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What follows is a transcript of a keynote speech quite a bit of new research on nostalgia. Their
given at the 2015 International Computer Music studies seem to indicate that you can use nostalgia
Conference (ICMC). A copy of the original slides to establish the benchmarks of your biography,
is available online at www.carlascaletti.com/Main giving you a sense of meaningfulness and continuity,
/LookingBackLookingForward. a connection with your past and optimism for the
future. And that engaging in nostalgia can even
enhance creativity by making you more open to
Nostalgia: Not What It Used to Be new experiences. So I thought, Well . . . OK, maybe
nostalgia isnt all bad.
Ive never been a big fan of nostalgia, but when I Most of these studies were focused on personal
found out the theme of this years conference was nostalgia. But I thought maybe we could engage
going to be Looking Back, Looking Forward, I in a form of collective nostalgia, because I know
decided to do a little research on the topic. that we have some shared stories of overcoming
I found out that the word nostalgia comes from challenges: stories where the protagonists are
the Greek word nostos, meaning homecoming or computer musicians. Maybe telling these stories
the idea of returning home from a long journey, can give us a connection to our history, a clearer
combined with the word algos, meaning sorrow, idea of how to overcome current challenges, and
grief, or pain. Historically it was regarded as a brain a sense of optimism about the future of computer
malfunction. Johannes Hofer, the Swiss doctor who music.
coined the term in 1688, described nostalgia as a Later on in this talk, Im going to try sharing a
neurological disease of essentially demonic cause, couple of my computer music stories in the hopes
and some military physicians attributed it to brain that theyll remind you of some of your stories and
damage caused by the incessant clanging of cowbells that youll share them with the rest of the computer
in the Alps [New York Times, 8 July 2013, What Is music community.
Nostalgia Good For?]. So far, I was still not a fan. [Editors note: Readers are invited to send such
Then I ran across the work of Tim Wildschut and stories to cmj-editor@mit.edu for possible publica-
Constantine Sedikides. They lead a group of research tion as letters to the editor. Please include [CMJ]
psychologists at the University of Southampton story in the subject line and mention this article in
called the Nostalgia Group, and theyve published the letter itself.]
Wildschut and his colleagues say that nostalgia
Computer Music Journal, 40:1, pp. 1024, Spring 2016
entails fond evocation of momentous events in
doi:10.1162/COMJ a 00341 which the self and significant others occupy central
c 2016 Massachusetts Institute of Technology. rolesevocations that are often characterized
Scaletti 11
Distributed Cognition cognition (Johnson 2007). Human knowledge resides
in the entire group rather than in any one single
In 900 BCE, with the story of Prometheus, the person. A feral child is unlikely to develop language
ancient Greeks seemed to be saying that mastery or mathematics in isolationthat knowledge is
over fire is what made us human. In 2009, primatol- in the network. Not only do we possess modular,
ogist Richard Wrangham seems to agree, primarily recombinant, and cognitively fluid brains, but we
because fire provided the means for cooking food, also seem driven to extend our recombinant thinking
and that this outsourcing of digestion, as he calls beyond the boundaries of a single brain.
it, was far more efficient at extracting nutrients and Language and music gave us the ability to tell
thus could support a larger brain (Wrangham 2009). stories, but not just about the things that really
Which is pretty much what happened over the happened. Im guessing that the prehistoric com-
last 3.8 million years. A modern human brain puter musicians probably modified and enhanced
is about three times larger than the brain of our their stories a little bitpracticing a prehistoric
Australopithecus ancestor, Lucy, and most of that form of digital signal processing. And that some
growth occurred in a part of the brain called the of them even told stories about events that never
neocortex. So how did we use this monstrously happeneda kind of prehistoric digital synthesis.
large, cognitively fluid organ in our heads to our
evolutionary advantage?
The evolutionary anthropologist Robin Dunbar Looking Back on the 20th Century
thinks we used our massive brains primarily to
predict the actions of each other (Dunbar 2003). Viewed in that light, the invention of software in the
His theory of the social brain is that the human mid 20th century was as big a breakthrough as the
neocortex evolved in response to the complexity mastery over fire was for our prehistoric ancestors.
of maintaining social networks and predicting the Language gave humans the ability to tell stories
actions and intentions of other individuals in a about something that does not yet exist. Software
social group. He even found a correlation between gave us the ability to make that imaginary thing
the size of the neocortex and the size of a species existfor realin the actual physical world.
core social group, as well as in the amount of time The first time I witnessed a sequence of symbols
that a species spends in grooming activities (like being transformed into an actual sound pressure
picking lice out of each others hair). Dunbar thinks wave that I could hear, I felt like I was witnessing a
that, at some point in our development, we switched miracle. I thought it was a completely deterministic
over to using a kind of auditory groomingusing and explainable miracle but a miracle nonetheless.
laughter, music, dance, and eventually languageas By simply manipulating symbols, software can
our primary means for establishing relationships and effect change in the physical world: It can make a
maintaining the cohesiveness of our social groups. mechanical arm move, it can change the colors of
Dunbar believes that it was probably language, light arrays, it can print images, and it can create
since it was far more efficient than physical groom- three-dimensional objects. It can even write more
ing, that enabled us to extend our core social groups software and design new circuits on which to run
to form groups of groups, and groups that transcend itself.
generations and geographical boundariesbridged
by language, music, and other cultural artifacts.
The power of language is that it allows us to Software as Hardware with Cognitive Fluidity
learn things we havent seen directly for ourselves.
The power of a social network is that it enables us When I say software, I mean hardware. Because the
to exponentially expand upon what we can know, invention of software was actually the invention
remember, and learn, and it allows us to engage in of a particular kind of hardware: a machine with
what the philosopher Mark Johnson calls distributed cognitive fluidity.
Scaletti 13
students were building digital synthesizers to work In 1981, Lippold Haken designed the IMS (inter-
with PLATO (Scaletti 1985). active music system) as a replacement for the GCS.
I had first stumbled on the CERL Sound Group Rather than designing a circuit with hard-wired
at an Engineering Open House right around the oscillators, envelope generators, and mixers, he de-
time I was finishing my music composition degree. signed a more-general circuit based on two multiply
This was also around the time that I had started accumulators and memory, and he used software
to realize that, to do the things I really wanted to in this case machine-level microcodeto emulate
do in computer music, I was going to have to learn the oscillator, envelope generator, and mixer cir-
how to make the tools myself. So when Lippold cuits of the GCS. In other words, from the outside,
Haken offered me a research assistantship at CERL, the IMS behaved just like the old GCS. While he
I jumped at the chance to go back to school and get was working on the microcode, Lippold realized
a degree in computer science. that he could extend the functionality to include
What I wanted at that time was to be able to amplitude modulation, frequency modulation, and
work with sound directly and interactively, and to waveshaping, and because it was software, he was
be able to build new kinds of structures based on able to expand the functionality without modifying
sound, not based on the notes of music notation the hardware.
and not limited to a model of instruments playing At this point, the software was a virtual machine:
scores. I loved voltage-controlled synthesizers, so I Lippold had used software to make generic hardware
wanted to be able to use outputs of some modules behave like specific hardware. From the outside,
to control or modulate the parameters of other from the users point of view, though, the architec-
modules. I also loved cutting and splicing tape, so ture of the virtual machine was every bit as fixed
I knew I would have to include ways to work with and unchangeable as a hardware implementation
audio recordings. I was a harpist so I wanted to would have been.
be able to create environments in which I could When Kurt Hebel saw the way I had been
perform live, generating sound and processing a workingrunning Music 360 batch jobs on the
live signal from my harp in real time. And I had campus mainframe and making once-a-week ap-
just come to the same conclusion that many of pointments to use the shared digital-to-analog
you havewhich is that if you cant find what converterhe shook his head and said, You could
you need, then you just have to learn to build do this in real timeall wed have to do is make the
it yourself. IMS microcode programmable by the user!
So in 1984 Kurt and Lippold started redesigning
the IMS to have a user-definable microcode, making
Sound Hardware Becomes Softer
it so the architecture of the simulated synthe-
The history of the CERL Sound Group is practically sizer could be changed simply by loading a new
a case study in hardware gaining cognitive fluidity. microcode. That was the Platypus. And Lippold as-
In 1974, Sherwin Gooch had designed a digital signed me the task of writing software for Platypus,
synthesizer for PLATO with four fixed-waveform, which was, of course, exactly what I wanted to do.
hardware oscillators, and CERL made dozens of (Thank you, Lippold!)
them to put into PLATO classrooms for teaching Figure 1 is a photo of Kurt at the 1989 ICMC
music theory. in Ohio a few years later with the wire-wrapped
In 1978 Sherwin built a new and improved Platypus on top of the table and the SCSS (sound
version: the GCS (Gooch cybernetic synthesizer) conversion/storage system), the disk system that he
had 16 oscillators and performed additive synthesis. designed for the School of Music, underneath the
It was a more powerful machine and implemented table.
more algorithms, but it was still a digital circuit The first piece I realized with the Platypus was
designed to do specific, fixed tasks like oscillators, sunSurgeAutomata (1986), which was based on
envelope generators, and mixers. self-organizing one-dimensional cellular automata,
Scaletti 15
Figure 2. Kyma Sounds are
both functional and
modular, making it
possible to incrementally
build or algorithmically
generate complex Sound
structures and save them
for future reuse.
are accessible only through that objects defined in the sense that it is a database of code modules
protocol, thus greatly reducing the dependencies (Sounds) that one can recombine in new ways.
between objects. That makes it possible to replace The extreme late binding in Smalltalk inspired
an object with a new object without breaking the rest some other early features in Kyma: For example,
of the system. So you can incrementally improve lifted or abstracted Sounds could have vari-
or optimize parts of the system while its running! ables in their parameter fields, and you could use
In that way, a Smalltalk image is almost like a Smalltalk scripts to create concrete instances of the
living system that you can continually extend and lifted templates and bind concrete values to the vari-
modify. ables. The late binding also inspired another kind
The syntax of Smalltalk is very simple; what of variable in Kyma called an EventValue, which
makes it interesting is that it is like a large database serves as an abstract placeholder for a live controller
of code modules that you can recombine, modify, and automatically generates its own widget in a
and add to, and that the things you add and the Virtual Control Surface that you can optionally
changes you make become part of the language. remap to external control sources. For example, see
So Smalltalk turned out to be the ideal environ- the parameter fields in Figure 3.
ment for adding modularity and recombinance to Kyma also included some special, temporal
the Platypus microcodes. In Kyma, as in Smalltalk, modules called TimeOffset and SetDuration, so you
theres a uniform metaphor: Everything is a Sound could use Kyma to create a schedule of when to load
(see Figure 2). On the Platypus, a Sound became a and start Sound objects and specify how long they
data structure with a pointer to the microcode that should runmeaning that I finally had a virtual
could generate the next sample in its sample stream machine that could change over time.
(Scaletti 1987). Although the temporal objects were part of Kyma
Because everything is a Sound and the state of a from the beginning, it wasnt until many years later,
Sounds parameters is internal to that Sound, you when I added the graphical Timeline interface (see
can replace any Sound with any other, no matter Figure 4), that it became lot clearer how to use and
how simple or complex the Sounds may be. In other manipulate the temporal objects; it was only then
words, Sounds are both functional and modular, that people really started utilizing them extensively
making it possible to incrementally build complex (Scaletti 2002).
Sound structures and save them in a library for In 2015, with Kyma 7, I tried to get a little
future use. This also makes it possible to generate closer to my longtime dream of a sound machine
Sound structures algorithmically, as in the Kyma 7 with cognitive fluidity. In a Multigrid (see Figure
Gallery. Kyma ends up being a little like Smalltalk 5) you can create new virtual machines at arbitrary
Scaletti 17
Figure 4. The graphical Figure 5. In a Kyma 7
Timeline interface made it Multigrid with submixes,
clear how to utilize and signal flow graphs can be
manipulate the temporal re-routed and modified
objects in Kyma. without interruption to the
audio signal.
Figure 4
Figure 5
Figure 6
Figure 7
Scaletti 19
Figure 8. With the advent connected to each other
of the Pacarana, the and appear, to the Kyma
multiprocessor software scheduler, as a
architecture could be single multiprocessor
extended outside the box. device. (Photograph by
Multiple Pacaranas can be Tobias Enhus.)
computer music hardware and software. This kind But in a way, it wasnt all that surprising after
of coevolution must have been going on everywhere what I had seen happen with the PLATO network.
back then, and it continues today. Alan Kay said The Web just looked like yet another case of humans
that people who are really serious about software using every new technology for the purposes of
should make their own hardware. Because, when connecting to one another. And it started me
you come right down to it, software is just a special thinking about how I might be able to express that
kind of hardwareand the soft and hard parts can idea in a new piece.
evolve together as a system. Thats probably why I ended up using Mosaic in a Web-based instal-
Apple designs their own hardware, and why they lation called Public Organ at the 1995 ICMC in
make their own version of the ARM processor: so Banff. Public Organ was based on several quotes
they can optimize it to make their iOS perform well from Lewis Thomas about how humans seem driven
on the iPhone and iPad. to use language and technology to form networks
and engage in distributed cognition. Among other
things, you could add your own image to Public
A Nostalgic Story about Distributed Cognition Organ, either by sitting down on a piano bench
and triggering the camera or by connecting to
I remember one day in 1993, when my friend Dan the installation remotely using CU-SeeMe (for a
Brady from the National Center for Supercomputing history of the CU-SeeMe software, see Packetizer
Applications said, Hey, you should come over and 2015).
see this thing that Marc Andreessen is working on. The real reason I brought this up, though, is that
Its a kind of multimedia hypertext way of accessing I came across the QuickTime file containing all the
that World Wide Web thing they have at CERN. images captured during that ICMC 20 years ago. So
It turned out that Dan was describing Mosaicthe I thought it might be fun for us to practice a little
first Web browser. Looking back on that now, it feels group nostalgia. See if you recognize anyone . . . [see
like having been present at Kitty Hawk. supplementary materials available online at
Looking back at the 20th century, it seems that the Finally, its useful to keep in mind what Alan
invention of software and our drive to construct Kay calls the difference between something thats
ever-expanding networks of distributed cognition news and something thats new (see youtu.be/
have resulted in an explosion of experimentation FvmTSpJU-Xc). News is always incremental. News
and creativity. assumes you have a pretty good idea of the current
Its now easier to experiment and to test new state of the world, and it gives you a daily update.
ideas quickly and inexpensively, which means there As such, news items have to be short and based on
are more ideas and more products, and they can familiar information that can be quickly understood.
be more widely distributed more quickly. Which Something truly new, on the other hand, is not
also presents a challenge: The speed of development quickly or easily understood. It may require that
is now so fast that its rare to have a chance to you learn a body of new information or new ways
get deeply into anything before something new is of thinking, which can be time-consuming and
being dangled in front of us. It requires an almost sometimes even painful.
monk-like ascetic focus to stick with any tool or Its tempting to do projects that could get us into
idea or project long enough to achieve deep mastery. the newsprojects that are easy for the public to
And the corollary is that the current model re- understand because they are already familiar with
wards projects that have short development times, the ideas. And if you do something that is truly
because one could potentially make a lot of money new, it may take time for others to understand what
on a single app if you can sell it to millions of youre saying. And they may not have the time,
people. However, you only have about two weeks to because theyre trying to keep up with the news
make most of those sales before the news of your instead of taking the time to understand something
new app recedes back into the noise. In order to new. So learning how to congratulate yourself can
sell something to that many people that quickly, be a pretty useful skill, because it might be a long
the temptation is to make an app thats easy to time before anyone else understands what youre
understand in a short amount of time. One way to doing.
do that is to write hardwired, non-recombinant I still remember how, at the 1987 ICMC, Iannis
software that looks and acts like something Xenakis played an excerpt of his piece Bohor during
familiar. his keynote, and at the end of the piece, he let the
I hope everyone here has and will continue to tape keep running so you could hear the audience
write hugely successful apps! And I hope that we booing. It surprised me so much that its the only
also manage to set aside time for our larger, longer- thing I remember about his talk. In retrospect, I
term projectsprojects like large-scale frameworks think he took pride in the fact that his ideas were
that provide recombinance and fluidity. new enough that not everyone in the audience
The same model has succeeded in pushing the understood.
monetary value of recorded music down to virtually
zero. So another challenge is to find alternative
models for presenting our sound art to the world. Looking Forward
This probably entails inventing new kinds of
experiences that cant be captured in an audio So finally, looking forward . . .
recording, whether that has to do with interaction, By the way, why is it that so many of our words for
with spatialization, with learning experiences, with remembering and predicting are visual metaphors?
Scaletti 21
Why are we looking instead of listening, and circuits [New York Times, 9 April 2013, Tiny
why is it forward? We have words like envision, Chiplets].
envisage, imagine, picture, visualize, Circuit printing is starting to encourage more
foresee, and reflect to mean anticipating or experimentation and has already changed the way
remembering something in your mind, but when we think about hardware. John A. Rogers and
I did a search for hearing sound in your mind, Yongang Huang at Northwestern University are
the first things to come up were terms like tinni- developing techniques for printing a circuit onto a
tus, auditory hallucinations, hearing voices, thin, rubbery, water-soluble substrate so you can
schizophrenia, and exploding head syndrome. apply it to your skin using water (Yeo et al. 2013).
I wonder why we call someone who can foresee Sensor arrays, LEDs, transistors, radio frequency
the future a visionary, but we think someone who capacitors, wireless antennas, conductive coiled
hears the future suffers from some kind of pathology. wires, and solar cells for power can all be attached
Instead of articulating a vision for the future directly to the skin, and the circuits are fabricated as
in this last section, maybe we should invent a new squiggly wires so they can bend, twist, and stretch
term and call ourselves auditionaries. Because, to with your skin and still continue to function. Its
coin a phrase, computer music practitioners predict like taking wearable computing to the next level.
the future by composing it and by coding it!
Brain Music
Softer Hardware
The next step might be to go even deeperbeneath
One of the biggest benefits of soft-hardware has the skin. After all, our sensory organs themselves are
been that it has allowed us to increase our failure just interfaces. In the auditory system, for example,
rates. Its fairly easy and inexpensive to try out ideas there is a mapping of air pressure variation to
in software, because if they dont work, you can try physical movement of bones in the ear, to vibration
againlike the way the adaptive immune system of the basilar membrane, to electrical patterns of
tries out millions of combinations to find one that neuron firing, and so on up the eighth nerve to
fits the new pathogen. temporal electrochemical patterns in the auditory
But right now, if you want to design your own cortex.
processor to fit your software, its still really expen- If thats true, could we then just skip over the
sive, even if you use an FPGA (field-programmable ear and create an interface that maps a numerical
gate array). If some of the barriers to hardware fabri- model of sound directly to electrical stimulation of
cation can be reduced, well be able to experiment the nerves leading to the brain or stimulation of the
with alternative hardware ideas almost as quickly brain itself?
and inexpensively as we experiment with software Were already sort of doing that with cochlear
right now, further blurring the boundaries between implants. A cochlear implant takes a signal from a
hardware and software development. microphone, splits it into 22 frequency bands, and
For example, researchers at PARC (the Palo feeds the amplitude of each band to an electrode that
Alto Research Center) are designing a laser printer has been surgically implanted in the cochlea, kind
to print microprocessors, memory, and MEMs of like a 22-band vocoder. Which is both miraculous
(microelectromechanical systems) through a process and yet at the same time still pretty primitive,
Eugene Chow calls xerographic microassembly, considering that theyre trying to approximate the
where the ink is made by breaking silicon wafers behavior of 16,000 hair cells with only 22 electrodes.
into thousands of chiplets and printing them, As a next step, why not skip the microphone,
much as a laser printer prints toner onto paper. synthesize the audio input from a model, and route
An array of electrodes generates electric fields the synthetic signal directly to the brain? Well have
that control the placement and orientation of the to develop a deeper understanding of how sound
Scaletti 23
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