powers,andallotherPowersvestedbythisConstitutionintheGovernmentoftheUnitedStates,orin
anyDepartmentorOfficerthereof.

TheARTICLE1,Section9oftheconstitutionforbidsfederalgovernmentfrompassingexpostfactolaws
grantingtitlesornobility,passinglawsonreligiousbelievesofpeopleandabridgingfreedomofspeech
andpress.ThesamearticleforbidsthefederatingStatesfrommakingalliancesortreatywithforeign
StatesorCountries,fromissuingcoinageandmaintainingarmies.

Excludingthe18powersvestedinthefederalgovernment,theconstitutionvestsalltheresiduarypowers
inthefederatingStates.TheseresiduarypowerscannotbeexercisedbytheFederalGovernment.

2.GROWTHOFFEDERALAUTHORITY
AtthetimewhenUScametoexistence,thefederatingStateswishedtoretainasmuchpowerandlocal
independenceasmuchpossible,thustheygaveonlylimitednumberofpowertotheFederalGovernment
atcentre.Theyonlyagreedtoaunionnotaunity.Butundertheimpactoftimeandcircumstances,the
powersofthefederalgovernmenthaveincreasedbeyondimagination.

ThefollowingfactorshavebeenresponsibleforthegrowthoffederalauthorityinUS.

a.DoctrineofImpliedPowers:

ThedoctrinewasintroducedbytheSupremeCourtundertheChiefJusticeMarshall.Accordingtothe
doctrine,theconstitutionnotonlyenumeratescertainpowersforthecentre,butalsogivesthosepowers
whichareimpliedintheenumeratedones.

Examples:

TheconstitutionempowerstheFederalGovernmenttoregulatecommerceandtradewithforeignnations
andamongtheseveralStates.Fromtheclauseoftheconstitution,thecongresshasderivedpowerto
controlallmeansoftransportandcommunication.

FromtheclausewhichgivespowertoCongressforpromotinggeneralwelfare,thefederalgovernment
hasderivedauthoritytopasssociallegislationslikeoldageinsuranceschemesandotherlawsofthis
nature.

AgainthroughpowersofCongresstocollecttaxesandduties,thefederalgovernmentgottheauthorityto
establishandexclusivelycontroltheFederalBankofReserves(CentralbackofUSA).

b.Amendmentsintheconstitution:

Variousamendmentsintheconstitutionhavevestedpowersinthefederalgovernment.The15th
amendmentgavepowersofjudicialreviewtotheSupremeCourtovertheStateLegislation.Sincethe
JudgesoftheSupremeCourtareappointedbythePresidentandapprovedbytheSenate(UpperHouseof
theCongress,whichistheFederalgovernment),theCongresshasindirectsayinthemattersofthe
federatingStatelegislations.The16thamendmentauthorizedtheCongresstolevyandcollecttaxeson
incomeofallkindswhereastheoriginalconstitutionprohibitedtheFederalGovernmenttoimposedirect
tax.

c.Physical,EconomicalandSocialChanges:

WhenUSAcametoexistence,therewereonly13States.Butnowitisaunionof50Stateswithhuge
extentofterritoryandenormouspopulation.Thisgrowthinsizeandpopulationtogetherwithcomplexity
ofsocialorganizationhasshiftedthepowergreatlyinfavoroftheFederalGovernment.Thematters,
onceconsideredtobeoflocalimportance,assumednationalcharacter.

Thevastdevelopmentofcommunication,trade,technology,riseofbigbusinessandinterState
cooperationcreatedproblems,whichtheStatescouldnottackleandcouldonlybehandlebytheFederal
Government.PeopledemandedserviceswhichtheStateGovernmentwaseitherunableorunwillingto
providehencetheFederalGovernmenttookthemattersinitshand.StepbySteptheFederal
GovernmenttookoverwhattheStateswouldnotorcouldnotdo.Thus,therehasbeensteadyflowof
authoritytotheFederalGovernmentattheWashingtonSeat.

d.RoleOfPowerfulPresident:

ThepowerfulPresidentsissuedrulesandregulationswhichwidenedtheexerciseofauthorityofFederal
Government.ThePowerfulPresidentswerevirtualdictators.PresidentGeorgeWashington,Abraham
Lincoln,WoodrowWilson,F.DRooseveltetcarefewoftheexamplesofthesepowerfulPresidents.They
havetakenactionevenwithoutanyconstitutionaljustification.PresidentLincolndeclaredwaragainst
SouthernStatesontheissueofslavery,whileRooseveltsNewDealPolicyhaswidenedthecontrolof
FederalGovernmentoverthesubjectsoriginallywithintheStateJurisdiction.

e.TheImpactofCivilWar(18611865):

TheCivilwarin1861to1865,effectivelydecidedtheCentreStaterelationship.Thewartookplace
becauseofCentreStateconflictsaswellasinterStateconflicts.Itgavethenegativeverdictagainst
separation,StateautonomyandStateLoyalty.Hence,aftertheceasefire,someofthepowersofState
wereeithercurtailedortransferredtotheFederalGovernmenttobecollectivelybeexercisedoverall
States.

f.ConfidenceinFederalGovernment:

Duetosomepastevents,thepeopleofUShavegainedmoreconfidenceinFederalGovernmentover
variousmatters,whichtheStateGovernmentswerenotabletohandle.Forexample:TheEconomiccrisis
of1931.TheresourcesofStatesprovedabsolutelyinadequatetoprovidereliefto12millionunemployed
peopleinthecountry.HenceitwastheFederalGovernmentthatstartedtacklestheproblem.Hencethe
StatesandpeoplehaveincreasedthepowersofFederalGovernmentinordertoavoidinsuchscenarios
inthefuture.ItisinthehandoftheFederalGovernmenttoprovidegeneralwelfareofthepeople.For
thisreasontheFederalGovernmentalsointroducedFederalGrantsAidfortheStates.

g.FederalGrantsAid:

FederalGrantsAidisthepaymentsmadebytheFederalGovernmenttoStateandlocalbody
governmentsforthesupportofwelfareactivitiesadministeredbyStatesandtheirlocalbodies.Theaidis
providedforhousing,agriculture,educationandvariousothersimilarmatters.Thecentregivesthe
grantsforspecifiedpurposeandsubjecttoconditionsstipulatedbyCongress.

h.DefenseoftheCountry:

ItistheconstitutionalobligationfortheFederalgovernmenttoprotectthecountryandprovidecommon
defencetoStatesfromexternalaggressions,andalsodeclareandwagewarifnecessary.Duringthewar
thefederalgovernmentisresponsiblefortheentirelifeofthenationandthecountry.Ithastocontrolall
channelsofproduction,transportation,distributionandeveryaspectofeconomicandsociallifeinthe
country.Attheendofthewarthefederalgovernmentmusttackleproblemsofdemobilizationandpost
warreconstruction.Allthisleadstoincreaseinauthorityoffederalgovernment.Itmustalsobenoted
thatineverydecadeUSisinvolvedinsomelongtermconflicts,somewhicharewarringconflicts.

i.ImpactofWorldSituation:

EventslikeWWIIandColdWarareresponsibleforenormousincreaseinthepowersofthefederal
government.Althoughtheseeventsandconflictshavecometoend,thepowersthatFederalgovernment
tookinstillremaininitshands.Infactthepowersprovidedbytheseeventsarestillbeingusedinself
interestofUS,andspeciallyofFederalGovernment.

ThisincreaseinthegrowthoffederalauthorityhasledtoaconclusionthatUSisnolongeraFederal
Polity.ButitwouldalsobewrongandanexaggerationtosaythatFederalismisdeadinAmerica.This
cannothappen,astheyareinmanywaysfathersofmodernfederalism.Howeverintodaysworld
federationcannotexistwithastrongcentre.ThisstrengtheningofCentreofFederalgovernmentiswhat
scholarscallaCooperativeFederalism.

3.FEDERALSTATERELATIONSHIP:

TherearethreemajorpatternsofFederalStaterelationshipinUSconstitution.

a.DUALFEDERALISM:

InthistheconstitutionhascarvedoutseparatefieldsofauthorityforFederalandStategovernments.It
dividestheauthorityamongstthetwobodiesinsuchawaythatnogovernmentcouldexerciseany
regulatoryinfluence.

ThisprinciplewasupheldbytheSupremeCourtinitsdecisionofDredScotCase(1857).However,the
civilwar(186165)hadputanendtothedivisiveeffectsofthisprinciple.

b.COOPERATIVEFEDERALISM:

Itupholdsthesupremacyoffederalgovernmentandextensionofitspowers,withcooperationand
authorityoftheFederatingstatesgovernments.Theconstitutionrequiresfederalstatecooperationin
someareassuchastheadministrationofelections,wherethebothgovernmentshaveconcurrent
powers.Themostimportantdeviceofcooperativefederalismisgrantsinaidforvariouspurposese.g.
nationalhighwaydevelopment,education,urbandevelopment.Inthisthestategovernmentplaysvery
importantrolealongwiththefederalgovernment.

TherearesomematterswhichStategovernmentalonecannothandlehenceitneedsthesupportofthe
FederalGovernment.Thesemattersincludewaterpollutioncontrol,unemploymentinsuranceetc.States
alsoneedfinancialandadministrativeassistancefromFederalgovernmentovervariousothermatters.

Wecansaythatclosefederalstatecooperationrelationshipisrequiredtomeetthemodern
responsibilities.

c.CREATIVEFEDERALISM:

ThisincludesrevitalizingtheStateandcitygovernmentalbodiestoimprovethelineofcoordination
betweentheCentral,Stateandlocalbranchesofgovernmentandadministration.Themajorfeatureof
thisconceptisrestructuringoffederalbureaucracytomakeitmoreefficientandresponsiveinits
relationswithStateslocalandnongovernmentalorganization(NGOs).Thecongresshaspasseda
numberofactsregardingtheconceptofcreativefederalism,forexampleinstanceEconomicOpportunity
Actin1964,theElementaryandSecondaryEducationActin1965andManpowerDevelopmentActin
1966.Bytheselegislations,thecongresshastriedtosolvetheproblemsofpovertyandsocialtensionin
thecitiesandStates.Ithastriedtocurbcrimesandlawlessness,andtoclearslumareasinthecities.

4.FEDERALOBLIGATIONSTOTHESTATES
Theconstitutionhasprovidedfederalgovernmentwithsomeresponsibilitiesandobligationstowardsthe
federatingStates.Theseobligationsareasfollowed:

1.Respecttheterritorialintegrityofexistingstatesinadmittingnewstates
2.GuaranteearepublicanforofgovernmenttotheStates
3.ProtectStatesagainstdomesticviolenceandforeignaggression
4.LeaveintacttheconstitutionalgrantoftwosenatorsforeachState
5.ForbidsuitagainstStatesbyindividualsinthefederalcourt.

Thesecanbeenumeratedasfollowed:

a.TERRITORIALINTEGRITYOFTHESTATES:

TheconstitutionoftheUS,undertheArticleIV,Section3,ClauseI,statesthatNewStatesmaybe
admittedbytheCongressintotheunionbutnonewStateshallbeformedorerectedwithinthe
jurisdictionofanyotherstatenoranyStatebeformedbythejunctionoftwoormorestates,orpartsof
states,withouttheconsentofthelegislatureoftheconcernedStatesaswellasoftheCongress.

HenceCongresshaspowerstoadmitnewStates,butnotatacostoftheterritoriallossofanyexisting
State.Federalgovernmentisboundtorespecttheterritorialintegrityofeachstateanditcannottake
territoryofanystatewithitsconsent.

b.REPUBLICANFORMOFGOVERNMENT:

TheArticleIV,Section4,callsuponthefederalgovernmenttoguaranteeaRepublicanformof
governmentineveryStateofthecountry.TheCongressmayrefusetoseatthesenatorsand
representativesofaStateorStatesonthegroundthattheycomefromaStatewithoutRepublicanform
ofagovernment.

c.DEFENCEAGAINSTINVASIONANDVOILANCE:

TheArticleIV,Section4,alsocallsonthefederalgovernmenttoprotecteachstatefromexternal
invasionanddomesticviolence.TheobligationofFederalGovernment,toprotectStatesfromexternal
aggressionisquitelogicalastheStatesarenotallowedtohavearmiesandnavies(orAirforce).During
thedomesticviolence,thePresidentcansendtroopsonlyafterarequestfromthegovernororthe
legislatureoftheconcernedStateorhecansendtroopswhenFederalLawandFederalpropertyis
violated.

d.EQUALREPRESENTATIONINTHESENATE:

Itisratherarestrictionthanatask.Theconstitutionbarsfederalgovernmentfromdenyingequal
representationifStatesinSenate,withouttheconsentoftheconcernedState.Thisisafundamentallaw
andcannotbeamended.

e.STATEIMMUNITYSUIT:

TheoriginalconstitutionallowedfederaljudiciarytoassumejurisdictionoverthesuitsbetweenaState
andcitizensofanotherState.Butafteraconflictoverthisfeaturein1793caseofChisholmv/sGeorgia
thefeaturewasamendedintheconstitutionthroughthe11thamendment.Theamendmentoutlawedsuch
suitsanddebarredstatestobesuedbyanindividualinfederalcourt.Howeveranindividualmayseek
remedythroughlegislativeactionoraclaimbill.

5.STATEOBLIGATIONSTOTHEFEDERATION
FollowingarethemajorobligationsofStatestowardsthefederation:

a.ELECTIONSOFFEDERALOFFICE:

AlltheStatesareobligedtoparticipateinelectingfederalofficialslikethePresident,thesenatorsand
therepresentatives.

ThePresidentialelectorsortheElectoralCollegeiselectedbytheState.

TheStatesareobligedtoelectrepresentativestotheHouseofRepresentativesonpopulationbasis.

TheStates(throughStatelegislature)arealsoobligedtoelecttwosenatorstotheSenate.

ItistheresponsibilityoftheStatetofollowcommonelectiondate,putforwardbytheCongress,forthe
electionofthefederalofficers.

TheStatecanchoosewhatevermethoditwantsfortheelectionprocedureofrepresentatives,senate
andotherfederalofficers.

b.PARTICIPATINGINAMENDINGPROCESS:

ItistheStateobligationtoparticipateintheamendingprocessoftheconstitution.Theconstitutionhas
putforwardtwomethodsofamendmentsandinbothmethodsparticipationofStatesisnecessary.The
amendmenthastoberatifiedbythelegislatureofthestatesorbytheconventioncalledbytheStates.
NoamendmentcantakeaffectunlesstheStatesapproveofit.
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Chapter#1.3

Chapter#1.3
THEPRESIDENT,PRESIDENTSCABINETANDTHE
VICEPRESIDENT
________________________________________

CONTENTS

1.THEPRESIDENTOFU.S.A

INTRODUCTION
QUALIFICATIONS
ELECTION
TERM
SUCCESSION
IMPEACHMENT
PRIVILEGES
POWERS

2.PRESIDENTSCABINET

INTRODUCTION
FORMATION
MEETINGS

3.THEVICEPRESIDENTPRESIDENYOFU.S.A

INTRODUCTION
FUNCTIONS

________________________________________
1.THEPRESIDENTOFU.S.A
________________________________________
 INTRODUCTION

ThePresidentofUSAhasbeenvestedwithexecutivepowersbytheconstitutionandhenceisthechief
executiveoftheentirecountry.Hispowersaresoenormous,wideandoverwhelmingthatheisreferred
toastheforemostruleroftheworld.

ThePresidentofUSAissupremeinexecutivesphereandismasterofhiscabinet,ashechoosesthemas
personalteamadvisors.Heisnotboundtothecabinetsdecisions,butrathercabinethastofollowhis
instructions,otherwisetheyareboundtoquitthecabinet.

TheUSpresidentiselectedbythepeopleandthusenjoysgreatermeasuresofpopularsupport.Thusthe
AmericanconstitutionhasmadethePresidenttherealheadoftheState.

QUALIFICATION

TheconstitutionprovidesthatthePresidentialcandidatemustbe

1.AnaturalbornCitizenofUnitedStates
2.Mustnotbelessthan35yearsofage
3.Musthaveresidednotlessthan14yearsinthecountry

Theconstitutiondoesnotbarawoman,aNegroorapersonofanyotherraceorreligiontobeelectedas
thePresident.HowevernowomanorNegrohaseverbeenelectedasPresident.Onthereligiousbasisno
nonChristianhaseverwonthePresidency.USAispredominantlyaprotestantcountryandnoCatholic
personhaseverbeenelectedasthePresident,exceptforJ.F.Kennedy.

ELECTIONS

TheconstitutionprovidesforindirectelectionsoftheAmericanpresident.Heiselectedbyanelectoral
collegeconsistingofasmanypresidentialelectorsasisthenumberofmembersinthehouseofthe
congress.ThisElectoralCollegeisconstitutedineachstate,andthemethodbywhichtheseelectoral
collegesaretobeelectedistoconcernoftheStates.InitiallytheywereelectedbytheStatelegislature
butnowstatesletthepeopleelecttheelectoralcolleges.

Thesystemofelectionsisbasedoncalendar.TheElectoralCollegemembersareelectedonTuesday
afterthe1stMondayinNovemberofeveryleapyear.On1stMondayofDecembertheymeetintheir
respectiveStatestovoteforPresident.TheresultissealedandissenttotheChairmanofSenateby
eachState.On6thJanuaryofNewYeartheCongressmeetsinitsjointsessiontocountthevotes.The
personsecuringmajorityofthevoteswouldthandeclaredthewinnerofthePresidentialelection.On20th
ofJanuarythewinnerissworninasPresident.Incasenocandidatesecuremajorityofthetotalvotes,
theHouseofRepresentativeswillthanelectonepersonfrom1stthreecandidateswhohassecured
highestnumberofvotesthanthetwo.InsuchcaseeachStatealsohastoexerciseaOnevotetoelecta
President.Ifnopresidentiselectedthanafter4thMarchtheVicePresidentbecomesthePresident.

TERM

ThePresidentiselectedforthetermoffour(4)years.Accordingtothe22ndamendment,ratifiedin
1951,hecannotbeelectedformorethantwoterms.

Initiallytherewasnorestrictionofnumberoftermsofelections.InfactPresidentRooseveltwaselected
forthe3rdand4thterminarow.

SUCCESSION

TheArticleII,section1,Clause5oftheConstitutionprovidesthatifthePresidentsofficefallsvacant
duetohisdeath,resignation,impeachmentorinabilitytodischargetheduties,thevicePresident
succeedstohisofficefortheremainingperiodofhisterm.IfbothPresidentandVicePresidentare
unabletoperformtheirdutiestheywouldbesucceededbySpeakeroftheHouseofRepresentatives,
PresidentsProTemporeofSenate,SecretaryofStateandsoon.
 IMPEACHMENT

TheUnitedStatesPresidentcannotberemoveddirectlybytheCongressasheisnotaccountabletoit.
TheonlymethodofremovingtheUSPresidentisbyImpeachment.ThemethodofPresidential
impeachmentrequirestheHouseofRepresentativetoadoptaresolutioncalledarticleofimpeachment
chargingthePresidentwithcertainhighcrimesanddirectstheprosecutionbeforetheSenatewhichacts
asjudicialtribunalforimpeachmentandispresidedoverbyChiefJustice.Theimpeachmentisthanput
tovoteinsenateandtwothird(about67%)majorityisrequiredtoconvictthePresident.

In1868PresidentJohnsonwasasubjecttoimpeachmentbuthecouldnotbeconvictedduetolackof
requiredmajority

In1974,PresidentNixonbecamesubjecttoimpeachmentbecauseoftheWatergateScandal.Buthe
resigned&escapedtheprocess.

Againin19989,PresidentClintonwassubjectedtoprocessofimpeachment,butlikePresidentJohnson
hesurvivedtheprocessduetolackofrequiredmajority.

PRIVILEGES

ThePresidentisimmunefromarrestforanyoffenceduringhistenure.Heisnotsubjecttoanycourt.
HecanonlybepunishedforanyoffenceafterhisremovalfromthePresidentsoffice.

ThePresidentreceivesasalaryof400,000ayear.

OccupiesanofficialresidenceintheWhiteHouse.

Duringthetraveltoforeigncountries,Airforce1(Boeing747)isathisdisposal.AirForce1also
performsasaflyingPresidentialOffice.PresidentisalsoprovidedwitharmoredCadillaclimousinewhen
travelinginWashingtonanditssurroundings.WhenTravelinginsideUSAheisprovidedwithaHelicopter.

ThePresidentisalsogivenahighsecurityduringandevenafterhisPresidency.

ThePresidentenjoysvariousotherprivilegesduringhisPresidency.HealsoreceivessomePrivileges
aftertheendofhispresidency.ThesePrivilegesinclude

Freemailing
Freeofficespace
Therighttoholddiplomaticpassport
Budgetsforofficehelpandstaffassistance
Receivespension(since1958)

POWERS

AssaidbeforetheconstitutiondeclaresthePresidentastheexecutiveofthecountryandvestallpowers
inhim.DuringthelastcenturythepowersofUSPresidenthaveincreasedenormously.Todayhehas
becomesopowerfulthathehasnocounterpartinpowerinthedemocraticworld.

ThePresidentofUSenjoysfollowingpowers:

1.ExecutivePowers
2.DiplomaticPowers
3.LegislativePowers
4.JudicialPowers
5.FinancialPowers

Thesepowerscanbeexplainedasfollowed:

1.EXECUTIVEPOWERS:

TheAmericanpresidenthasthefollowingexecutivepowers:

(a.)CHIEFADMINISTRATOR:

ThePresidentistheheadofthenationaladministrationandsupervisorofitsoperation.Allexecutive
operationstakeplaceinhisname.Hehaspower&responsibilityfortheenforcementofconstitution,
laws,treatiesandjudicialdecisionsofSupremeCourtwithinthecountryoroutside.Hehasbroadpowers
tomanagenationalaffairsandworkingsofthefederalgovernment.Hecanissuerules,regulationsand
instructioncalledexecutiveorders,whichhavebindingforceoflawuponfederalagenciesbutdonot
requirecongressionalapproval.Healsoexercisescompletepoweroverhiscabinetanditsmembers.All
cabinetmembersareappointedbyhimanddoashedirectsthemtodo.Heismainlyresponsibleforthe
administrationofnationalgovernmentandsupervisionofadministrativedepartmentsandagencies.

(b.)POWERSOFAPPOINTMENT:

ThePresidenthaspowertoappointsuperiorofficialsofthecountrysuchassecretaries(ministers)and
otherheadsofexecutivedepartmentsandagencies,Ambassadorstoforeigncountriesandinternational
organizationssuchasUNOandNATO,judgestotheSupremeCourtandotherhighrankingfederal
officials.HoweverheneedsSenatesconfirmationovertheseSuperiorappointments.Hecanalsoappoint
inferiorofficialsforwhichnoSenateconfirmationisrequired.IftheSenatesmajoritymembersarefrom
thepartytowhichthePresidenthimselfbelongs,thanhewouldhavenoprobleminconfirmationof
SuperiorOfficialsheprefers.

(c.)COMMANDERINCHIEF:

ThePresidentistheCommanderinChiefortheChiefofthearmedforces,andisresponsibleforthe
defenceofthecountry.Heappointsallmilitaryofficers,supervisorsanddirectstheworkofthearmy,
navyandtheairforce.Healsopresentsbudgetsformilitaryexpenditureandemployees,troopsforthe
offensiveanddefensivepurpose.ThePresidentcandeclarewarwiththeapprovalofCongressandalso
makepeacewithouttheCongressionalconsent.

(d.)MAINTAINANCEOFLAWANDORDER:

PresidentisresponsibleforthemaintenanceofLawandOrderthroughouttheland.Hemayusehis
powerstomaintainorder,evenwithforce,inpartofthecountrywherethereisresistance.ThePresident
cantakeactiontorestoreLawonOrderonhisownifthematterisoffederaljurisdiction.IfitisofState
jurisdictionhecanrestoreorderontherequestoftheStateLegislature.

2.DIPLOMATICPOWERS:

Undertheconstitution,thePresidentisthefederalofficialprimarilyresponsiblefortherelationsofthe
UnitedStateswithforeignnations.

Heformulatesforeignpolicy

AppointsalldiplomaticrepresentativesorambassadorstoforeignstateswiththeconsentofSenate.He
alsoreceivesAmbassadorsfromforeignStates.

Hehaspowertoenterintoexecutiveagreementswithforeignstates.Forthishedoesnotrequire
Senatesratifications.

Hedoesnothaveexclusiverightstodeclarewaragainstanycountry.ForthisherequiresCongresss
approval.Howeverhecanceasefireorterminatehostilitiesinordertobringanendtowaronhisown,
withouttheconsentoftheCongress.

ThePresidenthasthesoleauthoritytorecognizeanewStateoranewgovernmentisforeignStates.

ThePresidentofUSisaidedbyhisSecretaryofStateandtheStateDepartmentinordertocarryout
countriesforeignrelations.SometimesDepartmentofDefencealsoplaysmajorroleinformulating
Presidentsforeignpolicies.

USPRESIDENTISDIPLMATICDICTATORATWAR

TheenlargementofdiplomaticpowersinthehandofPresidentalongwiththeroleofChiefExecutiveand
CommanderinChiefunderhisbelthasplacedinhishandsthepowertobringthecountryatwarthat
congresshasbeenforcedtoacknowledge.ThusthePresidentsprerogativeofdeclaringwar,halfwarsor
undoingwarhasvirtuallyswallowedtheCongressionalrighttoratifythedeclarationofwarordeclare
waronitself.AllthesepowersweregeneratedtogreaterextentduringtheWorldWar1and2and
especiallyduringtheColdWar,andeventhoughthesethreatsareoverthePresidentsofUScontinueto
useandmisusethesepowers.AllthesepowerspointoutthattheUSPresidentisdictatorofforeign
relations.

3.LEGISLATIVEPOWERS

UnderthedoctrineofSeparationofPowersthePresidentoftheUnitedStateshaslimitedlegislative
authority.ThatpowerhasbeenenormouslyvestedintheCongress.ThePresidentcannotsummon,
prorogueordissolvetheCongress.HeisnotamemberofCongressandcannotinitiateanybilldirectly.
CongresscanmakeanyLawandpassanybillagainsthiswishes.Butdespitethisconstitutional
limitation,thePresidentastheChiefformulatorofthepublicpolicyhasamajorlegislativerole.

(a.)VETOPOWER:

AllthebillsthatCongresspassesaresubjecttoPresidentsapproval.Hemaydealwiththeminfollowing
manners:

Hemayassentthebillanditwillbecameactoraffective

Hemaytakenoactiononitandwithin10daysitbecomesanACT,ifCongressisstillinsession.

Hemaytakenoactiononitandwithin10daysitiskilled,ifCongressisnotinsession.Itisknownas
PocketVetoofthePresident.

HemayreturntheBillwithorwithoutamendment

HemaydirectlyVETOthebill,andunlesstwothirdofmembersofeachhouseofCongressvotesto
overridetheveto,thebilldoesnotbecomelaw.

(b.)MESSAGES:

ThePresidentcansendmessagestotheCongresssuggestingsomelegislativemeasureswhichcannot
easilybeignoredbytheCongress.InannualandspecialmessagestoCongress,thePresidentmay
proposelegislationshebelievesisnecessary.

(c.)PROPOSALFORLEGISLATION:

ThePresidentofUScanrecommendmeasurestothecongressforthelegislation.Hemayeithersend
proposalfornewlegislationoramendmenttotheoldlegislation.

(d.)EXTRAORDINARYSESSION:

ThemostimportantoccasionforPresidentialmessagesandlegislationrelatedproposalstobeput
forwardtoCongressistheannualStateoftheUnionAddress.Here,beforethejointsessionofthe
Congress,thePresidentoutlinesthestatusofthecountryandhislegislativeproposalsforupcomingyear
oryears.IncasetheCongressisnotinsession,thePresidenthaspowertocallextraordinarysessionof
Congresstoconsiderspecialmattersofurgentneed.However,Congressisnotboundtoacceptthe
Presidentsrecommendationsatspecialsessions.

4.JUDICIALPOWERS:
Likethelegislativepowers,theconstitutionaldoctrineofSeparationofPoweralsolimitsthejudicial
powersofthePresidentandvestsitmoreinthejudiciaryundertheSupremeCourt.However,the
Presidentdoesexercisesomeimportantandinfluentialjudicialpowers.Thesejudicialpowersareas
followed:

HehaspowertoPardonsomeonewhohasbrokenthefederallawExceptincaseofimpeachment.

PowertoReprieve,whichpostponespenaltyofexecution.

PowertograntAmnesty.

HoweverPresidentcannotgrantpardonorreprievetooffendersconvictedunderstatelaws.

5.FINANCIALPOWERS:
ThePresidentistherealfinancialmanagerofthecountryashedirectsandcontrolsthefinances.
AlthoughtheCongresshaspowertocontrolthefederalfinancingintheory,butinpracticethePresident
actuallycontrolsthefinances.UnderthedirectsupervisionofthePresident,thenationalbudget
preparedwhichplacedbeforecongressforapproval.However,congresscannotamendorchangeit.In
ordertopracticehisfinancialpowers,PresidentisaidedbytheFinanceDepartmentandhishandpicked
membersofcabinet.

HisdiplomaticpowershavebecomesoenormousthatnotonlyhecanvetotheworkofAmerican
Congressbutalsoinsomewaystheworkofforeignassemblies.Hehasfreehandtodowhathedesires
athomeandabroad.Withnuclearandmilitarysupremacy,thepositionandpowersoftheAmerican
presidenthavebecomemostperilousintheworldtoday.

InotherwordswecansaythatthePresidentofUnitedStatesisvirtuallyadictatorbothdomesticallyand
internationally.

________________________________________
2.THEPRESIDENTSCABINET
________________________________________
ESTABLISHMENT

InitiallytheframersoftheconstitutiondidnotincludetheprovisionsforCabinetintheConstitution.It
expectedtheSenatetoactasabodyofadvisorsofthePresident.ButbecauseoftheSenatespowersto
disapprovetreatiesandappointmentsmadebyPresident,itwasdifficultforPresidenttocontinuesuch
relationshipwithit.Thisproblemwasquicklyrecognizedbythe1stPresidentoftheUnitedStates
GeorgeWashington.Hencehebegantoconsidertheadviceofhisprincipleofficersinmatterof
administration.ThePresidentsmeetingswiththeseadvisorsarewhatcametobeknownasThe
Cabinet.TheCongressusedthistermmoreandmoreincongressionaldebatesandby1793,President
GeorgeWashingtonhadpursuedCongresstorecognizetheDepartmentsofForeignAffairs(nowcalled
StateDepartment),departmentoftreasuryanddepartmentofWar.Induetimecongressfullyrecognized
thePresidentsneedtohavecabinetanditincludedtheArticlesregardingtheCabinetSysteminthe
constitution.

CONSTITUTIONALANDLEGALSTATUS

ArticleIIoftheconstitutionprovidesthatthePresidentcanrequiretheopinion,inwriting,ofthe
principleofficerineachoftheexecutivedepartment,uponanysubjectrelatingtothedutiesoftheir
respectiveoffices.The25thAmendmentprovidesthattheVicePresidentandamajorityoftheprinciple
officersofthedepartmentscantransmitanoticethatthePresidentisunfitforoffice.

EventhoughtheCabinetsystemisasoldastheconstitution,yetitsnatureandcompositionremains
informal.HencethereisnothingdefiniteaboutitsrelationswiththePresident.TheCabinetconsistsof
PrincipleadvisorstothePresident.Presidentholdsmeetingwiththemmostlytodiscussimportant
administrativematters.ThePrincipleadvisorsareknownassecretariesandPresidentappointsthemto
differentdepartments.ThecabinetintheUSisfoundunderthewillofPresidentandfunctionsentirelyon
Presidentialinitiative.

ThemembersoftheCabinetholdtwokindsofresponsibilities.Theyadministerthedepartmentsof
federalgovernmentandadvicePresidentonmattersrelatingtofederaladministration.Allmembersof
theCabinetarehandpickedbythePresidenthimself,butaresubjectedtotheSenatesapproval.Itis
veryrarelythatSenaterejectsPresidentsnominations.

SIZE

ThereisnodefinitesizeofthePresidentscabinet.Presidentmayincludeasmanypersonstoitashe
desires.DuringGeorgeWashingtonsPresidencytherewereonlyfourheadsofdepartmentsbutasthe
executivepowersofPresidentincreased,thenumberofprinciplemembersalsoincreasedandthusthe
numberofpersonsinCabinetalsoincreased.TheVicePresidentisalsoamemberoftheCabinetandsits
initsmeetingsregularly.

FORMATION

Assaidbefore,thenatureofandcompositionoftheCabinetremainsinformal.ThePresidentmayform
theCabinetinwhatevermethodhelikesandnominatewhateverpeoplehelikes.Howeveritisbecome
atrendtodistributeseatsongeographicalbasis.MembersarechosenfromEastern,Westernand
Southernregionsofthecountry.InmodernerathePresidentsprefertochoosepeoplefromallwalksof
lifee.gtherecenttrendistoincludethebusinessmen,eventhoughhemaynothaveanypolitical
backgroundorknowledge.Buthemaybeusefulonfinanceandbusinessrelatedmatters.Manytimesthe
PresidentnominatestheirpersonalfriendsPresidentRooseveltincludedhisfriendW.H.Woodin,while
PresidentKennedyinductedhisownbrotherRobertKennedyasAttorneyGeneral.Onmanytimesthe
cabinetmembershavebeenthepastgovernorsofthefederatingStates,exsenators,representatives
andotherpoliticalofficeholders.

Onlysensiblesteptakeninformationofthecabinetisthatappointmentsaremadeonthegroundofthe
specialknowledgeandexperienceoradministrativeabilityofthenominee.ForexampleLawyersare
usuallynominatedfortheseatofAttorneyGeneral.Inordertoensurethatthenominationsarebasedon
aboveelements,theconstitutionallowstheSenatetoeitherapproveordisapproveofPresidentschoice.

Unlikeinparliamentarysystem,theAmericanPresidentscabinetisrarelyshuffled/

CABINETMEMBERSELECTIONPROCESS

Atthemomentthereare15departmentsforwhichthePresidentmakeschoiceforhisSecretaries.As
discussedbeforethePresidentmakeshischoiceofnominee,whiletheSenateapproves(ordisapproves)
byasimplemajority.Theselectedsecretarycannotholdofficeinlegislativeorjudicialbranchduringhis
membershipofthecabinet.

Inaddition,thePresidentorCongresscandeselectamemberandfireorimpeachhim.Thecabinet
memberalsohasrighttoresignfromtheofficeorwithdrawhisnominationorrefusetotakeoffice.In
suchcasePresidentwillhavetomakeafreshappointment.

CABINETMEETINGS

UnliketheCongress,theCabinetisnotobligedtoformalandregularmeetings.TheAmericancabinetis
justanadvisorybody.Presidentmayeitherhavesomeuseornouseofitatall.HenceitisPresidents
choicetowhetherholdmeetingwiththecabinetornot.Inrecentyears,thecabinetisusuallysummoned
onceaweekandduringemergenciestheymeetforfrequently.Themeetingsareusuallyinformal,there
arenorulesorregulationsonthediscussionanddebateandnoofficialrecordsarekept,exceptforthe
roughpaperthatPresidentmayusetowritedownsomepoints.Theadvicesinthemeetingsmaybe
acceptedorrejectedbythePresidentandnovotingisrequired.

Allandall,theCabinetiswhatthePresidentwantsittobe.Itistheleastsuccessfulfederalinstitution
anditisunlikelythatthePresidentistomakeitoutstanding.Theysimplyarenotagovernment,butjust
avoiceofadviceinit.

________________________________________
THEVICEPRESIDENT
________________________________________
INTRODUCTION

TheUSconstitutionprovidesforaVicePresident.TheofficeofVicePresidentpossessgreatpotentialities
butlittleofactualpower.BecauseofthisreasonmanydelegatesatthePhiladelphiaConventionfeltthe
inclusionofprovisionsfortheofficeofVicePresidentunnecessary.Howevertheprovisionwasratified
alongwiththeconstitution.TheconstitutionrequirestheVicePresidenttopossessthesamequalifications
asareprescribedforthePresident.

1.AnaturalbornCitizenofUnitedStates
2.Mustnotbelessthan35yearsofage
3.Musthaveresidednotlessthan14yearsinthecountry

TheVicePresidentiselectedatthesametime,inthesamemannerandforthesametermsoffouryears
thePresidentis.Theoriginaldraftoftheconstitutioncalledforcandidatesecuringsecondhighestvotes
tobedeclaredtheVicePresident.However,theProvisionwaslaterchangedinordertoaccommodate
thePresidentwithsupportiveVicePresident.

FUNCTIONS
TheconstitutionassignsfollowingfunctionstotheVicePresident:

SUCCESSIONTOTHEPRESIDENCY:

ThepotentialfunctionoftheVicePresident,under25thamendment,istofilltheofficeofthePresidentin
casethePresidenthasdied,resigned,unabletoperformthePresidentialdutyorremovedthrough
impeachment.HethanassumesthePresidencyandallexecutivepowersanddutiesaredevaluedupon
him.HewillcontinuetheremaindertermofthePresidencytillthenextPresidentialelections.Incase
bothPresidentandVicePresidenthavedied,resigned,removedorareunabletoperformtheduties,the
constitutioncallsupontheCongresstodecideonwhowillcontinuetheofficeofPresidencytillthenext
electionsareheld.

VicePresidentLyndonJohnsonsucceededtotheofficeofPresidentaftertheassassination/deathof
PresidentJohn.F.Kennedyin1963.VicePresidentGeraldFordtookthePresidencyaftertheresignation
ofPresidentRichardNixonin1974.DuringtheNixonsVicePresidencyhetookthePresidentialpowerson
informalbasisforweekswhenPresidentD.DEisenhowerwasill.VicePresidentNixonhadtoperform
Presidentialdutiesthreetimesunderthesamecircumstances.InthesamemannerVicePresident
GeorgeBushtookPresidentialpowersduringtheabsenceofPresidentRonaldReagan.

EXOFFICECHAIRMANOFSENATE:

TheArticle1,Section3oftheConstitutioncallstheVicePresidenttobetheExOfficeChairmanofthe
SenateandPresideoverthemeetingsoftheSenate.Healsohasavoteincaseofatie.Inpracticethe
VicePresidentrarelypresidesoverdaytodaymattersinSenate.InhisplacetheSenatechoosesa
PresidentProTempore(orPresidentforatemporaryperiodorforaTime.)topresidethemeetings.

AnotherfunctionofVicePresident,asaChairmanofSenate,istopresideoverthecountingand
presentationofthePresidentialandVicePresidentialelectoralvotesbytheU.SElectoralCollege,in
presenceofboththehouseofCongress.

MEMBEROFTHECABINET:

TheVicePresidentworksasapart/memberofthePresidentsCabinet.Hisassociationwith
administrationenableshimtobetrainedinadministrativeaffairs,sothathemaybeabletohandlethe
PresidentialOffice,ifchancebecomes.

ELECTIONPROCESS

InitiallytheconstitutioncalledforthepersonsecuringhighestvotestobecomePresident,whilethe
personsecuringsecondhighestvotesinPresidentialruntobecometheVicePresident.Ifnoonereceived
amajorityofvotes,thentheHouseofRepresentativeswouldchoosebetweenthefourhighestvote
getters,witheachstategettingonevote.Insuchacase,thepersonwhoreceivedthehighestnumberof
votesbutwasnotchosenPresidentwouldbecomeVicePresident.Incasetherewasatieinthe2nd
phase,thantheSenatewouldchoosetheVicePresident.

TheframersoftheconstitutionhadhowevernotforeseenthePARTYSystem.Intheelectionsof1796,for
instance,FederalistJohnAdamscameinfirst,andDemocraticRepublicanThomasJeffersoncame
second.Thus,thePresidentandVicePresidentwerefromdifferentparties.WithPresidentfromoneparty
andVicePresidentfromanother,therewascontinuousconflictamongstthem.Anevengreaterproblem
occurredintheelectionof1800,whencandidatesfromsamepartytiedintheelections.TheDemocratic
RepublicansnominatedThomasJeffersonforthePresidentialseat,whiletheynominatedAaronBurras
well.TheintentionsforAaronBurrweretoget2ndhighestvotesandbecometheVicePresident.But
insteadbothJeffersonandBurrendedupwithsamenumberofvoteshencebothwerecandidateforUS
Presidency.After35unsuccessfulvotesintheHouseofRepresentatives,ThomasJeffersonfinallywonon
the36thballotandBurrbecameVicePresident.

Theseconstitutionalconflictsledthelegislaturetoadopt12thAmendmentin1804.Theamendmentcalled
fortheelectorstouseseparateballotstovoteforthePresidentandVicePresident.Eventhoughthis
solvedtheproblemathand,butitloweredtheprestigeoftheVicePresidentialoffice,astheVice
PresidentwasnolongerthesecondchoiceforPresident.

TheconstitutionalsoprohibitedtheelectorsfromvotingforbothPresidentandVicePresidential
candidatefromthesamestateasthemselves.

Formally,theVicePresidentialcandidateisnominatedbythepartyconvention.However,ithaslong
beenthecustomthattheVicePresidentialcandidatehasbeeneffectivelynamedbythePresidential
candidate.Often,thePresidentialcandidatewillnameaVicePresidentialcandidatetobringgeographicor
ideologicalbalancetotheticketortoappealtoaparticularconstituency.
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content1.4TheCongress

1.4THECONGRESS

________________________________________

CONTENTS

1.INTRODUCTION

2.THESENATE

3.THEHOUSEOFREPRESENTATIVES

4.LAWMAKINGPROCESS

________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
________________________________________

AlllegislativepowershereingrantedshallbevestedinCongressoftheUnitedStates,whichshallconsist
ofaSenateandaHouseofRepresentatives.Article1oftheconstitutionofUnitedStates.

TheAmericanCongressisabicamerallegislature,astheconstitutioncallsontwohousestoperform
legislativeactivates.TheupperhouseiscalledSenate,whilethelowerhouseiscalledHouseof
Representativesrespectively.TheframersofConstitutionintendedtomaketheCongressmorepowerful
organofgovernmentthanthePresidency.However,inthe19thcentauryitbecameleastpopularbody.
ButbythecauseoftimethemattersimprovedandtheCongressregaineditspopularity.Itisnow
consideredastheBulwarkoffreedemocracybymanyscholars.

Thesubsequenthistoryandevolutionofthecongresshasprovedthatthebicameralstructurewasawise
stepbythefoundingfathers.Thebicameralsystemoperatedwithoutanyremarkablerestrains
throughoutthehistory.AlthoughsometimesdeadlockbetweentheSenateandHouseofRepresentatives
werecreated,yetnooneadvocatedfortheabolitionofeitherhouse.EspeciallytheHouseof
RepresentativesneverpursuedtoeradicateSenatefromtheconstitution,asposedaswallagainstmany
ofitsbills.Attheendoftheday,theHouseofRepresentativehadtoaccepttheapprovalsandrefusalsof
theSenate.Indeed,theSenatehasbecomethemoreimportantchamberthantheHouseof
Representatives.TheCongresstodayisnotwhatthefoundingfathersintendedittobeandnorhasit
becomewhatthefeareditwouldbe.

ThecongresshaslegislativepowerswhicharelimitedbythevetopowerofthePresidentandbythe
SupremeCourtspowerofJudicialReview.Thecongresshasalsoagreathandinthedevelopmentofthe
constitution.Itisitsownmaster.Itconvenesandadjournsitssessionwithoutanyinterferencefromthe
Executive(thePresident).HoweveritdoesnothavesimilarcontrolovertheExecutiveasthelegislature
inParliamentsystemhas.

TofurtherunderstandtheCongressletusstudytheSenateandtheHouseofRepresentatives.

________________________________________
THESENATE
________________________________________

COMPOSITION:

TheSenateistheupperchamberorupperhouseintheAmericanlegislatureknownasCongress.It
consistsof100membersonthebasisofparityorequalrepresentationofallthe50States.EachState
elects2Senatorsirrespectiveofitssizeandpopulation.InitiallytheSenatorswereelectedbyindirect
methodthroughStatelegislatures.ThismethodwasprovidedbytheConstitution,butthe17th
amendmentempoweredpeopleofeachStatetodirectlyelect2senatorsfromtheirrespectiveStates.

TERM:

ThetermofEachSenatoris6years.Onethirdofthemembersretireafterevery2years.Itisa
permanentbodyandcannotbedissolvedbyanyauthority.TheSenatorswhoretireaftertheendoftheir
termsareeligibleforreelection.IfaSenateseatisvacantbyresignation,deathoranyotherreason,
thegovernoroftheconcernedStateisempoweredtonominatethesuccessortothevacantseatuntilthe
nextSenateelections.Thevacantseatscannotbeterminated.

REMOVAL:

ThemajorityofmemberspresentintheSenatecanvotetoexcludesenatoronthebasisofdisorderly
behaviororforsomeothergravereason.Thevotingrequiresatleasttwothirdmajoritytoremovethe
Senator.

FifteenmembershavebeenexpelledinthehistoryoftheSenate14ofthemwereremovedin1861and
1862forsupportingtheConfederatesecession,whichledtotheAmericanCivilWar.Nosenatorhasbeen
expelledsince.

Underthe14thAmendment,anyfederalorstateofficerwhotakestherequisiteoathtosupportthe
Constitution,butlaterengagesinrebellionoraidstheenemiesoftheUnitedStates,isdisqualifiedfrom
becomingasenator.

QUALIFICATIONS:

AccordingtotheArticle1,Section3oftheconstitutionasenatormustbe:

1.Notlessthan30yearsofage
2.AcitizenofUSfor9years
3.AninhabitantoftheStatefromwhichheiselected

ELECTIONS:
TheArticle1oftheconstitutionstatesthateachstatemayelecttwosenators.TheConstitutionfurther
stipulatesthatnoconstitutionalamendmentmaydepriveastateofitsequalsuffrageintheSenate
withouttheconsentofthestateconcerned.Originallytheconstitutionprovidedforindirectmethodforthe
electionofthesenators,meaningsenatorswouldbeelectedbytherespectivelegislatureoftheStates.
However,withthepassageoftime,thismethodshowedplentyofdefects.E.g.therewerefrequent
deadlocksamongthemembersofStateLegislaturewhichmostlyresultedinsenatorialseatslyingvacant
forquitealongtime.Casesofbriberyandvirtualpurchaseofseatsalsosurfaced.In1913,theCongress
adoptedthe17thAmendmentinconstitution,whichgaveliberalorientationtotheSenate.The17th
AmendmentintroduceddirectpopularSenatorialelections.ItcalleduponpeopleofStatestoelecttheir2
Senatorsrespectively.

Senatorsservefortermsofsixyearseachthetermsarestaggeredsothatapproximatelyonethirdof
theSenateseatsareupforelectioneverytwoyears.Thestaggeringofthetermsisarrangedsuchthat
bothseatsfromagivenstatearenevercontestedinthesamegeneralelection.

TheSeventeenthAmendmentalsoprovidesthatvacanciesintheSenate,howevertheyarise,maybe
filledbyspecialelections.AspecialelectionforaSenateseatneednotbeheldimmediatelyafterthe
vacancyarisesinstead,itistypicallyconductedatthesametimeasthenextbiennialcongressional
election.IfaspecialelectionforoneseathappenstocoincidewithageneralelectionfortheStates
otherseat,thenthetwoelectionsarenotcombined,butareinsteadcontestedseparately.Asenator
electedinaspecialelectionservesuntiltheoriginalsixyeartermexpires,andnotforafulltermofhis
own.Furthermore,theSeventeenthAmendmentprovidesthatanystatelegislaturemayempowerthe
Governortotemporarilyfillvacancies.Theinterimappointeeremainsinofficeuntilthespecialelection
canbeheld.Allstates,withthesoleexceptionofArizona,havepassedlawsauthorizingtheGovernorto
maketemporaryappointments.

PRESIDING&OTHEROFFICERS:

Assaidbefore,theVicePresidentoftheUnitedStatesistheExOfficioChairmanoftheSenate.He
presidesoverthemeetingsoftheSenatebutdoesnotcasthisvoteunlessthereisatie.Hecannot
appointthecommitteesoftheSenatenorcanhecontroltheStatesthroughhispowersofrecognition.
TheconstitutionhaslimitedthepowersofVicePresidentinSenateasheisnotanelectedmemberofthe
Senateandonlyactsasawatchdogoramouthpiece,performingdutiessuchasannouncingtheresultsof
votes.

IncaseoftheabsenceoftheVicePresident,thepresidingauthorityishandedovertothePresidentpro
tempore(LatinfortemporaryPresident).UnliketheVicePresident,thePresidentprotemporeiselected
fromtheSenators.ButheplaysnoactiveroleinthedeliberationoftheHouse.Heisthenomineeofthe
majoritypartyintheSenate.Hecanvoteonallissuesandcanparticipateinitsdebates.Incasethevice
PresidentbecomesthePresident,thePresidentProTemporetakespermanentplaceastheChairmanof
theSenate.

TheSenateisalsoservedbyseveralofficialswhoarenotmembers.TheSenate'schiefadministrative
officeristheSecretaryoftheSenate,whomaintainspublicrecords,disbursessalaries,monitorsthe
acquisitionofstationeryandsupplies,andoverseesclerks.TheSecretaryisaidedinhisworkbythe
AssistantSecretaryoftheSenate.AnotherofficialistheSergeantatArms,who,astheSenate'schief
lawenforcementofficer,maintainsorderandsecurityontheSenatepremises.TheCapitolPolicehandles
routinepolicework,withtheSergeantatArmsprimarilyresponsibleforgeneraloversight.Other
employeesincludetheChaplainandPages.

PROCEDURE:

Senateproceduredependsnotonlyontherules,butalsoonavarietyofcustomsandtraditions.Inmany
cases,theSenatewaivessomeofitsstricterrulesbyunanimousconsent.Unanimousconsent
agreementsaretypicallynegotiatedbeforehandbypartyleaders.Anysenatormayblocksuchan
agreement,but,inpractice,objectionsarerare.ThepresidingofficerenforcestherulesoftheSenate,
andmaywarnmemberswhodeviatefromthem.ThepresidingofficeroftenusesthegaveloftheSenate
tomaintainorder.

TheConstitutionprovidesthatamajorityoftheSenateconstitutesaquorumtodobusiness.Underthe
rulesandcustomsoftheSenate,aquorumisalwaysassumedtobepresentunlessaquorumcall
explicitlydemonstratesotherwise.Anysenatormayrequestaquorumcallby"suggestingtheabsenceof
aquorum"aclerkthencallstherolloftheSenateandnoteswhichmembersarepresent.Inpractice,
senatorsalmostalwaysrequestquorumcallsnottoestablishthepresenceofaquorum,butto
temporarilydelayproceedings.Suchadelaymayserveoneofmanypurposesoften,itallowsSenate
leaderstonegotiatecompromisesoffthefloor.Oncetheneedforadelayhasended,anysenatormay
requestunanimousconsenttorescindtheQuorumCall.

Duringdebates,senatorsmayonlyspeakifcalleduponbythepresidingofficer.Thepresidingofficeris,
however,requiredtorecognizethefirstsenatorwhorisestospeak.Thus,thepresidingofficerhaslittle
controloverthecourseofdebate.Customarily,theMajorityLeaderandMinorityLeaderareaccorded
priorityduringdebates,evenifanothersenatorrisesfirst.Allspeechesmustbeaddressedtothe
presidingofficer,usingthewords"Mr.President"or"MadamPresident."Onlythepresidingofficermay
bedirectlyaddressedinspeechesotherMembersmustbereferredtointhethirdperson.Inmostcases,
senatorsdonotrefertoeachotherbyname,butbystate,usingformssuchas"theseniorsenatorfrom
Virginia"or"thejuniorsenatorfromCalifornia."

TherulesoftheSenateprovidethatnosenatormaymakemorethantwospeechesonamotionorbillon
thesamelegislativeday.(AlegislativedaybeginswhentheSenateconvenesandendswith
adjournmenthence,itdoesnotnecessarilycoincidewiththecalendarday.)Thelengthofthese
speechesisnotlimitedbytherulesthus,inmostcases,senatorsmayspeakforaslongastheyplease.
Often,theSenateadoptsunanimousconsentagreementsimposingtimelimits.Inothercases(for
example,fortheBudgetprocess),limitsareimposedbystatute.Ingeneral,however,therightto
unlimiteddebateispreserved.

Whendebateconcludes,themotioninquestionisputtoavote.Inmanycases,theSenatevotesby
voicevotethepresidingofficerputsthequestion,andMembersrespondeither"Aye"(infavorofthe
motion)or"No"(againstthemotion).Thepresidingofficerthenannouncestheresultofthevoicevote.
Anysenator,however,maychallengethepresidingofficer'sassessmentandrequestarecordedvote.
Therequestmaybegrantedonlyifitissecondedbyonefifthofthesenatorspresent.Inpractice,
however,senatorssecondrequestsforrecordedvotesasamatterofcourtesy.Whenarecordedvoteis
held,theclerkcallstherolloftheSenateinalphabeticalordereachsenatorrespondswhenhisorher
nameiscalled.Senatorswhomisstherollcallmaystillcastavoteaslongastherecordedvoteremains
open.Thevoteisclosedatthediscretionofthepresidingofficer,butmustremainopenforaminimum
of15minutes.Ifthevoteistied,theVicePresident,ifpresent,isentitledtoatiebreakingvote.Ifthe
VicePresidentisnotpresent,themotionfails.

Onoccasion,theSenatemaygointowhatiscalledasecret,orclosedsession.Duringaclosedsession,
thechamberdoorsareclosed,andthegalleriesarecompletelyclearedofanyonenotsworntosecrecy,
notinstructedintherulesoftheclosedsession,ornotessentialtothesession.Closedsessionsarequite
rare,andusuallyheldonlyunderverycertaincircumstanceswherethesenateisdiscussingsensitive
subjectmattersuchasinformationcriticaltonationalsecurity,privatecommunicationsfromthe
President,oreventodiscussSenatedeliberationsduringimpeachmenttrials.AnySenatormaycalla
closedsessionaslongasthemotionissecondedbyatleastoneothermember.

Budgetbillsaregovernedunderaspecialruleprocesscalled"Reconciliation".UnderReconciliation,the
senatorsrighttospeakforunlimiteddurationisabrogated.Reconciliationwasdevisedin1974butcame
intouseintheearly1980s.

COMMITTEES:

ThemostsignificantaspectoftheSenateisitscommittees,eachofwhichperformsaparticularfunction
forwhichitwasconstituted.Thecommitteesgathersfacts,examinewitnesses,setadateforpublic
hearingsinthebill,studyindetailsalltheviewsandpreparethereportsandlegislativedraftsonwhich
theHousefinallyacts.

Theimportantcommitteesarebasedonfinance,appropriation,foreignrelations,judiciaryandinner
Statecommerce.Alltheissuesbeforethesenatearereferredtotherelevantcommitteeforoptionand
advice.Anindividualsenatormaybeamemberofmorethantwocommitteessimultaneously.

Therearefourtypesofcommittees:

a.STANDINGCOMMITTEES:

Thereare16StandingCommitteeswhicharepermanent.Theyhavefixedmembershipanddealwith
particularsubject.EachstandingcommitteehasjurisdictionoveraspecificfieldsuchasFinanceor
ForeignRelations.Eachstandingcommitteemayconsider,amend,andreportbillsthatfallunderits
jurisdiction.Furthermore,eachstandingcommitteeconsiderspresidentialnominationstoofficesrelated
toitsjurisdiction.(Forinstance,theJudiciaryCommitteeconsidersnomineesforjudgeships,andthe
ForeignRelationsCommitteeconsidersnomineesforpositionsintheDepartmentofState.)Committees
haveextensivepowerswithregardtobillsandnomineestheymayblocknomineesandimpedebills
fromreachingtheflooroftheSenate.Finally,standingcommitteesalsooverseethedepartmentsand
agenciesoftheexecutivebranch.Indischargingtheirduties,standingcommitteeshavethepowerto
holdhearingsandtosubpoenawitnessesandevidence.

b.JOINTCOMMITTEES:

ThejointcommitteesincludemembersofboththeSenateandtheHouseofRepresentatives.Theyhave
beencreatedforthepurposeofexercisingsupervisorycontroloveratomicenergy,budgeting,
congressionaloperationsandliteracy.Somejointcommitteesoverseeindependentgovernmentbodies
forinstance,theJointCommitteeontheLibraryoverseestheLibraryofCongress.Otherjointcommittees
servetomakeadvisoryreportsforexample,thereexistsaJointCommitteeonTaxation.Billsand
nomineesarenotreferredtojointcommittees.Hence,thepowerofjointcommitteesisconsiderably
lowerthanthoseofstandingcommittees.

c.SELECTCOMMITTEES:

Theyarecreatedoccasionallytomakesomespecificinvestigationwithrestrictedjurisdiction.Theselect
committeesarealsoknownasspecialcommittees.TheexamplesofselectcommitteesincludeSelect
CommitteeonEthicsandtheSpecialCommitteeonAging.Legislationisreferredtosomeofthese
committees,thoughthebulkoflegislativeworkisperformedbythestandingcommittees.Committees
maybeestablishedonanadhocbasisforspecificpurposesforinstance,theSenateWatergate
CommitteewasaspecialcommitteecreatedtoinvestigatetheWatergatescandal.Suchtemporary
committeesceasetoexistafterfulfillingtheirtasks.

d.CONFERENCECOMMITTEES:

Likejointcommittees,theyalsoconsistofmembersfrombothHousesofCongress.Theyareestablished
tomakecompromisesbetweentwochambersinthecaseofconflictonaparticularmatter.

EachSenatecommitteeandsubcommitteeisledbyachairman(alwaysamemberofthemajority
party).Formerly,committeechairmanshipwasdeterminedpurelybyseniorityasaresult,several
elderlysenatorscontinuedtoserveaschairmendespiteseverephysicalinfirmityorevensenility.Now,
committeechairmenareintheoryelected,butinpractice,seniorityisveryrarelybypassed.The
chairman'spowersareextensivehecontrolsthecommittee'sagenda,andmaypreventthecommittee
fromapprovingabillorpresidentialnomination.Moderncommitteechairmenaretypicallynotforcefulin
exertingtheirinfluence,althoughtherehavebeensomeexceptions.Thesecondhighestmember,the
spokespersononthecommitteefortheminorityparty,isknowninmostcasesastheRankingMember.
IntheSelectCommitteeonIntelligenceandtheSelectCommitteeonEthics,however,thesenior
minoritymemberisknownastheViceChairman.

POWERSOFSENATE:

Thesenateenjoysextensivelegislative,financial,executive,judicialandmiscellaneouspowers.These
maybediscussedasfollowed:

1.LEGISLATIVEPOWERS:

TheSenateenjoysequalandcoordinatelegislativeauthoritywiththeHouseofRepresentatives.Ordinary
billsmaybeinitiatedbyeitherHouse,butthemoneybillisonlypassedbytheHouseofRepresentatives.
ButthisprivilegeoftheHouseofRepresentativeisnotmuchofsignificancebecauseofSenatesvast
powersofamending.Thesenatemaystrikeouteverythingexceptforthetitleofamoneybill.The
senatecanalsoevensubstituteanentirelynewbillandmaysendthesamebacktotheHouse.However,
thelegislativehistoryofUSCongressshowsthattheSenateenjoyspredominantpositionoverthelower
house.

2.EXECUTIVEPOWERS:

TheframersoftheconstitutionwishedtheSenatetobeasortofadvisorycouncilforthePresidentis
dischargeofhisexecutivefunctions.Since,initially,itwasabodyof26membersfrom13Statesit
couldperformthejobadvisoryboard.Butsinceitsgrowthinsizeithasalsogainedtremendousnumber
ofpowers.BytheconstitutionaldoctrineofChecks&BalancesithasgainedsomeExecutivePowersas
well,inordertocheckthePresidentsauthority.AllappointmentsmadebytheSenatearesubjecttothe
consentandadviceofthesenate.AllthetreatiesmadebytheSenatearesubjecttotheratificationof
Senate.
3.CONTROLOVERFOREIGNAFAIRS:

AlltreatiesarenegotiatedandconcludedinthenameofthePresident,butallinternationaltreatiesare
subjecttoratificationbytwothirdmajorityoftheSenate.Theforeignaffairscommitteeenjoysa
considerableinfluenceovertheforeignpolicyofUS.ItisthereforethatthePresidentkeepshimselfin
closetouchwiththiscommitteeandregularlyacquaintsitwiththelatestdevelopmentsinforeignpolicy.

4.JUDICIALPOWERS:

AssaidbeforethatallappointmentsmadebyPresidentaresubjecttotheapprovalofSenate.This
includestheappointmentofSupremeCourtJudges.Inaddition,theSenateitselfperformsasacourtfor
impeachmentofthePresident,VicePresidentandotherhighrankingofficialsofUS.Thechargesareto
bereferredbytheHouseofRepresentativesandtheimpeachmentistobeconductedbytheSenate.The
senateturnsintoregularjudicialtribunalwhenitsitsasacourt.Prosecutionisconductedbythe
committeeofmembersofHouseofRepresentativesespeciallyappointforthispurpose.Theproceedings
ofimpeachmentareheardbythecommitteeofjudiciaryoftheSenate,whichisthanpresidedoverby
theChiefJusticeoftheSupremeCourt.

5.MISCELLANEOUSPOWERS:

a.Thesenateshareswiththehouseofrepresentativesthepowertoproposeamendmentstothe
constitution

b.ThesenatedecidesVicePresidentialelectionwhennocandidategetsanabsolutemajorityofvotesin
theelectionsandelectstheoneoutofthetwocandidatessecuringthehighestvotes.

c.Thesenateappointscommitteestoinvestigateandreportontheadministrationofthefederal
government.Thecommitteesexposescandalsandinefficiencyoftheadministration,ifany.These
committeesarepoliticallyveryvigorous.Thiswaythesenatorsdominatethepoliticsofthecountry.The
administrationisgenerallyafraidofthesenatorialcommittees.Thusthesenateexercisesaneffective
controlovertheadministrationthroughthesecommittees.

Themultiplicityofpowersofsenatehasprovedbeyondanydoubtthatitisnotonlythemorepowerful
thantheHouseofRepresentativebutalsothemostpowerfulSenate/SecondChamberinthewholeworld.

(NOTE:thefollowingpartisveryimportent,asitanswersonwholequestionof"American
SenateisthemostpowerfulSecondChamber/UpperHouseintheworld.Discuss"
togatherwiththeaboveinformationyouwouldbeabletoprovideareleventanswer.)

THEAMERICANSENATEISTHEMOSTPOWERFUL2NDCHAMBERIN
THEWORLD
1.EXECUTIVEPOWERS:

TheAmericanSenateistheonlylegislativebodyintheworldwhichenjoyssomedirectexecutive
powers.Itshareswiththepresidentthepowerstomakeappointmentoftoprankingofficialsandthrough
thisitcontrolstheinternaladministrationofthefederalgovernment.Notreatiesoragreements,
concludedbytheStateDepartmentorPresident,arevaliduntilratifiedbytheSenate.Throughthis
powertheSenatecontrolstheforeignpolicyofthecountry.Inaddition,theSenatehaspowersto
impeachthePresident,VicePresidentandotherhighrankingofficials.Itshouldbenotedthatthese
powersareexclusivelyexercisedbytheSenate.ThisraisestheprestigeofanddignityoftheSenate.

2.ABSENCEOFPARLIMENTARYSYSTMOFGOVERNMENT:

Incountrieswithparliamentaryformofgovernment,thelowerhouseattainsahigherstatusthanthe
upperhouse.Inmanycountriesthelowerhousehascontrolovertheexecutivei.e.InEngland&
Pakistan.InUS,however,thepositionisreverse.ItistheUpperHouseorSenatewhichhassufficient
controlovertheexecutiveaswellasovertheLowerHouseortheHouseofRepresentatives.However
theLowerHouseinUSiscompletelydevoidofsuchpower.TheconstitutionhasmadetheSenatea
coordinatechambertotheHouseofRepresentativesinthelegislativematters,whileinparliamentary
formofsystem,thelowerhousehasmorepowerinlegislativematters.

3.SMALLMEMBERSHIPANDLONGTENURE:

ThemembershipoftheSenateissmallbutitstenureislongerthantheHouseofRepresentatives.Onthe
otherhandthemembershipoftheHouseofRepresentativesislargebutthetenureisshort.TheSenate
consistsof100membersanditsmembersareelectedforatermof6years.Whilethemembershipof
theHouseRepresentativesis437butitisonlyelectedfor2yearsterm.Becauseofthisfact,the
Senatorsarenotworriedabouttheirreelectionaftereverytwoyears.Bystayinglongeronthe
legislativeseat,theSenatealsoacquiresgreaterexperience,morecredibilityandexertsgreater
influencethantheHouseofRepresentatives.Bystayinglonger,theSenatecanalsofulfillitslongterm
policiesandprograms.ItisbecauseofthesereasonsthattheHouseofRepresentativesisforcedto
concurwiththeSenateinordertoexpeditebusiness.

4.SENATORSARESENIORPOLITITIONS:

Seniorpoliticiansandmenwithlegislativeexperiencewithwiderknowledgeofpublicaffairs,usuallyopt
forthemembershipoftheSenate,becauseofitslongertermandgreaterprestigethantheHouseof
Representatives.TheresultisthattheSenatebecomessuperiortotheHouseofRepresentativesinterms
ofineffectualquality,legaltalents,intellectandpoliticalwisdom.Themediagivesgreatercoverageto
theSenatorialspeechesandsessionsthantotheHouseofRepresentatives.Thepublicattentionismore
focusedonSenateaswell.

InothercountriestheSenatorsmaybemenoflegislativeexperiencewithwiderknowledgeofpublic
affairs,butthefactthattheirSenateitselfisnotSuperiortotheirLowerHousediminishestheir
prestige.Inthesecountriestheattentionofmediaandpublicisonthelowerhouses.

5.DIRECTELECTIONSOFSENATORS:

UnliketheSenatorsormembersoftheupperhouseincountrieslikeEngland,PakistanorCanada,theUS
senatorsaredirectlyelectedbythepeople.Itisacommondemocraticexperiencethatanindirectly
electedupperhousefindsitdifficulttoresistthewillofthelowerhousewhichiselecteddirectlybythe
people.HoweverinUStheSenatecanclaimequallyrepresentativecharacterwiththeHouseof
Representatives.ItisthereforetheHouseofRepresentativeisnotcapableofdominatingtheSenate.

6.EQUALLEGISLATIVEANDFINANCIALPOWERS:

TheSenateinUSenjoysequalpowersinlegislativeandfinancialsphereswiththeHouseof
Representative,bothintheoryandpractice.InEngland,theUpperHouseofHouseofLordsisgiven
lesserauthoritythantheLowerHouseortheHouseofCommons.TheUpperHouse/SenateinPakistan
sharesthesamepositionasitdoesinEngland.SincetheSenateandHouseofRepresentativesinUS
shareequalpowersinlegislativematterstherearefrequentdeadlocks.Toresolvethedeadlock
ConferenceCommitteesareformed.However,thelegislativehistoryofUSshowsthattheSenates
viewpointultimatelyprevailsovertheHouseofRepresentatives.

7.GREATERFREEDOMOFSPEECH:

ThesenatorsenjoygreaterfreedomofspeechthanthemembersofHouseofRepresentatives.ASenator
canspeakforaslongashedesires.Thisenablesafulllength,simpleandflexibledebateonevery
matteranddiscusseseverymeasuretosolvetheissues.UpperHousesinothercountriesdonotenjoy
suchfreedomofspeech.IncountrieslikePakistanmanysenatorsarerefusedtotalkondifferentmatters
bythechairman.

8.COURTOFIMPEACHMENT:

TheSenateinUShassolerighttoimpeachthePresident,VicePresidentandotherhighrankingofficials.
TheUSsenatehaspowerstoinvestigateintoallaffairswhetherpublicorprivate.Thisfactenhancesthe
prestigeoftheSenateandenablesittoovershadowtheHouseofRepresentatives.Nosenateorupper
houseintheworldhassimilarpower.

9.SOLIDARITYOFTHESENATE:

TheUSSenateistheonelegislativeorganintheworld,themembersofwhichhavesolidarityandunity
irrespectiveoftheirpoliticalaffiliations.In1938,whenPresidentRoosevelttriedtobypassthe
senatorialcourtesy,theSenatorsofhisownpartystoodagainsthimalongwiththeopposingmembers
oftheSenate.TheentireSenatestandsasoneunit,wheneveranyattackonitsauthorityismade.

10.THESENATORSREPRESENTTHESTATES:
ThemembersoftheSenatearedirectlyelectedbytheentirepopulationofaState,whereasthe
membersofHouseofRepresentativesareelectedbyafractionofpopulationfromtheirrespective
States.TheSenatorsthereforehaveproudprivilegeofhavinggreaterrepresentativecharacterand
greaterpopularsupportagainstthemembersofHouseofRepresentatives.TheSenatorsrepresentthe
StatesaspoliticalunitsandregardthemselvesasrepresentativesoftheNationasawhole.Thelocal
interestwhichdominatestheHouseofRepresentativeshardlyexistsintheSenate.Thisgivestothe
SenateanaturalprecedenceovertheLowerHouseandaddstoitsmajestyanddignity.

CONCLUSION:

TheUSSenateisindeedauniqueHouse.ItpartakesinallthreefunctionsofStateExecutive,Legislative
andJudicial.

InwordsofF.J.Haskin:therearethingswhichthePresidentandtheSenatemaydowithouttheassent
oftheHouseofRepresentatives,andthingswhichtheSenateandHouseofRepresentativesmaydo
withouttheassentofthePresident,yetthePresidentandtheHouseorRepresentativescando
comparativelylittlewithouttheassentofSenate.

Itisthusmanifestthatwhileupperchambersintheothercountriesoftheworldhavebeendecliningin
powerandimportance,theUSSenateisaddingtoitsstrengthandimportance.Allthesefactsprovethat
nootherUpperChambersuchastheBritishHouseofLords,PakistaniorCanadianSenateenjoyssuch
powersasareenjoyedbytheSenateofUS.TheHouseofLordsofEnglandisdescribedastheweakest
upperchamberoftheworld.ThenominatedSenateofCanadahasnoprestigecomparedtotheLower
House.TheSenateofPakistanalsohaslesserprestigethantheNationalAssemblywithregardstothe
legislativeandfiscaladministration,asitisindirectlyelected.Wemay,therefore,concludethattheUS
SenateisoneofthegreatsuccessoftheAmericanConstitution,aworthmonumentofthewisdomand
foresightofitsfathers.Itcaneasilybesaid,withoutmuchofadebate,thattheUSSenateisthemost
powerfulSenateorSecondChamberorUpperHouseintheworld.

________________________________________
THEHOUSEOFREPRESENTATIVES
________________________________________

TheHouseofRepresentativesisthelowerchamberoftheAmericanCongress.Itisalegislativebody
sharingpowerswiththeSenate.EventhoughitisweakerinpowercomparedtoSenate,nolegislative
measuresarepossiblewithouttheHouseofRepresentatives.ItisthepopularbodyrepresentingtheUS
citizensonnationalprinciplebasedonpopulation.Citizensofallsexandracebutofatleast18yearsof
agecanparticipateinelectingamemberofHouseofRepresentative.

COMPOSITION:

InitiallytheHouseofRepresentativesconsistedof65membersbutnowitsmembershipispermanently
fixedto437unlesschangedbyamakinganamendmenttotheconstitution.Thenumberof
representativesforeachStateisfixedbytheCongressinproportiontoitspopulation.

TERM:

ThetermofHouseofRepresentativesistwoyears.Itcannotbedissolvedearlier.

SESSION:

TheHousemeetseveryyearon3rdofJanuaryaccordingtothe20thamendmentoftheconstitutionand
remainsinsessionuntilitsmembersvotetoadjourn.However,thePresidentcanconveneitsspecial
session.Itthanconfineitselfstrictlytothetask,forwhichitissummonedanddoesnotdiscussany
othermatter.

QUALIFICATIONS:

TheconstitutioncallsforacandidatefortheHouseofRepresentativestopossesthefollowing
qualifications:

a.)Mustbeatleast25yearsofage
b.)MustbecitizenofUSforatleast7years
c.)MustbecitizenofStatefromwhichhewantstocontestelection
d.)MustnotholdanyofficeorprofitunderthegovernmentofUS

PRIVILEGES:

a.)Themembergetsannualsalaryof$22,500plus$2,500expensemoney.

b.)Membersarefreefromarrestexceptfortreason,felonyandbreachofpeace,duringthesessionof
thehouse.

c.)MembersenjoythefreedomofspeechonflooroftheHouse.

THESPEAKER:

UnliketheSenate,theViePresidentdoesnotpresideovertheHouseofRepresentatives.Insteadthe
Houseelectsitsownspeaker.TheelectionsfortheHousespeakerareheldpurelyonpartylines.The
candidatefortheHouseSpeakerismemberofthemajorityparty,heispartisanandopenlyfavorsthe
partytowhichhebelongs,evenafterheelectedastheSpeaker.Heisvirtuallytheleaderofthemajority
partyandthelegislativeleadershipdevolvesaroundhim.

FUNCTIONSANDPOWERSOFTHESPEAKEROFTHEHOUSE

a.)PresidesoverthesessionoftheHouseandmaintainsorderanddecorumintheHouse.

b.)RecognizesmembersontheflooroftheHouseandallowsmemberstospeak.

c.)DecidedpointsoforderpassedbythemembersoftheHouse.

d.)PutsquestiontothevoteoftheHouseanddeclarestheresult.

e.)InterpretsandappliestherulesofprocedureoftheHouse,whenanyquestiononprocedureisraised.
Hisdecisioncannotbequestioned.

f.)Refersthebillstoanappropriatestandingcommitteeforconsiderationandaction

g.)SelectsthechairmanofthecommitteeofthewholeHouseandappointshisdeputy.Alsoappoints
membersofthespecialcommittee

h.)SignsallthebillspassedbytheHouse

POWERSOFHOUSEOFREPRESENTATIVES:

a.)LESGISLATIVEPOWERS:

TheHouseofRepresentativesenjoyscoequalandcoordinateauthoritywithSenateinthedomainof
legislation.However,SenatehasauthoritytoamendorrejectanybillpassedbytheHouseof
Representatives.

b.)FINANCIALPOWERS:

AccordingtotheClause1,Section7,Article1oftheconstitutionallfinancialbillsmustoriginateinthe
HouseofRepresentatives.ThisisanadoptionfromtheBritishConstitution.Accordingtothisdoctrine,all
nationalfinancesmustbecontrolledbytheHousedirectlyresponsibletothepeople.Thefinancial
mattersmeanalllegislationsinvolvingappropriation.AllappropriationbillsoriginateinHouseof
Representatives.ThismeansthattheannualBudgetBillmustbeformedbytheHouseof
Representatives.

(Note:InBritishConstitutiontheHouseofcommonsisdirectlyresponsibletothepeopleasitiselected
bythepeople,hencethefinancialpowersarevestedtheHouseofCommons.HouseofLords,which
passesforSenate,hasnosayinfinancialaffairs.However,inUStheSenateisequallyresponsibletothe
peopleasliketheHouseofRepresentativesitisdirectlyelectedbythepeople.Yetithasnosayin
financialbill.TheclausethatHouseofRepresentativesaloneshouldcontrolthefinanceswasestablished
bytheoriginalconstitution,butevenaftertheamendmentwhichswitchedsenatorialelectionsfrom
indirectmethodtodirectmethod,theclausewerenotamended)

However,Senatehaspowertotamerevenuelegislationsandthiscanincreaseordecreaseanygiven
appropriation.Senatecanalsoamendorrejectthemoneybill.

c.)EXECUTIVEPOWERS:

UnlikeSenate,theHouseofRepresentativesdoesnotpossesmuchofacontrolovertheexecutive.The
onlyexecutivepoweritpossessesisthatalongwithSenateitcandeclarewarandconcludepeace.Unlike
inparliamentaryformofgovernment,theexecutiveneitherholdsresponsibilitynorcanberemovedby
theHouseofRepresentatives.However,ithasexclusiverighttoinitiateimpeachmentproceedingby
preparingchargesagainsttheexecutive,whichinthiscaseisPresident.HouseorRepresentativescan
alsoinitiateimpeachmentforVicePresident,SupremeCourtjudgesandotherhighrankingofficials.

d.)AMENDINGPOWERS:

TheHouseofRepresentativesparticipatesintheprocessofamendingtheconstitutionofUS.Itshares
withSenatetoproposeamendmentsintheconstitutionbytwothirdmajorityinbothchambers.

e.)ELECTORALPOWERS:

Unlikeparliamentaryformofgovernment,theHouseofRepresentativesdoesnotpossespowersto
participateinelectoralprocessoftheExecutive.ItcanonlyelectaPresidentifnocandidatehassecured
themajority.InthiscasetheHousewillelectPresidentfromtop3candidates.

InallthedemocraciesoftheworldtheLowerChamberenjoysgreaterpowerthantheUpperChamber.
However,thesituationisreverseinUS,eventhoughtheframersoftheconstitutionintendedtomakethe
HouseofRepresentativesmorepowerful.

FACTORSCONTRIBUTINGFORTHEWEAKNESSOFTHEHOUSEOFREPRESENTATIVES

1.MORETOSENATE:

Thesenatepossessesequalpowersinlegislativeandfinancialsphere(exceptforproducingmoneybill).
TheSenatealsohaspowerstorejectanylegislationpassedbyHouseofRepresentatives.Thisweakens
thepowersofHouseofRepresentatives.

TheSenateisalsoadirectlyelectedbodyliketheHouse,butunliketheHouseithaslongertenureandis
apermanentbody.ThisalsoweakensthepowersofHouseofRepresentatives.

InotherdemocraciesoftheWorld,theSenatelacksinpower.USsenateatleasthaspowerstoamend
andrejectmoneybill,whileotherSenatesaroundtheworlddontevencomeacrossthemoneybill.
UnliketheUSSenatetheSenatesaroundtheworldareindirectlyelected.Thisgivesmorepowersto
LowerChambersinotherdemocracies,whichmakesLowerChambersinothercountriesmorepowerful
thantheLowerChamberinUS.

2.NOPOWEROVEREXECUTIVE:

Unlikeintheparliamentaryformofgovernment,theexecutiveisneitherresponsibletotheHousenor
doeshespringfromit.HecantevenberemovedbytheHouse.Eventheministersarenotelectedfrom
theHouse.Inplaceofministers,therearesecretariesinUSwhichareappointedbythePresidentand
ratifiedbytheSenate.Thehousehasnopowerinthisprocess.

Inotherdemocraciesintheworld,theLowerchamberselecttheExecutiveandhisministers.Thismakes
otherLowerchambersaroundtheworldmorepowerfulthantheHouseofRepresentativesinUS.

3.TREATIESANDAPPOINTMENTS:

UnlikeotherLowerChambersaroundtheworld,theHousehasnopowerorparticipationinappointment
ofhighrankingofficiallikethesecretaries.Thehousecannotevenparticipateintreatiesconcludedby
thePresident.

4.SHORTTENURE:

ThetenureoftheHouseisveryshort.Itiselectedforonlytwoyears.Thisdiscouragestheseniorand
talentedpersonalfromjoiningtheHouse.InsteadtheyoptforSenate,whichinturnmakesSenatemore
intellectandpowerful.BecauseofthisshorttenurethemembersoftheHousearebusierinelection
processthaninlegislationprocess.Assoonastheyareelected,theystartworkingontheirnextelection.
5.LARGEMEMBERSHIPLIMITATIONS:

UnliketheSenate,theHousehaslargermembership.Thispossessessomelimitations.Timelimitis
imposedduringthespeech.Thisdoesnotenablethespeakertomakethedebatelively.

6.LACKOFLEADERSHIP:

Unlikeparliamentaryofgovernment,likeinEngland,thereisnoleaderoftheHouseorspokesmanofthe
government.ThespeakeroftheHouseistheleaderbutheistoobusypresidingmeetingsandregulating
debates.

7.LOYALTYTOPOLITICALPARTIES:

UnliketheSenators,theHousememberspaymoreloyaltytotheirpartiesratherthancreatingapolitical
unitylikeintheSenate.ThishamperstheinfluenceoftheHouse.

8.UNDERTHECHECKOFJUDICIALREVIEW:

ThepowersofjudicialreviewinthehandsofSupremeCourtdampentheinitiativeoftheHousein
legislativesphere.Themembersaretooworriedthattheirlegislativebillmaybepassedasvoidbythe
SupremeCourt.

AllthesefactorscontributeinmakingtheHouseaweakchamber.ItisprobablytheweakestLower
ChamberwhencomparedtotheLowerChambersofotherdemocracies.

________________________________________
LAWMAKINGPROCESS:
________________________________________

TheLawdeterminesthepolicyofthecountry.Themainfunctionofthecongressistomakelawsorto
amendorrepeltheexistingones.TheprocessoflawmakingandamendingitisknownasLegislative
Process.BeforegoingthroughtheLawmakingprocessitisimportanttohavesomeknowledgeaboutbills
andresolutionthatplayimportantroleinLawmaking.AlllegislativeproposalsareoftwokindsBillsand
Resolutions.

(a.)BILLS:

Billsareofthreekinds:Publicbills,Privatebillsandmoneybills.

APUBLICBILL:

Itdealswithgeneralmattersofpublicimportanceandembodiesamajorprogramofgovernmentpolicy.

APRIVATEBILLS:

Itdealswithapersonorplaceandisofprivateimportance.

AMONEYBILL:

ItdealswithmoneymatterssuchastaxesandisoriginatedintheHouseofRepresentatives.

(b.)RESOLUTIONS:

TherearethreekindsofresolutionsnamelyJointResolution,ConcurrentResolutionandSimpleHouseor
SenateResolution.

AJOINTRESOLUTION:

ItispassedbybothHousesofCongressandissubmittedtoPresidentforhisassent.

ACONCURRENTRESOLUTION:

Itisemployedtoexpressanattitude,opinionorobjectiveofbothHouseswhichcorrecterrorsinthe
billsalreadypassedbytheCongressanditneedsnoverificationsbythePresident.
SIMPLEHOUSEORSENATERESOLUTION:

ItexpressestheopinionandpurposeoftheconcernedHouseanddoesnotrequireanyendorsement.

STAGESOFLAWMAKINGORLEGISLATIVEPROCESS

ThefollowingstagesareadoptedinLawMakingprocessintheCongress:

1.FIRSTREADING:

NormallyallBillsareintroducedbyamemberofeitherhouse.ThatmemberisknownastheSponsorof
theBill.ThesponsorofthebillfromtheHouse,endorsesthecopyofthebillwithhisnameanddropsit
intheHouseortheSecretarystableintheSenate.Thebillisimmediatelynumberedinorderofits
representationandissenttogovernmentprintingpress.ThecopiesofBillarethanmadeavailabletoall
membersoftheHousenextmorning.ThisprocessiscalledintroductionortheFirstReading.

2.COMMITTEESTAGE:

Thepresidingofficerrefersthesebillstotheappropriatestandingcommittees.Inthecaseofprivatebill
thesponsorhimselfwritesthenameofthecommitteewhileinthecaseofpublicbills,thesubjectmatter
ofabillwouldindicatetowhichcommitteeitshouldbereferredto.

Thisstageisoneoftheimportantstepsinlawmakingprocess.Inthecommittees,billsarefirstgiven
preliminaryexaminationandadecisionistaken,whethertheproposalhasanymintornot.Important
mattersaresortedoutforfurtherconsideration,whileunimportantandirrelevantmattersaredroppedor
PigeonHoldasitiscalledinofficialterms.

Theimportantmattersarestudiedbytheconcernedcommittee,whichgivesitathoroughconsideration
eitherbyitselforbysubcommittee.Thecommitteeorsubcommitteecollectsinformationanddataon
thesubjectmatterthroughpublichearingsandCongressLibraryinordertoarriveatadecision.The
lobbyistsorPressuregroupswhoareinterestedintheBillalsoprovideinformationtothecommittee.

Aftercollectingtheinformationthroughvarioussources,thecommitteesmeetintheexecutivesession.It
maytakefollowingcourses:

a.)Itmayapprovethebill,asitstands

b.)Itmayamendthebillandsendthesametotheconcernedhouseforapproval

c.)Itmayrewritethebillkeepingonlyitsnameandsendittothehouseforadoption

d.)Itmaycondemnthebillandmaysubstituteitwiththenewone

e.)ItmaykillorrejectorPigeonHoldthebillbykeepingitonitsfiles.

3.REPORTINGTHEBILL:

Usuallythechairmanofthecommitteeorsomeonedesignatedbyhimmayreporttheverdictofthe
committee,totheconcernedchamber.Inimportantmattersthereportingisextensiveandinordinary
mattersthereportingislittlemorethanasimpleaffirmative.ThekillingoftheBillisnotreportedinthe
House.ThemajorityoftheHousecanalsodischargeapetitionforreportingbackorcallingbackofthe
BillfromtheCommittee.Thishastobedonewithin30daysofthesubmittingofBilltothecommittee.
Thispetitionruleisrarelyapplied.

4.SECONDREADING:

Afterthereportingofthebill,theSecondReadingisresumed.EveryclauseoftheBillisdiscussedand
debatedupon.Amendmentsandcounteramendmentsareproposedandpassedbyvoting.Whenthebill
isfinallyshapedinsecondreadingitgenerallyreprintedandplaceisagainplacedbeforetheHousefor
ThirdReading.ItisnotnecessarytoreprinttheBillforThirdReading.Butbeforethethirdreading,the
housemayitselfturnintoaCommitteetodiscusstheBillputforwardbytheotherstandingcommittee.

5.COMMITTEEOFTHEWHOLE:

WhentheHousegoesintothecommitteeofthewholethespeakerleavesthechair,therulesofthe
Housearetemporarilysuspended.Thequorumisreducedto110membersinthecommitteeofthe
whole.Thisreductionallowsgreaterfreedomofspeechtothemembersandgetsmoretimetospeakas
well.Thanthemembersproposelargenumberofamendments,giveexplanationsandmaybeeven
disposeofvariouselementsofthebill.

6.THIRDREADING:

AtthisstageonlythetitleoftheBillisreadwithoutproposinganyamendmentandisvoteduponbythe
House.IftheBillispassedbytheHousesuccessfully,itiscertifiedbytheclerkandissenttothe
Senate.

7.THEBILLINTHESENATE:

Thesenatedealswiththebillinthesimilarprocedure.Asenatorannouncesthatheisintroducing.
Readingthetitleofthebillconstitutethefirstreading.SecondReadingisconsideredcompletedifthere
isnoobjectionandthebillissenttothecommitteerequestedbytheinstructor.

ThecommitteesintheSenatearelikethatoftheHouse.Afterthecommitteereportsthebillfavorable,it
isplacedonSenatecalendaratleastadaybeforebeingtakenup.Thesenateholdsitsmeetingand
votingisdone.Ifthebillgetsmajorityitpasses,ifitcannotgetrequiredmajorityitisrejected.

KILLINGTHEBILLINTHESENATE

IftheBillisrejectedoutrightitisthanconsideredaskilled.

AnothermethodtokillthebillinsenateisbyusingthedeviceofFilibusteringandcloture.

a.)FILIBUSTERING:

Duringthefilibustering,asenatorholdsthefloorforoursdeliveringrelevantandirrelevantremarks,
primarilyintendedtoobstructuntilsomeconcessionsareobtained.

b.)CLOTURE:

TheclotureisalsoknownasClosure.Itrequiresapetitiontoendadebate,signedbyonesixthofthe
senators.Ifthispetitiongetstwothirdmajority,theclotureisineffect.

IncasetheSenateproposessomeamendmentstothebill,itissentbacktotheHouseof
Representatives.IftheHouseagreestheamendmentsaremade.IftheHousedoesnotagreewiththe
Senate,aneffortismadetocometoanagreementthroughgiveandtakepolicyorthroughcompromise.
Ifthisattemptalsofails,thebillisreferredtothejointconferencecommitteeconsistingofmembers
fromboththehouses(9memberseach).Iftheconferencedoesnotreachacompromise,thebillisthan
Killed.

Ifthereisanagreementbetweenthetwohousesonthebill,itisthanreferredtothePresident.

8.APPROVALBYTHEPRESIDENT:

AfterthebillispassedbyboththeHouses,itisbroughtforwardthePresidentforapprovalbeforeitcould
becomeaLaw.IfthePresidentapprovesofthebillhewillsignitanditwillthanbecomeaLaw.Ifhe
disapprovesoftheBill,hewillreturntheBilltotheHousewhereitwasoriginatedandsendhis
objectionsalongwithit.ThePresidentcanalsovetotheBillinanattempttokillit.Insuchcase,two
thirdmajorityofbothhousescanvoteagainstthePresidentialveto.IftheHousessuccessfullyvote
againstPresidentialVeto,theBillbecomesaLawwithoutPresidentialapproval.IfthePresidentdoesnot
returntheBillwithin10days(ExcludingSundays),thebillbecomesaLawwithouthissignaturesthisis
validiftheCongressisstillinsession.IftheCongresssessionhasbeenadjournedbefore10dayshave
elapsed,thePresidentmayeasilykillthebillbyabstainingoverit.ThisiscalledPresidentsPocket
Veto.

PROCEDUREOFLAWMAKINGONFINANCIALBILL

Asdiscussedbefore,themoneybillcanonlybeoriginatedintheHouseofRepresentatives.TheBureau
ofbudgetpreparesthebudgetofthecountryunderthedirectionandthecontrolofthePresident.The
PresidentmakesthemajorfiscalpolicieswiththehelpoftheBureauofBudget.Thebudgetisplannedfor
annualexpenditureandisrenewedaftereveryyearfromJuly1stto30th.
TheBudgetisthanintroducedintheHouseofRepresentativesandpassedbyit.Aftertheintroductionof
thebudget,itissenttoappropriatecommittee.I.e.theRevenuebillissenttothecommitteeofWays
andMeans,whiletheappropriationbillissenttothecommitteeonAppropriation.

ThecommitteeofWays&Meansholdspublichearingsofinterestedparties,whichmaybeeffectivein
onewayoranother.ThebillisthanreportedbacktotheHousewithorwithoutamendments.TheHouse
holdsdebatesoverthebill.AftertheBillispassedbytheHouse,itisreferredtotheSenate.TheSenate
canamendtheBillwithconcurrenceoftheHouse.Ifthereisdisagreementbetweentwohouses,the
jointconferencecommitteesarecalledin.IfthereisagreementthebillisreportedtothePresidentfor
signatureanditbecomestheLawforfinanceforthefiscalyear.

Thisconcludesoursubchapteron"TheCongress"...onlytheJudicialsystemandPoliticalParitesareleft.Ihopetopostthemby
tomorrow.ThatwillconcludeoursessiononUSConstitution.Iappologisefortheslowrateofupdatingandposting.
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chapter1.5,JUDICIARY

CHAPTER1.5
FEDERALJUDICIARY
________________________________________

CONTENTS

1.INTRODUCTION

2.NEEDFORFEDERALJUDICIARY

3.TYPESOFCOURTS

4.JUDICIALREVIEW

________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
________________________________________
TheJudicialsystemofAmericaisuniqueinmanyways.Itisfederalincharacterandhasjudicial
supremacyandpowerofjudicialreview.TheAmericanjudiciaryhasextensivepowerstodefendthe
ConstitutionwhichallowsittodeclareanylawpassedbyCongressoranorderissuedbytheChief
Executive(President)asvoid,ifitisfoundcontrarytothespiritoftheconstitution.TheAmerican
constitutionisbasedonthedoctrineofSeparationofPowersaidedbythesystemofChecksand
Balances.Underthesefeatures,thejudiciarykeepsalltheorgansandfunctionariesofthegovernment
withintheirrespectivejurisdictionandlimitation.

TheArticleIIIoftheAmericanConstitutionhasprovidedfortheestablishmentofSupremeCourt,
separatefromtheStatescourts.TheconstitutionhasdeclaredSupremeCourtsuperiortotheState
judiciary.HenceTheSupremeCourtistheheadofthejudicialSystemofUnitedStates.

TheFederalJudiciaryconsistsofconstitutionalcourtsandLegislativeCourts.Theconstitutionalcourts
consistofcourtsofclaimsandcourtsofcustomsandappealswhileLegislativeCourtsconsistsof
territorialcourts,DistrictofColumbiaCourtofMilitaryAppeals.

________________________________________
NEEDFORFEDERALJUDICIARY
________________________________________

TheframersoftheconstitutionandthefoundingfathersofAmericafeltaneedforanestablishmentof
NationalJudiciary,whichcouldbeentrustedwiththefunctionsofdecidingdisputesamongtheStatesand
betweenFederationandtheFederatingStates.Theyrealizedthatdisputeswerecertaintoariseasthe
meaningofvariousprovisionsoftheconstitutionandinterpretationoflawpassedbyCongresswere
different.

TheyalsoplannedforaMorePerfectUniontoestablishjustice.Therefortherewasaneedfor
establishmentofacourt,whichwouldbeanimpartialumpire,supremeandindependentoftheStates.
ThustheconstitutionprovidesforaSupremeCourtanditsorganization,procedureandtheorganization
ofthecourtsinferiortoitarelefttobedeterminedbytheCongress.

________________________________________
TYPESOFCOURTS
________________________________________

Therearetowtypesofcourts.Namely:

1.ConstitutionalCourts
2.LegislativeCourts

1.CONSTITUTIONALCOURTS:
TheConstitutionalCourtsarethosewhichareestablishedbytheauthorityofArticleIIIofthe
Constitution.TheConstitutionalCourtsconsistof:

(a.)SupremeCourt
(b.)CourtofAppeals
(c.)DistrictCourts
(d.)CourtsofClaims
(e.)CustomCourts
(f.)CourtsofCustomsandAppeals

(a.)SUPREMECOURT:
TheSupremeCourtisthehighestcourtintheUS.Itiscomposedofone(1)ChiefJusticeandeight(8)
associatejudges.TheyareappointedbythePresidentwiththeadviceandconsentofSenate.The
SupremeCourtmemberscannotbedissolved,butcanbeimpeachediffoundofanymisbehaviortowards
constitution.

JURISDICTIONOFU.SSUPREMECOURT
TheUSSupremeCourtmaintainsboththeoriginalandtheappellatejurisdictions.

Theoriginaljurisdictionextendstothefollowingcases:

i.Casesaffectingambassadorsandotherpublicministers/secretaries.

ii.Intergovernmentalcases,inwhichFederalGovernmentorStateGovernmentareparties.

Meaningithasoriginalbutnotexclusivejurisdictionsin:

casesbroughtbyministersofforeignStates,incontroversiesbetweenFederalGovernmentand
FederatingStatesandinactionbyaStateagainstaliensoragainstcitizensofanotherState.

Theappellatejurisdictionextendsto:

Allcasesfallingunderthefederaljudicialauthority.Itcanhearappealsfromthelowerfederalcourts
andfromStateHighCourts,inthecaseswhichinvolvetheinterpretationoftheConstitutioninletterand
spirit.

CasesthatdonotoriginateinSupremeCourtcometoitbyanappealorbigwritofcertiorari.Appeals
areallowedasamatterofrightincasesinvolvingFederalandStatepowers,whichobviouslyrequire
rulingbythehighestcourt(thatistheSupremeCourt).OnthepetitionofcertioraritheSupremeCourt
hastheoptionofgrantingofdenyingreview.About80%ofSupremeCourtsbusinessarisesfromthe
petitionsofcertiorari.

SESSIONOFU.SSUPREMECOURT:

TheSupremeCourtstermbeginsannuallyon1stMondayinOctoberandusuallyendsearlyinthe
followingJune.SpecialsessionmaybesummonedbytheChiefJusticewhentheCourtisadjourned,on
theoccasionofunusualimportanceandurgency.

CONFERENCE:

Afterthecompletionofarguments,thejusticesoftheSupremeCourtmeetinaconference,onFriday,
duringasession,tocompareviewsandvote.TheChiefJusticestateshisopinionfirstbutvoteslast.He
alsodecideswhowillwritetheCourtsopinion.Everyjudgehastoattendtheconferencewitha
responsibilityofwritinganopinionthatwillaccordwithhisvote.Ifamajoritycannotreachan
agreement,thecaseisrearguedandthedecisionoflowercourtsisallowedtostand.

ROLESUPREMECOURT

TheU.SSupremeCourtplaysadualrole.Infirstplace,ithastoactastheguardianandcustodianofthe
constitutionandfundamentalrightsofthecitizens.Inthesecondplace,itpermitsandhelpsthe
constitutiontodevelopandexpandwiththecourseoftime.

GUARDIANOFTHECONSTITUTIONANDFUNDAMENTALRIGHTSOFCITIZENS:

TheU.SSupremeCourtisthefinalinterpreteroftheConstitution.AsaguardianofConstitution,it
protectsFederatingStatesagainstanyencroachmentbytheFederalGovernmentorViceVersa.It
protectstheindividualsagainstinvasionofrightsbytheFederatingStatesandtheFederalGovernment.
ItkeepsthepowersofvariousfunctionariesofthegovernmentofUSwithintheirrespectivespheresof
authority.

TheSupremeCourtpossessesthepowerofjudicialreview.Itcandeclareanylawpassedbythe
CongressoranyactiontakenbythePresidentasnullandvoidiftheygoagainsttheprovisionsofthe
Constitution.HenceSupremeCourtisthefinalcourttojudgetheconstitutionalityofanylaworexecutive
decision.However,itcanonlymoveintothematterifacaseisbroughtbeforeit.

TheSupremeCourtdeclareslawsandordersnull&voidonthebasisofdueprocessoflawclause.It
meansalawmaybedeclaredunconstitutional,ifitdoesnotsatisfytherulesofreasons.Inpracticeit
meansthatamajorityofSupremeCourtjudgesmaydeclareanylaworexecutiveactionasinvalidifit
appearstothemasunreasonable,unjustorimmoraleventhoughitisnotadirectcontraventionofa
particularclauseoftheconstitution.InUSlawiscorrectonlyiftheSupremeCourtjudgesthinkthatitis
correctnomatteritisagainsttheconstitutionornot.

ThejudgesoftheSupremeCourtnotonlyinterprettheConstitutionbutalsodeterminepoliticaland
economicpolicyoftheUnitedStates.InU.Sitisnotforthepeopletosaywhatlawtheywant,butitis
fortheSupremeCourttodeclarewhatlawisaccordingtotheconstitution.Thus,theSupremeCourthas
becomeSuperLegislature,or3rdChamberoflegislature.

DEVELOPMENTOFCONSTITUTION:

TheSupremeCourthascontributedagoodtowardsthedevelopmentoftheConstitution.Byitspowersof
JudicialReview,theSupremeCourthasalwaysinterpretedtheConstitutiontomeettheneedsofthe
times.Byinvolvingthedoctrineofimpliedpowers,ithasmadetheCentrestrongatthecostofStates.
WithoutthisUSfederalismmighthavefailedinthesetomesofgrowingcentralism.

IfitwasnotfortheliberalinterpretationbytheSupremeCourt,theU.Sconstitutionmighthavefailedto
satisfytheearly13Stateswhichfoundedthecountry&alsootherStateswhichjoinedinafterwards.

ThedecisionandinterpretationoftheSupremeCourthaveplayedsogreataroleinevolutionofthe
constitutionthatsomecommentatorshavecalledtheSupremeCourtacontinuousconstitutional
conventions.

(b.)COURTSOFAPPEALS:
ImmediatelybelowtheSupremeCourtstandstheCourtsofAppeal,createdin1891tofacilitatethe
dispositionofcasesandlessentheburdenofSupremeCourt.U.SisdividedintotencircuitswithaCourt
ofAppealsforEach.About3to9judges,includingasingleJudgefromSupremeCourtareappointedby
thePresidentforeachcircuit.Districtjudgescanalsobeappointedtoserveintheappealcourts.

Thecourtsofappealsmeetonregularintervalsineachcircuit.Theyonlyhaveslightoriginal
jurisdictions.Thecasesdecidedbythedistrictcourts,legislativecourtsandquasijudicialboardscometo
thesecourtsforreview.However,thedecisionsandreviewsofthecourtsofappealscanonlybe
reviewedbytheSupremeCourt.

(c.)DISTRICTCOURTS:

Thereare89DistrictCourtsinU.S.50Statesaredividedinto87districts,whilethereis1districtcourt
forDistrictofColumbiaandoneforPuertoRico.EachStatehasatleast1districtcourtbuttheStates
withlargerpopulationinclude2ormoreofthesecourts.EachDistrictCourthasatleast1judgebutupto
24judgescanbeappointedtherebythePresidentwiththeconsentoftheSenate.

ThepermanentseatoftheDistrictCourtsismaintainedataprinciplecity.TheCourtholdsmeetingson
regularintervalsinvariouscitieswithinthedistrict.Thesecourtschieflypossesstheoriginaljurisdiction.
Nocasescometothemonappeal.CasesbegininStateCourtsandareusuallytransferredtothem.
OrdinarilytheDistrictCourtcasesrequireasinglejudgehowever3judgesmustsitincertaintypesof
cases.

(d.)COURTSOFCLAIMS:
ThecourtofclaimswascreatedbytheActoftheCongressin1855,tohearclaimsagainsttheUnited
States.In1953,itbecameaConstitutionalCourt.TheCourtshandleclaimsarisingoutofthe
Constitution,actsofCongressandexecutiveorder.Theclaimscompriseofunpaidsalary,propertytaken
forpublicuse,contractualobligationandpersonalinjuriesforwhichtheFederalGovernmentisallegedly
responsible.

ThecourtsofclaimsconsistofaChiefJusticeand4associatejustices,whoareappointedbythe
PresidentwiththeconsentoftheSenate.TheCourtsitsinWashingtonD.Con1stMondayineach
December.

(v.)CUSTOMSCOURT:
Itwasestablishedin1890asaBoardofUnitedStatesGeneralAppraisers.ItbecameConstitutionalCourt
in1926.ItconsistsofaChiefJudgeand8associatejudges,appointedbyPresidentwiththeapprovalof
Senate.Notemorethan5judgesmaybefromsamepoliticalparty.

TheCourthearsdisputesthatariseoutofdecisionmadebyCustomsofficersinthetreasurydepartment.
ThemainofficeofCustomsCourtislocatedinNewYorkCity,howeversomecasearealsoheardatthe
principleportssuchasBoston,NewOrleansandSanFrancisco.
(vi.)COURTOFCOUSTOMS&APPEALS:

TheCourtofCustomsandAppealswasestablishedin1910andbecameConstitutionalCourtin1958.It
consistsofaChiefJudgealongwith4associatejudges,appointedbythePresidentwithSenatorial
approval.TheCourtusuallysitsinWashingtonbutitmayconveneinanyjudicialcircuit.

TheCourthearsappealsagainstthedecisionsofCustomCourts.Itsjudgmentsanddecreesarefinalwith
theexceptionthattheymayberevieweduponthroughcertioraribytheSupremeCourt.

2.LEGISLATIVECOURTS
Thelegislativecourtsarethose,whicharecreatedunderthelawsoftheCongress.Theyarealsoknown
asSpecialCourtshavingnojurisdictionsundertheArticleIIIoftheConstitution.Theyincludethe
territorialcourts,DistrictofColumbia(D.C)CourtsandCourtofMilitaryAppeals.

(i.)TERRITORIALCOURTS:
Besidesthelocalcourtseachterritoryhasacourt,whichfunctionsaslocalcourtsinthePanamaCanal
Zone,TheVirginIsland,PuertoRicoandGuam.IthasjurisdictionsoverbothFederalandterritorial
matters.ThejudgesofterritorialcourtsarenotgovernedbytheprovisionsoftheConstitutionbutbythe
LegislativeActs.Theyareusuallyappointedforthetermof8years.

(ii.)THECOURTSOFDISTRICTOFCOLUMBIA:

TheDCCourtsexerciseexclusivejurisdictionoverthelocalcasesofthedistrictofgeneraltrial.

(iii.)THECOURTSOFMILITARYAPPEALS:
Thiscourtwasestablishedin1950.ItislocatedintheDepartmentofDefenceforadministrativepurpose.
Itconsistsof3civilianjudgesappointedbythePresidentwithSenatesapproval.Itreviewsthemore
seriouscourtmaterialdecisionsconcerningmembersofarmedforces.Itsdecisionsarefinalexceptin
thoserarecasesinwhichSupremeCourtdoesnotagreeonlawpoint.

________________________________________
JUDICIALREVIEW
________________________________________

MEANINGOFJUDICIALREVIEW:

JudicialReviewmaybedefinedasthepoweroftheSupremeCourttoreviewallnationalandState
Legislationandexecutiveactsanddeclarethemnullorvoidiffoundunconstitutional.

POWERTOJUDICIALREVIEW:

TheU.SconstitutiondoesnotcontainanyspecificprovisionconcerningthepowerofJudicialReview.This
issuewasinfactneverdiscussedintheconstitutionalconventionof1789.Manybelievethattheframers
oftheconstitutionneverintendedtoconfersuchpoweruponCourtandthattheexerciseofthispowerby
thecourtsisusurpationontheirpart.

PresidentJeffersonforonehadarguedthepowerofjudicialreviewoftheSupremeCourt.Accordingto
himtheconstitutionhasorganizedgovernmentinthreeindependentbranchesonthebasisofSeparation
ofPowersandtogivejudiciarythepowertoinvalidateactsofothertwobrancheswouldonlymake
judiciarysupremeovertheschemeoftheconstitution.

Ontheotherhand,AlexanderHamiltonintheFedersitPapersarguedinfavorofthecourtspowerto
judicialreview.ItisHamiltonsargumentthatmajorityoftheconstituentconventionmembersagree
upon.

SOURCESOFTHEPOWER:
Therearetwosourcesofpowerofjudicialreviewintheconstitution.

(i.)TheconstitutionaldivisionofpowersbetweenFederalandStateGovernment

(ii.)ThreeorgansofState

The2ndsourceisthedueprocessclauseofthe5th&14thamendmentsalongwithBillofRightsofthe
Constitution.ThedueprocessclausehasimmediatelyenhancedthescopeofSupremeCourtspowerof
JudicialReview.

POWERSOFJUDICIALREVIEW&THEIRSCOPE:

Thepowerofjudicialreviewhasawidescope.Thepowersofjudicialreviewandtheirscopescanbe
discussedasfollow:

REVIEWOFSTATELAWS:

ItisthepowerofSupremeCourttoreviewthelawspassedbytheStateLegislature.Ifanylawpassed
violatestheprovisionsoftheConstitutionorconflictswiththelawspassedbyCongressoratreaty
negotiatedbythePresident,theSupremeCourthaspowertodeclareitNullandVoid.

However,theSupremeCourtcanonlyreviewalawifanaggrievedpartyputsforwardthecase.Itcan
notdeliverajudgmentonitsowninitiative.

REVIEWOFFEDERALLAWS:

ItisthepowerofSupremeCourttoreview&passuponthevalidityofActofCongress.Accordingtothe
membersofCourts,theirjobistoascertainwithorincontraventionoftheprovisionsoftheConstitution.
TheCourthassofarheldmanyCongressionalLegislationstobetheConstitutionalinwholeorinpart.
TheonlyrecoursefortheCongress,ifsuchanopinionishandeddown,istotrytoframenewlegislation
withinthelimitationsoftheconstitution.

REVIEWOFEXECUTIVEACTIONS:

TheFederaljudiciaryexercisesthepowertoreviewactsandactionsoftheexecutivealso.

OnefamousexampleofCourtsactionagainstPresidentialorderiswhenPresidentH.STrumanordershis
SecretaryofCommercetoseizeandoperatemostofthecountryssteelmills.Hesoughttojustifyhis
ordersongroundthatitwouldhelpobtaininguninterruptedsteelproductionforvitalmilitarypurposes,
especiallysinceUSwasfightingKoreanWar.However,theorderswerechallengedintheCourtandthe
SupremeCourtheldthatthePresidenthasexceededthisconstitutionalpowersandaccordinglysetasides
thePresidentsorder.

SIGNIFICANCEOFJUDICIALREVIEW:

Themeritsofthepowerofjudicialreviewmaybesummarizedasfollow:

ITSEXERCISEHASPROVEDBENEFICIAL:

ThispowerhasbroughtuniformityinUnitedStatessystem.Ithasbeentheprinciplemediumofuniform
interpretationandapplicationoffederalConstitution,federallawsandtreatiesthroughoutthelengthand
breadthofthenation.

IthasalsohelpedinensuringthattheconstitutionandlawsoftheFederatingStatesareconformedto
theFederalConstitution.

AUSEFULBENEFACTORBETWEENCONTENDINGLEGALINTERESTS:

ItisclearlybeenunderstoodthatAmericanconstitutionsystemisbasedonprinciplesofdivisionand
limitationofpowers.ByexercisingthepowerofJudicialReview,theSupremeCourtensuresthat
neithertheFederalnortheStateGovernmenttransgresstheConstitutionallimitsplacedupontheir
respectivepowersalsoitmakesurenogovernmentorganexceedsthelimitsofitsconstitutional
jurisdictions.

Byusingthispower,SupremeCourtensuresthatneithertheFederalGovernmentsufferedfromany
weaknessduetolackofjurisdictionsnordidtheinterestoftheConstitutional/FederatingStatessuffer.It
hasbeenasuccessfulbalanceofinterestsinanevolvingfederalpoliticalsystem.
ItisinthissensethattheSupremeCourthasplayedtheusefullroleofguardianoftherightsand
privilegesoftheFederalandStategovernmentsalike.

APROTECTOROFTHERIGHTSOFTHEINDIVIDUAL:

Undertheconstitutionprovisionsregardingtherightsoftheindividualandthedueprocessofthe5th
and14thamendments,theU.SSupremeCourtguardstherightsandprivilegesoftheindividuals.

UndertheBillofRights,theSupremeCourthasgivenwidemeaningtopersonalrights,libertiesand
propertiesandguardedthembydeclaringvariousgovernmentallawsunconstitutionalandtherefore
inapplicable.TheCourt,initsjudgments,hasindeedhadbiasinfavoroftheprivatepropertyand
freedomofcontract.ButthebiasisjustifiedinkeepingthephilosophyoftheAmericanSocioEconomic
Systems.

ANINDISPENSABLEREQUISTIEOFAFEDERALSYSTEM:

Itisindispensablerequisiteofafederalsystem.ThiscanbejustifiedbythestatementofJusticeHolmes
thathecouldimagineasysteminwhichtheSupremeCourthadnopowertoinvalidateaNationalStatus
butcouldnotimagineaworkablesysteminwhichtherewasnojudicialcontroloverthefederating
states.

CONFIDENCEOFPEOPLE:

TheU.SjudiciaryovertheyearshasgivenAmericanfederalsystemstability,coherenceandflexibilityin
growth.ThishaswontheconfidenceofthepeopleintheU.SSupremeCourt.

CRITICISM

CRITICISMONTHEBASISOFFIVETOFOURMAJORITY:

EventhoughAlexanderHamiltonsviewsregardingjudicialreviewarewidelyagreedupon,thereare
criticsfollowingtheleadofPresidentJeffersonsviewsonthispowerofSupremeCourt.

AlineofcriticismagainsttheSupremeCourtisthatitcandeclarealawunconstitutionalby5to4
majorityi.e.5judgesholdingthelawconstitutionaland4asunconstitutional.Inthiswayasinglejudge
cantitlebalanceonewayortheother.Thissituationraisestwopoints.

(i.)ShouldasinglejusticenullifytheactionofthePresidentandtheCongress,bothofwhomarethe
representativesofthepeople?

(ii.)Howisitthatasetofjudgescometotheconclusionthatalawisunconstitutionalandanotherset
thinksthatitisnot?Itwouldmeanthattheoptionthatjudgesformabouttheconstitutionalityofalawis
moresubjectivethanobjective.OnbothgroundsthepowersoftheCourtisundemocraticandtherefore,
oughttobeterminatedwithoutdelay.

COUNTERCRITICISMTOFIVETOFOURMAJORITY:

Thecriticismof5to4majorityisinvalidonthefollowinggrounds:

In1stplaceveryfewlawsofcongresshavebeendeclaredunconstitutionalbyaclosevoteoffiveto
four.

2ndly,nostatueoftheCongresshasbeendeclaredunconstitutionalbytheactionsofthesinglejudge.It
wouldrequireconcurrentopinionof5judgesatthesametimetodeclarealawunconstitutional.

3rdly,subjectiveopinionsofthejudgesregardingwhatamountstounconstitutionalitydoinfluencetheir
decisionsbuttheopinionitselfisalwaystheresultofasoundandscientificunderstandingoflaw.

CRITICISMREGARDINGTHECOORDINATENATUREOFTHEPOWERSOFTHETHREEORGANS:

Therealissueisnotthecontroversyoverthepowerofthejudicialreviewonwhatthecourtshoulddo
whenitfindsthatalawisagainstthespiritoftheconstitution,therealissueisthatshouldthelawbe
declaredunconstitutionalbySupremeCourtwhenbothCongressandthePresidentconsideritbe
constitutional.

TheAmericanconstitutioncallsthethreeorgansthePresident,theCongressandtheSupremeCourt,as
coordinateorgans.YetboththeCongressandthePresidentacquireintheCourtspowerofJudicial
Review.ThisishighlycriticizedamongstthefollowersofJeffersonsviewstowardspowersofjudicial
powers.

ENCOURAGESIRRESPONSIBLELEGISLATION:

ThepowerofJudicialReviewoftheSupremeCourtisalsocriticizedforreasonsofitspolitical
consequence.Ontheonehand,itencouragesirresponsiblelegislationandontheother,itmakesthe
attainmentofpoliticalobjectivestooremoteanduncertain.Itmakespeoplelooseactiveinterestin
politicalaffairs.

SUPREMECOURTASTHE3RDLEGISLATIVECHAMBEROFTHECONGRESS:

TheSupremeCourtunderthepowerofJudicialReviewhasnotonlyrestricteditselftodeterminingthe
validityofActsofGovernmentbutithasalsoresortitselftotheexaminationofthereasonablenessof
theAct.Thecourtdoesnotonlyviewtheprocessappliedbythegovernmentbutalsothesubstanceof
thelawregardingtheaction.

TheeffectofthishasmadeSupremeCourta3rdchamberoftheCongress,sittinginjudgmentoverwhat
theothertwochambersdid.

JUDGESARECONSERVATIVEFOLKS:

Itisalsobelievedthatjudgesaremostlyconservative,supportingtheoldermoralandethicsofthe
societyoverthenewerviewsofpeopleandgovernment.Hence,theymayposeasachallengetoalaw
whichtheyregardasimmoraljustontheirownideologies.

CONCLUSION:

InconclusiononecansaythatthepowerofJudicialReviewwillcontinuetobecriticizedwhenevera
politicalconventionslawisdeclaredvoid.However,inaliberaldemocraticsystemthatU.Sfollowsitis
virtuallyimpossibletotakeawaypowerofJudicialReviewfromtheSupremeCourt.
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politicalparties

________________________________________
CHAPTER#1.6

POLITICALPARTIES
________________________________________

CONTENTS:

1.INTRODUCTION&BACKGROUND
2.FEATURESOFPARTYSYSTEM

3.PARTYORGANIZATION

4.MINORPARTIES

________________________________________
INTRODUCTION&BACKGROUND
________________________________________

INTRODUCTION
Politicalpartiesaregroupofpeoplemoreorlessorganized,workingasunitsandbyusingtheirpolitical
poweraimatcontrollingthegovernmentandcarryingouttheirpolicies.

Politicalpartiesanddemocracygohandinhand,asanelectedgovernmentisessentiallyparty
government.Politicalpartiesrenderaveryusefulservicetothecauseofdemocracy.Theyformulate
levelandorganizepublicopinionbyofferingviablesolutionstosocial,economicandpoliticalproblems
facedbythemasses.Theyparticipateinelectionsandestablishlinkbetweenthegovernmentandpeople
bywinningorloosingtheelections.

Thefoundingfathersoftheconstitutionwereafraidofthemassesandpoliticalpartysystem.Therefore,
theydidnotincludeanyprovisionsregardingthepoliticalparties.Theyframedtheconstitutionasa
safeguardagainstthepoliticalpartysystembyintroducingPresidentialsystemofgovernmentinorderto
keeptheinfluenceofpoliticalpartiesandmassesawayfromtheexecutive.However,thepoliticalparties
stillprevailedandgrewstrong.NowthepoliticalpartiesinU.Sdominatetheentirepoliticalarenaby
changingspiritoftheconstitution.TheindirectelectionofthePresidenthastodaybecomedirectdueto
thepresenceofpoliticalparties.

ItisverydifficulttodrawalineofdifferentiationbetweentheofficeofthePresidentandmajorityparty
inCongress.ThePresidentmakesnumerousappointmentswiththeconsultationofleadersofhispartyin
Congress,inordertogetapprovalbySenate.

TheinfluenceofthepoliticalpartiesovergovernmentdoesnotendwiththefactthatPresidenthasto
consulthispartyleadersevenatthelowerlevel.Itisthepartymachinery,whichselectscandidatesfor
variouselections,operateselectioncampaignandbringsvotertothepollingstations.Itistheparty
platformwhichcreatespublicopinioninitsfavor.

Hence,wecansaythateventhoughtheconstitutionvestsexecutivepowerinthePresidentandhasfreed
himfromtheaccountabilityoftheCongressonnonconstitutionalandindirectbasisheisaccountableto
congress,especiallytothemembersofhisparty.Ifhefailstosatisfypartymembers,especiallythosein
Congress,hisapprovalratings,chancesof2ndterm(ifheisinhis1stterm)andhissurvivalisin
jeopardy.

BACKGROUND

ThefoundingfathersoftheAmericanconstitutionconsideredpoliticalpartiesasdetrimentaltothe
nationalunity,yetthepartiesemergedwiththepromulgationoftheconstitutionontheissueofstrong
FederalGovernmentversesStateRights.SincethanatwopoliticalsystemhasemergedinAmerican
politics.
ThePhiladelphiaconventionof1787hadsplitthepoliticalleadersintotwomajorgroupsone
representingthelargestatesandfavoringastrongnationalgovernmentknownasFederalists,andother
anxioustopreservestateautonomyknownasantifederalists.TheFederalistswereledbyAlexander
HamiltonandtheantifederalistswereledbyThomasJefferson.From1796to1800,itwasFederalist
Partythatremainedinpower.In1800,howeveritwasThomasJefferson,leadingtheantifederalists,
whowaselectedasPresident.

Lateronthenamesofthetwopartieswerechanged.TheFederalistcametobeknownasWhigsand
theAntiFederalistscombinedunderthedesignationofDemocraticRepublicanParty.

FEDERALISTS&WHIGS

AtthebirthofAmericaandformationofitsconstitution,theFederalistswereveryinfluentialparty.After
GeorgeWashingtonspresidencyended,itwasaJohnAdamsundertheaffiliationofFederalistswhotook
theAmericanPresidency.From1800to1840,theFederalistslostPresidencytoAntiFederalistswhich
appearedunderthepartynameofDemocraticRepublicansandlaterbecameDemocrats.TheFederalists
tookPresidencyagainin1840,butunderthenewpartynameknownasWhig.W.H.Harrisonwasthe
1stWhigPresidenttobeelectedthan.In1948,Z.TaylorwonPresidencyforWhigs.Hewouldbethelast
WhigmembertobeeverelectedasPresident.AfterthatFederalistorWhigpartyceasedtoexist.Many
ofitsmembersandelementstransferredtoRepublicans.

ANTIFEDERALISTS,DEMOCRATICREPUBLICANPARTY&DEMOCRATICPARTY

TheDemocraticRepublicanPartyheldofficefrom1800to1824.Thepartynamewashoweverchanged
toDemocraticParty,droppingtheRepublicanin1828,sincethanthepartyhasbeenknownbythesame
name,eventoday.ItsupportedtheinterestsofStatesagainsttheFederalGovernmentandhaditsroots
inagriculturistsandplanters.Sincethosewhoownedlands,usuallyownedslavesasworkers,the
DemocraticPartyupheldtheslaverysystem.Thissupportbecameoneofthemajorreasonsforthe
AmericanCivilWar.Bytheendofthecivilwar,thepartyhadlostthecontrolandinfluenceoverthe
masses.ThepartymadeacomebackunderWilsonin1913andremainedinpowertill1921.From1921
thepartytookplaceinoppositionfor12years.Theyagaincamebacktopowerin1933underthe
leadershipofFranklinRoosevelt,whoheldPresidentialofficeforfourterms.(F.D.Rooseveltistheonly
PresidenttoholdtheofficeformorethantwotermshewascousintoTheodore(Teddy)Roosevelt,who
wasalsoaPresidentofUnitedStatesbutontheRepublicanPartysaffiliation).AfterthedeathofF.D.
RooseveltinthemiddleofWWIIhisvicePresident,H.S.Truman,continuedhisremainingtermas
President.InthenextgeneralelectionH.S.TrumanwonthePresidencyundertheaffiliationof
DemocraticParty.AfterH.S.TrumanthepartylostthePresidencytoRepublicans.Thepartywasagain
votedtopowerin1960andJ.F.KennedytookthePresidency.AftertheassassinationofJ.FKennedy,his
vicePresidentLyndonB.Johnsoncontinuedhisremainingpresidentialtermundertheaffiliationof
DemocraticParty.AfterKennedyandJohnson,onlytwodemocratsreappearedonPresidentialseat.In
1976,J.E.CarterbecamePresident,whilein1992andagainin1996W.J.Clintontookthedesignationof
AmericanPresident.

REPUBLICANPARTY

UnlikeDemocraticParty,Republicansdidnotarisethroughevolution.ManypeoplethinkthatRepublicans
evolvedfromtheFederalistsortheWhigs.However,thatisnotthecase.Itwasathirdpartyfounded
byAbrahamLincolnin1854andreplacedtheFederalistsorWhigsfromtheAmericanpoliticalscene.
Lincolnbecame16thPresidentofUSAandboostedtheprestigeofRepublicanPartytogreatextent.He
pledgedtoabolishtheslaveryinAmerica.BytheendofCivilWar,theRepublicanswerethoroughly
entrenchedinU.Spolitics.TheRepublicanPartydominatedtheAmericanpoliticalsystemfornext60
years,solelyaspreserverofunion.From193233Democraticfacesheldmoreinfluence.However,in
1952to1960,RepublicanPartytookoverthePresidencyagain,undertheleadershipofformermilitary
General,D.DEisenhower,wholedAmericatovictoryinWWII.Buttheofficewasimmediatelylostin
thenextgeneralelectiontotheDemocratsasJ.F.KbecamePresident.Butin1968and1972Richard
NixonwonPresidencyunderRepublicanaffiliation.The1980swholedecadewasdominatedbythe
Republicansasin1980and1984R.W.ReaganwonPresidencyasaRepublicanfollowedbyhisVice
PresidentGeorgeBushwhotookPresidencyin1988to1992.Again,afteragapof8years,GeorgeBushs
sonG.W.BushtookAmericanPresidencytwicein2000and2004.
 INDEPENDENT

TheonlymembertowinAmericanPresidencyasanindependentcandidatewasGeorgeWashington.He
tookPresidencyin1789andagainin1792,bothtimesunopposed.Thushebecamethe1staswellas2nd
PresidentofUSA.Herefusedtheofferof3rdtermintheoffice.Althoughindependent,heisbelievedto
bemoreleaningtowardstheFederalists.Afterhissteppingdown,hisvicePresidentJohnAdamsbecame
affiliatedwithFederalistsandwonthePresidency.

________________________________________
FEATURESOFPARTYSYSTEM
________________________________________

FollowingarethemainfeaturesofAmericanpoliticalpartysystem:

1.TwoPartySystem
2.NodifferentIdeologicalBasis
3.NotIdentical
4.DecentralizedParties
5.Regionalism
6.SpoilSystem

1.TWOPARTYSYSTEM:

AlthoughitisnotsomesortofalawinU.Stoonlyhavetwoparties,yetstrongtwopartysystemshas
emergedsincethecreationofAmericanFederation.AlmostallthePresidentialelectionshaswitnessed
clashbetweenthecandidatesofRepublicanPartyandtheDemocraticParty,hencethepoliticalpowerhas
eitherremaininhandsofRepublicansorDemocrats.

SomeminorpartiesalsoemergedinUS,butcouldnotputanyimpactuponAmericanvotes.Nosmall
partymemberhasevertakenaseatintheWhiteHouse.

2.NODIFFERENTIDEOLOGICALBASIS:

BothDemocraticandRepublicanpartyhavenodifferentideologicalbasis,theyjustadjusttheirpolicies
tocurrentcircumstances.TheycannotbeclassifiedasRightand/orLeftandConservativeand/or
Progressive.Theybothareconservativeandprogressivehavingnofundamentaldoctrinaldifferences.
Thecoreprogramandpoliciesofbothpartiesareusuallysimilarandidentical.Duringcoldwarboth
partiesstoodagainstcommunistideologiestoprotecttheircapitalistideologyandtheystillcontinuetodo
so.Theirforeignpoliciesalsodontdiffermucheither.

InrecentyearsDemocraticPartyseemstohaveadoptedmoreliberalattitudethanRepublicans.
However,thechancesofthisliberalattitudetoturnintoapolicy,whendemocratstakepower,aregrim.

3.NOTIDENTICAL:

Inspiteoftherebeingnodifferenceintheirideologiesandorganization,bothpartiesarenotidentical.
Politicalleadersofrespectivepartiesmakepolicystatementswhichdifferfromeachotheringeneral.

WithregardofInternalpolicies,theRepublicanareusuallysaidtobethemoralconservativeandstand
fordecentralization,Statesrights,interestsoffarmersandnoStateinterferenceintheeconomiclifeof
nation.Ontheotherhand,DemocratsemphasizeuponastrongFederalGovernment,ProLabourpolicies,
WelfareofState,andnodiscriminationagainsttheNegroes.

WithregardofForeignPolicy,theRepublicansstandforisolationwhileDemocratsstandfor
internationalism.

4.DECENTALISEDPARTIES:

ThemainjobofpoliticalpartiesinAmericanistochoosecandidatesforPresidency,tocampaignfortheir
respectivecandidatesandstimulatethepublicinterestingovernmentalaffairs.Thenationalcommittee
exercisesverylittledisciplinarycontrolovertheirmembers.Although,boththepartiesareformedof
peoplewithvaryingattitudesandinterests,yetthepartydisciplineisnotrigidandisdecentralized.

5.REGIONALISM:

BoththepartiesofAmericabelieveinregionalismandaredominatedbythelocalbosses.Thelocal
leadersdecideonwhowillgetthepartyticketsintheelections.Theyfinancethepartymachineintheir
Statesorareas.Thereisverylittlecentralcontroluponlocalunitsoftheseparties.Allthelocalparty
unitsarecontrolledbylocalleaders.ThereareStateswhicharecompletelyunderthecontrolofeither
DemocraticorRepublicanParty.Theyarefurtherdistinguishedbytheeconomicintereststhatdominate
them.TheindustrialandcommercialsectorsarewithRepublicans,whiletheplantersandfarmersalways
supporttheDemocrats.

6.SPOILSYSTEM

Bothpartiesbelievestronglyinthespoilsystem.Whenonepartycomestopower,itdismissesallthe
employeesappointedbythepreviouspartyandreplacesthemwiththeirown.

________________________________________
PARTYORGANIZATION
________________________________________

ThepartyorganizationhastwodistinctpartsthePermanentOrganizationandthePeriodicOrganization.
Bothformsoforganizationsarefurtherdividedintovariousformsofcommitteesandconvention.They
canbeexplainedasfollowed:

(i.)PERMANENTPARTYORGANIZATION:

Thepermanentpartyorganizationincludesthefollowingtiers:

(a.)NATIONALCOMMITTEE:

AttheapexofeachpartystandsitsNationalCommittee,whichconsistsofabout100members.Ithasa
chairmannominatedbythePresidentialcandidateandelectedbythecommittee.Hebecomesthe
campaignmanageranddirectsnationalheadquarters.HeisassistedbyanExecutiveCommitteeand
CampaignCommitteetoconducttheelectioncampaign.Whenthepartywinstheelection,thechairman
usuallybecomesthepostmastergeneralinthePresidentialCabinet.

(b.)CAMPAIGNCOMMITEES:

Asenatorialcampaigncommitteeandacongressionalcampaigncommitteearemaintainedbyeachparty
todirecttheelectioncampaignofrespectivepartytodirecttheelectioncampaignofrespectivehouse.

Thecampaigncommitteefunctionschieflyduringcampaign,tryingtomaintainandincreasetheseats
heldbytherespectivepartiesintheSenateandtheHouseofRepresentatives.Eachcommitteehasa
smallnumberofpermanentstaff.Thecommitteescompilethevotingrecordsofsittingmembersanalyze
politicalpossibilitiesinthevariousstatesanddistrictsandprepareitselfforelectionsofbothhouses.

(c.)STATECENTRALCOMMITTEES:

Eachpartyhasacentralcommitteeineachstatewhichdirectthecampaignsforstatesofficersand
senatorshipandmobilizesstateeffort.Thestatecommitteemenarechosenbyelectionorbynomination
representingthelegislativedistrictsandsubdivisions.ItsmembershipvariesfromStatetoState.

MostStatecommitteesarenotassignedwithsignificantpowersregardingtheconventionorprimary
nomination,buttheydelegatepowersanddutiestoanexecutivegroupwhichmakestheeffective
decisions.SomeStatecommitteeshaveauthoritytofillvacanciesoccurringafterconvention.

SometimesthechairmenoftheStateCommitteearepoliticalfiguresofimportance,morecommonly
theyarestrongermenoftheirrespectivegroups.
(d.)COUNTYCOMMITTEES:

Eachcountyhasseparatecommitteeofeachpartywhichcoordinatetheworkofalllesserbodiesand
dealsinimportantmatterswithStateCentralCommittees.Thereareover3,000countiesvirtuallyall
areorganizedbybothparties.

CountryOrganizationstandsbetweenstateandlocallevels.Theyaresetupinstatesenatorial
representative,congressional,andstatejudicialdistricts.TheirpositionvariesfromStatetoStateand
fromurbantoruralarea,intheirrespectivepartysstructure.

(e.)LOCALORGANIZATION:

Thelocalorganizationisestablishedineachprecinctorpollingdistrictwhichisthebasicunitsofthe
partyorganization.Itssizeisdeterminedbythenumberofvoters(from100to500votersareincluded
intheaverageprecinct).Thechairmanofthepartyprecinctisresponsibleforpartysdirectcontactswith
votersandprovideshispersonalservicetothem.

Inurbanareas,wardcommitteesareusuallynextleveloforganization.Thecommitteecoordinatesthe
workofprecinctunitsanddealswithlocalpoliticalproblems,especiallywithmunicipalcouncilpolitics.A
citycommitteeoverseesthewardandprecinctlevelsandattendstothemunicipalproblems.

Invillageareas,villagecommitteebringstogetherprecinctrepresentativesandplanpartyactivitiesin
relationtolocalgovernments.

(ii.)PERIODICORGANIZATION:

Theorganizationconsistsofnominatingsystemforselectingcandidatesforpublicofficebyaparty.At
1stconventionsystemwasadoptedforselectingthecandidates.Thiswascriticizedforits
unrepresentativenatureandcorruptpractices.Thustheconventionsystemwasreplacedbythedirect
selectionmethod.However,theconventionsystemhasbeenretainedforthenominationofPresidential
Candidatesbyboththeparties.

Somewellknowntiersofperiodicorganizationare:

(a.)THEDIRECTPRIMARY:

Itisamethodbywhichregisteredvotersmakenominationsforthecandidatesfortheforthcoming
generalelections.Therearetwomethodsofdirectprimaryperiodicorganization:

ANOPENPRIMARY:

Inthis,thevotersmayparticipateinnominationandheisallowedtodecideinwhichpartysprimaryhe
wishestovoteirrespectiveofhisaffiliationwithcertainparty.

THECLOSEDPRIMARY:

Inthiseachvotermayparticipate,onlyinthenominationsofcandidatesfortheparty,withwhichheis
affiliated.

DRAWBACKSOFDIRECTPRIMARYMETHOD

Inspiteofdemocraticnatureofdirectprimarysystem,therearesomeseriousdrawbacksofit.
Example:

1.Itunderminespartyloyaltyanddestroyspartyorganizationandunity.

2.Amanmaybecomethecandidateofapartywithoutsubscribingtoitsprinciplesandprograms.

3.Itisexpensivesystem.

4.Itsuitsonlytheurbanareas,wherethevoterscaneasilyassembleforpollingbutintheruralareasit
isimpracticable.

5.Thepartybosseshavenotyetbeeneliminatedbythedirectprimarysystem.
(b.)NATIONALPARTYCONVENTIONS:

Themainfunctionofthisconventionistonominatecandidatesforpresidencyandvicepresidency
usuallydonebypollingmethods.Ifacandidatecannotacquiretherequirednumberofvotesinthe1st
attempt,thana2ndpollingisheld.Inthevicepresidentialcontest,thepresidentialnomineecanplay
importantrole,ashechooseshisownrunningmate.

(c.)SENATORIALANDCONGRESSIONALCOMPAIGNCOMITTEES:

Thesenatorialcommitteeischosenbythesenatorswhilethecongressionalcampaigncommitteesare
chosenbytherepresentativesofthepartyconcerned.Thesecommitteesworkdayandnighttoinsurethe
victoryoftheircandidates.Theymanagefundsandspeakersfortheirparty.

________________________________________
OTHERPARTIES
________________________________________

AfewminorpartiesalsoexistinUSAandtheirnumbersvaryfromtimetotime.Theseminorparties
havenoimportanceinthepoliticalarenaofUS.Manytimesitsohappensthateithertheseminorparties
mergewithmajorpoliticalpartiesortheyvanishfromthepoliticalsceneofthecountryastheyarenot
capableoffacingthechallengesposedbymajorpoliticalpartiesandplayers.Manyminorpartiesusually
cometoexistenceforacertainpurposeandissueandwhentheissueisresolvedandtheirpurposeis
served,theceasedtoexist.OnceProhibitionPartyexisted,whichadvocatedfortheprohibitionofthe
manufactureandimportofliquors.TherealsousedtobeSocialistLabourParty.Todaythereisalsoa
communistparty,buthasnovoiceinthelegislature.

THEEND
__________________
[COLOR="DarkRed"][B]17thamendmentismockeryofourconstitution!.Maythosewhohave
implementeditburninhell![/B][/COLOR]

TheFollowing12UsersSayThankYoutoAhmedAliShahForThisUsefulPost:
7asif(Thursday,December22,2016),Alexkahn(Monday,April28,2014),AsgharKhan(Wednesday,
September04,2013),Harreem(Tuesday,September04,2012),MOhammadRafique(Saturday,
December06,2014),naila85(Friday,November13,2009),rozankhan(Friday,July13,2012),SanaTariq
Khan(Monday,January02,2012),sultan_memon(Friday,January09,2009),usaph(Friday,June08,
2012),YoungHafiz(Wednesday,January28,2015)

Saturday,June10,2006 #9

JoinDate:Aug2005
Location:KabhiKARACHIkabhiHYDERABAD
Posts:37
AhmedAliShah Thanks:1
Member Thanked74Timesin13Posts

DearmemberFriends

Hi,Iamback.Sorrycouldntupdatethenotes,butnowIhavetime&havestartedmystudiesonBritish
Constitution.InshaAllahyouwillstartrecieveingtheBritishConstitutioninfewdaystime.

Sorrycouldntprovidenotesto2006candidates,butthereisalwaysanexttimei.e.2007.All2007
potentialcandidatescantakeadvantageofmynotess.Eventhosewhoarejustseekingknowledge
insteadofgivingexams.
__________________
[COLOR="DarkRed"][B]17thamendmentismockeryofourconstitution!.Maythosewhohave
implementeditburninhell![/B][/COLOR]
TheFollowing7UsersSayThankYoutoAhmedAliShahForThisUsefulPost:
7asif(Thursday,December22,2016),anam047(Friday,August31,2012),AsgharKhan(Saturday,August
03,2013),inash(Thursday,November01,2012),usaph(Friday,June08,2012),Young
Hafiz(Wednesday,January28,2015)

Thursday,December14,2006 #10

JoinDate:Nov2006
Fari
Posts:2
Thanks:0
JuniorMember Thanked1Timein1Post

DearMr.Ali,whennotesforBritishConstitutionwouldbeavailable?

TheFollowingUserSaysThankYoutoFariForThisUsefulPost:
AsgharKhan(Saturday,August03,2013)

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