ELSEVIER Tectonophysics 265 (1996) 239-254

The Kazova basin: an active negative flower structure on the

Almus Fault Zone, a splay fault system of the North Anatolian
Fault Zone, Turkey
E. Bozkurt * , A. Koqyib it
Middle East Technical Uniuersity, Geological Engineering Department, 06531 Ankara, Turkey

Accepted 5 March 1996

Abstract

The Kazova basin is located within the Almus Fault Zone (AFZ), a splay fault systemof the North Anatolian Fault Zone,
in the central Pontides, Turkey. It is a 0.7-lo-km-wide, 60-km-long, wedge-shaped right-lateral strike-slip depression
bounded by the Mercimekda&+mdere fault set in the north and the Tokat fault set in the south. The Kazova basin is
superimposedon pre-Pliocenebasement rocks while its basin fill comprisesthe Pliocene to lower Quatemary Ktzkayasi and
Ceqi formations, and Quatemary alluvials.
The Mercimekda&@ndere and Tokat fault sets of the AFZ, the basin-margin faults of the Kazova basin have a
considerableamount of normal separation, and show a divergent character.Here, the Kazova basin is interpreted as an active
negative flower structure, where the combination of normal movement (extension) along the different segmentsof the AFZ,
and the oblique extension between its branching splaysresulted from a natural responseto the anticlockwise rotation along
the AFZ are suggestedbasin-forming mechanism. This kind of basin is first reported from Turkey although different types of
strike-slip basins, such as fault-wedge, pull-aparts, composite pull-apart% are widely representedand well-known.

1. Introduction Cyprian arc, the African plate is descending beneath

Turkey, which has suffered from earthquakes that
have caused the deaths of thousands of people
through history, is located on a seismically active
Mediterranean Earthquake Belt. The Turkish sec-
tion of this belt is outlined and characterised by three
major structures. The first of these is the Hellenic-
Cyprian arc, which is a convergent plate boundary
between the African plate in the south and the
Anatolian block in the north. Along the Hellenic-
* Corresponding author. Fax: + 90-312-2101263.
the Anatolian block in a north-northeast direction
(Fig. 1).
As is well-known, the other two major structures
which shape the neotectonic framework of Turkey
are the right-lateral North Anatolian and, left-lateral
East Anatolian Fault Zones (Fig. 1). They are the
intracontinental strike-slip faults along which the
Anatolian block moves westwards relative to the
Eurasian plate in the north and the Arabian plate in
the south owing to the continued convergence of
these continental plates since the middle Miocene
(McKenzie, 1972; Dewey and Sengiir, 1979; Sengijr
and Ytlmaz, 1981; Sengijr et al., 1985; Barka and

0040.1951/96/$15.00 Copyright 0 1996 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved

PII SOO40-1951(96)00045-5
240 E. Bozkurt, A. KoGyiait/ Tectonophysics 265 f 19%) 239-254

r\ Black Sea i.-,-., AN

- ..
EURASIAN .?;,
A PLATE :.

Fig. 1. Simplified neotectonic map showing some major neotectonic structures of Turkey (modified from KoGyigit, 1989). A = Almus;
D = Dokurcun; E = Erzincan; H = Havza; I = Igdtr; K = Karhova; R = Re$adiye; T = Tokat; CA = Cyprian Arc: AGS = Aegean Graben
System; BSZ= Bitlis Suture Zone; DSFZ= Dead Sea Fault Zone; EAFZ = East Anatolian Fault Zone; NAFZ= North Anatolian Fault
Zone; I = Ovacrk fault; 2 = Malatya fault; 3 = Ecemia fault zone; 4 = Salanda fault: 5 = Salt Lake fault zone; 6 = Kurqay fault;
7 = Almus Fault Zone: 8 = Yagmurh-Ezinepazan fault zone: 9 = Adapazart fault zone; and 10 = Geyve fault zone. Short white arrows
show the sense of plate motion, half arrows the relative motion senses on strike-slip faults and the thin lines with hachures normal faults.

Gulen, 1988; Koqyigit, 1989). These two structures
meet and form a continental triple junction to the
east of Karhova (Fig. I; Sengbr, 1979).
The area east of the triple junction is characterised
by a compressional tectonic regime and by structures
such as E-W-trending right-lateral strike-slip faults
with a thrust component (Saroglu, 1985; Kocyigit,
1989). By contrast, the westernmost part of the
Anatolian block is dominated by both the N-S-di-
rected extensional and dextral strike-slip tectonic
regimes termed the Aegean Horst-Graben
System, a region dominated by a roughly east-
west-trending horst-graben system, (Sengiir, 1987)
whereas the eastern and central parts of the Anato-
lian block (Ova Province of Sengbr et al., 1985) are
characterized by mostly dextral and sinistral strike-
slip faults, such as the Almus, Yagmurlu-Ezinepa-
zan, Ovacrk, Kurqay, Malatya, Salanda, Lake Salt
and Ecemig faults (Koqy&t, 1989). The Almus and
Yagmurlu-Ezinepazarr faults bifurcate from the
Sugehri-Tagova segment of the North Anatolian
Fault Zone and run WSW into the Anatolian block.
The North Anatolian Fault Zone (NAFZ) is one of
the best known strike-slip faults in the world because
of its remarkable seismic activity, extremely well-de-
veloped surface expression and importance for the
tectonics of the eastern Mediterranean region. The
NAFZ is about 1200 km long between the Gulf of
Saros in the west and near Karhova in the east, a few
hundred meters to 40 km wide and is an active
dextral fault zone consisting of numerous parallel to
subparallel, sometimes anastomosing fault segments.
The fault zone has a mostly single fault trace for
about 900 km between Karhova in the east and
Dokurcun town in the west (Koqyi@t, 1988a). To the
west of Dokurcun town, the NAFZ bifurcates into
two major strands, the Geyve fault in the south and
the Adapazan fault zones in the north (Koc;yi$t,
1988a,1989). Most of the literature agrees that the
initiation age of the dextral movement along the
North Anatolian Fault Zone is sometime in the
Pliocene (Tokay, 1973; Arpat and @ro@u, 1975;
Sengor, 1979; Barka, 1984; Barka and Giilen, 1988;
Koqyigit, 1988a,b,1989; Toprak, 1988; Dirik, 1991;
Rojay, 1993; Tatar, 1993). Recent studies along the
NAFZ estimate a total offset ranging from 85 + 5
km to 20-25 km (Seymen, 1975; Tatar, 1978; Barka,
1981; Barka and Hancock, 1984; Sengor et al., 1985;
Saroglu, 1985; Toprak, 1988; Kogyigit, 1989, 1990;
Dirik, 1991; Rojay, 1993; Tatar, 1993).
Several depressions are aligned along the North
Anatolian Fault Zone (NAFZ) and its major splays.
The Kazova basin, an active strike-slip depression (a
negative flower structure) located along the Almus
Fault Zone (AFZ; one of the splays of the NAFZ),
constitutes the major topic of the present paper. The
 E. Bozkurt,
stratigraphy and neotectonic characteristics of the
Almus Fault Zone, its age, total offset, activity and
relation to the North Anatolian Fault Zone are dis-
cussed in a separate paper (Bozkurt and Ko$yi@,
1995).
This paper documents the detailed stratigraphy
and neotectonic structures of the Kazova basin, con-
siders its kinematic significance and concludes with
the interpretation that the basin is an active negative
flower structure.
2. Stratigraphy
The fill of the Kazova basin consists mainly of
Plio-Quaternary travertine, ancient alluvial
fan/apron and terrace conglomerates and recent al-
luvial sediments. They rest unconformably on the
pre-Pliocene basement rocks such as the pre-Triassic
greenschists, mafic to ultramafic rocks, Jurassic-
Cretaceous carbonates and andesitic volcanics, Lute-
tian volcanoclastics and Aquitanian-Burdigalian red
continental elastics, and shallow marine limestones.
The detailed description of the basement lies outside
the scope of this paper. The basin fill is formally
named the Cerqi and Kizkayasl formations. They are
covered by recent alluvial sediments (Fig. 2).
2.1. ceqi .fonnation
Travertine occurrences, ranging from a few hun-
dred m2 to a few km*, are quite widespread along
DESCRIPTION
Recent alluvial
2- Travertine
l-Ancient alluvial
ANGULAR UNCONFORhWIY
Folded and thrust
PRE-PLIOCENE basement rocks
Fig. 2. Generalized tectonostratigraphical column
basin-fill.
A. KoGyiait/ Tectonophysics 265 flY96) 239-254 241
the central part of the southern margin of the Kazova
basin, but they do not occur along the northern
margin, except for one locality to the north of Tathcak
village (Fig. 3). A representative occurrence is ap-
proximately 150 m thick and contains plant remains,
reed traces and locally onyx layers.
The travertines are generally horizontal, except at
the western end of the Almus Fault Zone along the
northern margin of the Kazova basin, where they are
tilted by about 15 towards the basin. This may
reflect the activity of the faults controlling that mar-
gin of the basin (Fig. 3).
The travertines unconformably overlie the older
units and start with a very thin (10 cm to 1 m thick)
basal conglomerate composed of angular to sub-
rounded, pebble sized rock fragments originated from
the underlying older units. In most cases, they are
brought into fault contact with the older units (Fig.
3).
The age of these travertines is assigned to the
Pliocene to early Quatemary based on the scarcity of
diagenesis, their horizontal attitude and their con-
formable boundary relationships with the Plio-
Quatemary fan/apron and terrace deposits (Koqyigit
and Bozkurt, 1991; Bozkurt and Koqyigit, 1995).
The travertines cover a fault-controlled relief and
also are faulted by the different segments of the
AFZ. Thus they reflect the strike-slip-controlled
step-like topography as well as the considerable nor-
mal separation of the fault segments comprising the
Almus Fault Zone. Fault parallel alignment of an-
cient and active outcoming centers also implies the
close relationship between travertine occurrences and
faulting. It is suggested here that the travertines were
probably deposited by the precipitation of CaCO, in
a saturated water percolating through fractures-
sediments
faults, which are characteristics of neotectonic pe-
riod. This is supported by the observation that the
travertines are widespread where the huge limestone
with onyx in places
blocks are abundant. They disappear with the disap-
fan/apron and
pearance of the limestone blocks.
2.2. Klzkayasl formation
faulted
The oldest deposits of the Kazova basin were
named the lzkayasl formation (Kosyigit and
Bozkurt, 1991). This unit is represented by an ap-
of the Kazova proximately 140 m thick ancient alluvial fan/apron
and terrace deposits (Fig. 2). At the base, the unit
Fig. 3. Neotectonic map of the AImus Fault zonf. A/! = AhurkGy; AP = Arzupmart; AY = Akyamac;; ER = Bah$ebagt; BP = Baglarplnarl;cc = Ce+; ~0 = camdere;
cp = GElPmarG H = Hamidiye; HI = Hamayeri; IH = Ilephamaml; KC = Korucak; KK = Klzkayasl; KO = Klztlkiiy; KS = Ku+ur@; ,pfn = Mercim&&&; oy = ovayurt:
PN = Pmarh; SN = Sargun: 77 = Tathcak; OZ = OriimGren; YD = Yayladall; YY = Ye$yu~,
 E. Bozkurt, A. Kocyiait/
unconformably overlies the older basement rocks
while it has a transitional and locally unconformable
top boundary with the overlying upper Quatemary
alluvial fan deposits. It also shows fault contact
relationships with the older and younger units.
At both margins of the Kazova basin, the
lzkayasi formation is composed of undifferentiated
polygenetic loose conglomerates of ancient terrace
and alluvial fan/apron deposits. The conglomerate is
composed of diverse-sized, well-rounded rock frag-
ments within a sandy-clayey matrix where the type
of rock fragments changes depending on the underly-
ing lithology. It also includes sandstone lenses. At its
lowermost part, the conglomerates are generally
poorly cemented.
The conglomerates of the Kizkayasi formation
overlie unconformably the Aquitanian-Burdigalian
Almus Formation and the older basement units, while
they are overlain unconformably by the active and
young alluvial fan sediments. The conglomerates are
interpreted as the first products of the strike-slip
regime, deposited along the fault controlled margins
of the Kazova basin. Their deposition corresponds to
the initiation of the neotectonic period in the present
area. The conglomerates are though to be not older
than Pliocene because of their undisturbed horizontal
position and the scarcity of diagenesis (Koqyigit and
Bozkurt, 1991; Bozkurt and Ko$yigit, 1995).
Here, the distinction between terrace and alluvial
fan apron deposits is based on the matrix and clast
relationships. Terrace conglomerates are generally
well-stratified and have small amounts of clay-sized
matrix. They are clast supported and contain pebble-
sized rock fragments that are imbricated, cross-be-
dded and orientated relative to the flow direction. On
the other hand, ancient and unsorted to structureless
alluvial fan apron deposits are matrix supported and
are relatively poorly stratified. They contain rock
fragments, with no imbrication, where clasts are
suspended within a clayey-silty matrix.
2.3. Alluvial deposits
The Quatemary alluvial deposits form the second
major component of the Kazova basin fill and occur
in two major forms: (a> alluvial fan deposits and (b>
meandering river plain deposits. Both margins of the
Kazova basin are marked by many steep, well-devel-
Tectonophysics 265 (1996) 239-254 243
oped alluvial fans (Fig. 3). Sediments transported by
the debris flows and braided rivers flowing down the
slopes are deposited as large alluvial fans, which
enter the Quatemary plain transversely. In places,
alluvial fans coalesce and degrade and result in a
fault-parallel alluvial fan apron.
The alluvial fan sediments adjacent to the fault
scarps occur as debris flows characterized by angular
gravel size fragments supported by sand, silt and
clay sized particles. The size of clasts may reach up
to l-2 m in diameter. They are generally poorly
sorted and are lack of fabric and stratification. This
section is characterised morphologically by the high-
est slope on the fan. In the central portion of the
alluvial fan, the sediments are relatively sorted and
show cross-stratification. Sandy materials become
dominant and are generally interbedded with better
sorted gravel which occasionally show imbrication.
Cut-and-fill deposits of local channels are common
probably in response to braided stream deposits. The
distal facies occurring in the toe of the alluvial fans
consists mostly of well-sorted sand, silt and gravely
sand, showing stratification such as parallel laminae.
12 In
[ 0
Clayey-sandy gravel
Fig. 4. Borehole sections showing remarkable variation in the
thickness of Quaternary basin-fill (DSi, 1977).
244 E. Bozkurt,
Toward the depocenter, alluvial fan sediments
become finer and form the thinly bedded silt and
clay deposits of the Quatemary plain. The marginal
coarse-grained sediments of the alluvial fans indicate
rapid uplift of the source mountains, erosion and
rapid sedimentation. By contrast, the alluvials in
areas away from the fault-controlled margins of the
Kazova basin are composed of relatively fine-grained
axial sediments and suggest that slow sedimentation
in an alluvial plain.
At the southwestern margin of the Kazova basin,
lies a temporary salt playa recently dried up, where a
thin salty mud has settled. Based on borehole data,
the total thickness of the basin fill deposits is be-
tween 35 and 163 m (DSi, 1977; Fig. 4). The recent
development of alluvial fan deposits on top of the
ancient alluvial fan and terrace deposits of the
Kzkayaa formation and their unconformable bound-
ary relationships, suggest that many marginal faults
were not active during the time-interval correspond-
ing to the gap between these two groups of fans. The
shape and geometry of the alluvial fans and their
presence along relatively steep margins indicate that
they are relatively formed during the same time span
and are still developing.
3. Morphotectonics
The Kazova basin is a 60-km-long, 0.7-IO-km-
wide depression oriented with its longest axis in a
Fig. 5. Simplified neotectonic map of the Almus Fault zone (after Kgyi&t
Quatemary basin-fill deposits; 4 normal fault and 5 strike-slip fault. The half arrows show the relative motion sense on the faults.
A. KogyiOit/Tectonophysics 265 (1996) 239-254
WSW-ENE direction. The basin becomes wider from
east to west and is controlled by active right-lateral
strike-slip faults (Figs. 3 and 5).
The lowest point of the basin lies at 530 m above
sea level. The highest mountain peaks, Mercimekda&
on the northern margin of the Kazova basin and
Caltepe at its southern margin, are at 1203 m and
1480 m respectively. Thus, the relief difference be-
tween the floor of the Kazova basin and its southern
and northern mountain fronts are 673 m and 950 m,
respectively (Fig. 3).
Both margins of the Kazova basin display a well-
developed step-like morphology produced and bor-
dered by the active right-lateral strike-slip fault seg-
ments with considerable amount of dip-slip compo-
nent comprising the Almus Fault Zone. Numerous
alluvial fans occur and are aligned along the fault-
bounded margins of the Kazova basin. Their size
ranges approximately from 10 m2 to 5 km. In
places, the alluvial fans coalesce, degrade and result
in broad alluvial aprons aligned parallel to the fault-
controlled mountain fronts of the Kazova basin.
These alluvial fans overlie unconformably the an-
cient alluvial fan and terrace deposits. Thus both
tectonically quiet and tectonically active periods can
be distinguished in the evolution of the Kazova
basin. Moreover, the presence of regressional and
transgressional vertical and lateral facies changes
between the coarse-grained marginal and fine-grained
central facies of the basin-fill deposits of the Kazova
basin suggest both seasonal variations and rapid
sedimentation due to increasing tectonic activity.
DGkmetepe fault
5
J
and Bozkurt, 1991). I pre-Quaternary rocks; 2 travertines: 3
 E. Bozkurt,
Both margins of the Kazova basin are character-
ized by straight fault scarps, terraces and exposures
of younger units such as the nummulitic sandstones
of the Lutetian Haydaroglu Formation and molassic
sediments of the Aquitanian-Burdigalian Almus
Formation along the fault scarps (Fig. 6). Although
the slopes of the alluvial fans range between 1 and
5 at both margins of the Kazova basin, the slopes of
the fault-produced, fairly straight, sharp mountain
fronts are much steeper, 7- 17 at the northern moun-
tain front and 9-14 at the southern.
There are several streams emanating from the
highlands around the Kazova basin. They flow trans-
versely across the mountain fronts northward and
southward into the basin where most of them die out,
and leave their load in alluvial fans of diverse size
when they intersect the different segments of the
AFZ controlling that margin of the Kazova basin.
The streams have a braided river character and deeply
incise their channels. The major drainage system of
the Kazova basin is the Ye.$mnak river. It is a
deeply incised meandering river flowing in an ap-
proximately E-W direction across the basin. To the
east, the Ye@hrmak flows adjacent to the northern
margin of the basin and parallel to the master strand,
Dokmetepe fault, which controls that margin of the
basin. Further on, it makes a sharp left bend and
begins to flow adjacent to the southern margin. To
the north of Pazar, the Ye~ilirmak continues to flow
northwestward through the Quatemary plain. Later
on, it makes a right bend and leave the study area to
the northwest of Tathcak village (Fig. 3).
Fig. 6. Geological cross-sections showing typical step-like topography
exposures of the Haydaroglu and Almus formation
2 comprise the Tokat complex); 3 = Lutetian
Burdigallian red molassic sediments (Almus
F= strike-slip faults with considerable extensional
normal separation and resemble to normal faults in cross-sections
A. Kogiait/Tectonophysics 265 (1996) 239-254 245
4. Structures
The neotectonic structures within the present area
comprise the right-lateral strike-slip faults of the
Almus Fault Zone. This zone is an active, dextral
strike-slip fault system extending for about 150 km
from Re$adiye in the east to @dir town in the west
(Fig. 51, and has an extremely well-developed sur-
face expression. The width of the fault zone ranges
from a few hundred meters along its eastern course
to 12 km across its western extension along which
the active strike-slip Kazova basin is located. The
AFZ displays a step-like morphology on both mar-
gins of the basin and is interpreted as one of the
major splays of the North Anatolian Fault Zone
(Kogyigit and Bozkurt, 1991; Bozkurt and Ko$yigit,
1995).
The Almus Fault Zone has a mostly E-W-trend-
ing single trace character for about 50 km between
the southeast of ReSadiye, where it branches from
the North Anatolian Fault Master Strand (NAFMS)
in the east and Balumh village in the west, and
displays a fairly straight fault trace (Fig. 5). In
general, although it is a typical strike-slip fault, it
also shows a high-angle thrust fault character in
several places, such as around Baktmh village where
the ultramafics of the Baktmhdagi complex are thrust,
from north to south, onto the volcanics of the Lute-
tian Haydaroglu Formation and molassic sediments
of the Aquitanian-Burdigalian Almus Formation
(Fig. 7).
To the west of Balumh village, the Almus Fault
Mercimekda@-Qtndere Fault Set
KAZOVA BASIN
of the southern (a) and northern (b) margins of the Kazova basin and
along the fault scarps. 1 = low-grade metamorphics; 2 = recrystallized limestone (1 and
fossiliferous sandstone and shale alternation (Haydaroglu Formation); 4 = Aquitanian-
Formation); 5 = Quatemary alluvials. AU = angular unconformity; BB = block boundary;
component. NC= nonconformity. Note that the faults have considerable amount of
246 E. Bozkurt,
bends 7-15 southwestwards and bifurcates into two
major strands, the Mercimekdagi-camdere fault and
the Tokat fault sets, resulting in a simple horse-tail
strike-slip fault pattern (Fig. 5). Farther west around
Gtmenek, the Tokat fault set once again bifurcates
into two branches, one of which is located in the
north and comprises the master fault strand, namely
the Dijkmetepe fault (Figs. 3, 5 and 7). The fault was
affected by the ground ruptures of the 1939.12.27
Erzincan earthquake and is still active within the
Kazova basin. In addition to the above-mentioned
fault sets, the AFZ also contains a number of smaller
fault segments (Fig. 3). The characteristics of each
fault set and the master strand will be described in
turn.
4.1. Mercimekda&-camdere fault set (MCFS)
The Mercimekdagi-Camdere fault set is approxi-
mately 70 km long and 4 km wide. It is composed of
numerous parallel to subparallel fault segments to-
gether with synthetic R-shears and antithetic R-
shears which are oblique to the general trend of the
fault set (Fig. 3). The fault set clearly defines and
controls the northern margin of the Kazova basin.
The northern strand of the Almus Fault -zone to
Fig. 7. Simplified geological map of the Almus-Tokat
sense on the fault segments.
A. Ko@dit/Tectonophwics 265 (1996) 239-254
the west of Baktmh village runs westwards as ;I
single fault in an approximately E-W direction to
Kizilkoy, where it bifurcates into two branches and
rejoins after 5 km at which point diagnostic lensoidal
pressure ridges occur. West of this point. the fault set
is characterized by parallel to sub-parallel arrange-
ments of approximately E-W-trending segments
which result in a step-like morphology. This mor-
phology is related to the formation of a depression
related to lateral motion, which fits the evidence for
the oblique normal nature of the faults. The fault set
was moved by the ground ruptures of the 1939.12.27
Erzincan earthquake where the southern blocks were
moved relatively downwards. Some of the segments
display well-preserved slicken-sided and striated fault
planes where the oblique orientations of the slicken-
sides suggest that the faults are oblique normal (Fig.
8).
4.2. Tokat fault set (TFS)
The Tokat fault (TF), one of the major subzones
of the Almus Fault Zone, is located to the south of
the Dijkmetepe master fault, and clearly defines and
controls the southern margin of the Kazova basin
region (from Bozkurt and Ko$yi& 1995). The half arrows show the relative motion
 E. Bozkurt, A. KoGyiilit/Tectonophysics
Fig. 8. Stereographic plot of observed fault planes and associated
slickensides. Data are plotted on a Schimidth lower hemisphere
net. As is seen, the marginal faults of the Kazova basin are dextral
strike-slip faults with considerable amount of dip-slip component.
Square - (T, ; triangle - cr2; circle - 03.
(Fig. 3). The TF is about 65 km long and 5.7 km
wide in the study area and composed of numerous
parallel to subparallel fault segments displaying an
en-echelon fault pattern. The parallel to subparallel
arrangement of the different fault segments results in
a typical strike-slip fault-controlled step-like mor-
phology indicating oblique-normal nature of the
faults. The fault set bifurcates from the master strand
of the AFZ to the west of Balumli village and bends,
for about 7-15 southwards (Fig. 7). It starts around
Pmarh and Korucak villages and runs westward with
a general strike of 075. At its central part around
Pazar, the general trend of the fault segments bends
about 10 southwards and trends at 065 to uztimoren
village where it bends back to its general 075
direction before leaving the study area (Fig. 3). At
the westernmost part of the Kazova basin around
Bah$eba$t village, the fault segments make a typical
right-step-over and have a separation of about 1 km
(Fig. 3). The TF was also reactivated by the ground
ruptures of the 1939.12.27 Erzincan earthquake dur-
ing which the northern blocks were relatively down
thrown.
The well-developed south- or north-dipping fault
planes (Fig. 8), the fault-controlled step-like topogra-
phy and the presence of exposures of the ancient
265 (1996) 239-254 241
terrace and alluvial fan deposits, molassic sediments
of the Aquitanian-Burdigalian Almus Formation, and
nummulitic sandstones of the Lutetian Haydaroglu
Formation along the fault scarps within the step-like
topography (Fig. 6a), all suggest that the fault seg-
ments comprising the Mercimekda&Qmdere and
Tokat fault sets have a considerable amount of nor-
mal separation.
4.3. Diikmetepe master fault (DF)
The Diikrnetepe fault is composed of 075-trend-
ing en-echelon fault segments and is well-exposed at
the northern margin of the Kazova basin, between
Giimene park in the east and Akyamaq village in the
west. West of Akyamag, DF runs westwards as a
single fault trace in the same direction through
Yegilyurt, Diikmetepe, Ovacik and Tathcak villages
located within the Kazova basin (Fig. 3). At this
section, DF represents the master strand of the
Almus Fault Zone within the Kazova basin. The fault
was also moved by ground ruptures of the 1939.12.27
Erzincan earthquake. The ground ruptures followed
the Ye@lyurt-Ovayurt section of the Diikmetepe
fault. Along these ground ruptures, the southern
block was relatively down thrown. Although it is not
in the catalogues, this section was reactivated two or
three times in the past (Bozkurt and Ko$yigit, 1995).
The activity of the Dijkmetepe fault is indicated by
active tectonic creep along which a concrete bridge
is dextrally offset by about 1.6 cm (Fig. 9a; see
latter).
Fault segments, Mercimekdagi-Qmdere fault set,
Tokat fault set and Dijkmetepe fault, are all affected
by the ground ruptures of 1939 Erzincan earthquake.
However, maximum destruction and movement took
place along the Dijkmetepe fault (personal communi-
cation with local people). Evidence relating to this
deformation is being obscured by agricultural activi-
ties and recent sedimentation within the Kazova
basin. Moreover, the present configuration and ge-
ometry of the basin imply the importance of the
D&mete fault with respect to the marginal faults,
Mercimekdagi-Qrndere and Tokat fault sets. On the
basis of information given above, the Dijkmetepe
fault is assigned to the master strand of the Almus
Fault Zone.
248 E. Bozkurt, A. Kocyiait/ Tectonophysics 265 (IY96) 239-254

MASTER STRAND

E-F= 1.1 km

Fig. 9. (a) Sketch from a close-up photograph illustrating an active tectonic seismic break where a concrete bridge is dextrally offset by
about 1.6 cm along the Dijkmetepe fault (Giimene Park, 8 km east of Tokat; view to the west); (b) map showing the right-lateral offset of
the main channel of Yegihrmak river along the Mercimekda&Camdere fault set; (c) and (d) maps showing the dextral offset of the red
molassic sediments of the Aquitanian-Burdigalian Almus Formation along the Tokat fault set and Ku$otura& fault, respectively.
1 = Permo-Triassic recrystallized limestone of the Tokat complex; 2 = red mollasic sediments of the Aquitanian-Burdigallian Almus
Formation; 3 = Pliocene-Quatemary Cerri travertine; 4 = Pliocene-Quaternary loose conglomerates of the I(lzkayasl formation; 5 = ancient
alluvial apron deposits; 6 = faults with observed fault-planes; 7 = strike-slip fault; and 8 = ground rupture of the 1939 Erzincan earthquake
(from Bozkurt and Kqyigit, 1995).

4.4. Age, total displacement and relation to the
North Anatolian Fault Zone
The age and total displacement of the Almus
Fault Zone and its relation to the North Anatolian
Fault Zone are discussed in a separate paper (Bozkurt
and K%yigit, 1995). In this section a synopsis of this
information will be given.
Bozkurt and Kosyigit (1995) argued that since the
Plio-Quatemary loose conglomerates of the
Klzkayasl formation and Cerqi travertine are lack of
compressional structures such as syn-sedimentary
normal and reverse faults, folds and approximately
E-W-trending thrusts which are characteristics of
palaeotectonic N-S compression between Eurasian
and Arabian plates, but are cut and displaced by the
different segments of the AFZ, the initiation age of
the Almus Fault Zone can be dated sometime after
Burdigalian (the age of the youngest unit affected by
the latest stages of palaeotectonic period) and or
during Pliocene (youngest unit deposition of which
was controlled by strike-slip tectonics).
Field observations and borehole data (from DSI,
1977) have revealed that faults comprising the AFZ
have oblique dextral strike-slip character. The lower
boundary of the highest exposure of the molassic
sediments of the Almus Formation within the step-
like fault-controlled topography controlled by the
different segments of the Mercimekda&-Camdere
fault set lies approximately at a topographic eleva-
tion of 1000 m whereas at some boreholes it is cut at
250 m topographic elevation (DSi, 1977) (Fig. 6b)
within the Quatemary configuration of the basin.
Thus comparison of basal elevations of the Aqui-
tanian-Burdigalian Almus Formation near-away
from, and below, the Quatemary configuration of the
Kazova basin suggests a vertical displacement of
about 750 m.
 E. Bozkurt, A. Kocyiait/
The dextral nature of the fault zone is unambigu-
ously indicated by offset streams, formation bound-
ary and a tectonic creep of a concrete bridge, as: (1)
1.25 km dextral offset of the main channel of
Yeaihrmak River along the Mercimekda&-Camdere
fault set (Fig. 9b); (2) right-lateral displacement of
the boundary of the Almus Formation by about 1.l
km along tbe Tokat fault set (Fig. SC) and by about
1.3 km along the Mercimekdagi-Camdere fault set
(Fig. 9d); and (3) tectonic creep along which a
concrete bridge, constructed on Dijkmetepe fault at
Giimene Park, is dextrally offset by about 1.6 cm,
and would have taken during the last 50 years since
about the time of Erzincan earthquake (personal
communication with local people) (Fig. 9a).
Tectonic creep suggest a present slip-rate of about
0.33 mm/yr for the Almus Fault zone. If the slip-rate
is assumed to be the long-term rate, then 1.3 km total
offset was achieved in about 4 Ma which is the early
Pliocene and is in excellent agreement with the
initiation age of dextral movement along the North
Anatolian Fault Zone (early-middle Pliocene, Tokay,
1973; Barka, 1984; Kogyigit and Rojay, 1988a;
Toprak, 1988; Dirik, 1991; Rojay, 1993, Tatar, 1993)
and with the stratigraphy of the basin-fill deposits
(see earlier).
Comparison of the dominant direction of the fault
segments with the direction of the Master Strand of
the NAFZ, on the basis of Rediel shear terminology
(Wilcox et al., 1973) suggest that the Almus Fault
Zone can be interpreted to be the P-shear with
respect to the North Anatolian Fault Zone (Bozkurt
and KoGyigit, 1995).
5. Tectonic setting and origin of the Kazova basin
The Kazova basin is a 0.7-lo-km-wide, 60&n-
long, active, right-lateral strike-slip depression with
its long axis oriented in a 077 direction. The basin is
a typical wedge-shaped depression along the Almus
Fault zone and becomes wider from east to west.
AFZ has mostly an E-W-trending, single fault trace
character for about 50 km from southeast of Regadiye
in the east, where it branches off the North Anatolian
Fault Master Strand (NAFMS), and Baktmh village
in the west. AFZ bifurcates west of Baktmh village
into numerous parallel to subparallel smaller fault
Tectonophysics 265 (1996) 239-254 249
segments resulting in a simple horse-tail strike-slip
fault pattern. The Kazova basin is bounded by the
Mercimekda&Camdere fault set on the north and
the Tokat fault set in the south while the active
Dokmetepe fault, the master strand of the AFZ, lies
within the basin. The two fault sets control and
bound both margins, the Turhal block in the north
and the Tokat block in the south, and are composed
of numerous parallel to subparallel fault segments.
5.1. The main features of the difjcerent fault segments
comprising the almus fault zone are:
(1) The master fault and different segments of the
fault zone have a normal separation (i.e. the hanging-
wall block is relatively down thrown) and resemble a
normal fault in cross-section. Evidence for normal
separation of the fault segments comprising the Al-
mus Fault Zone includes the following: (a) some of
the fault segments have well-preserved, basinward-
dipping fault-planes and display oblique striations
(Fig. 8); (b) both margins of the Kazova basin are
characterized by step-like morphology, produced by
the different segments of the AFZ, where the topog-
raphy becomes lower towards the basin. Along the
fault scarps within this topography, the Lutetian
Haydaroglu Formation, the Aquitanian-Burdigalian
Almus Formation, the Pliocene-lower Quatemary
Cerqi travertines and the Ktzkayasi formation all
crop out (Fig. 6). All these units have bedding planes
(where developed) dipping towards the basin; (c) the
comparison of the basal elevations of the red molas-
sic sediments of the Aquitanian-Burdigalian Almus
Formation within the different blocks of the step-like
topography (Fig. 6b) indicates a vertical displace-
ment of about 750 m along the northern marginal
faults of the Kazova basin (Bozkurt and Koqyigit,
1995); and (d) along both margins of the Kazova
basin, ancient alluvial fans are elevated and recent
alluvial fans begin to form unconformably on top of
them.
As has been pointed out by Harding (1985) diver-
gent wrench faults are most often confused with
normal faults, particularly in cross-section and seis-
mic profiles, because both have normal separation.
Similarly, both margins of the Kazova basin and the
nature of block-bounding faults, both in the field and
in cross-section (Fig. 61, resemble normal faults and
250 E. Bozkurt, A. KogyiBit/ Tectonophysics 265 (1996) 239-254

the basin is a rift-like depression. The structural
criteria of the strike-slip nature of the fault segments
comprising the Almus Fault Zone are: (a) the reverse
component of the Almus fault to the west of Baklmh
village before its bifurcation into two main strands,
where the ultramafics of the Balumhda& complex
are thrust southwards onto the volcanics of the Lute-
tian Haydaroglu Formation and red elastics of the
Aquitanian-Burdigalian Almus formation (Fig. 7);
(b) change in the apparent down thrown side and
direction of dip of the same strand along its strike
(Fig. 7); (c) the upward-splaying fault segments give
rise to a single strand the D&metepe fault, that locks
both the splay structure and the accompanying Ka-
zova basin while normal faults are generally part of a
set of closely spaced, more numerous faults and have
profile characteristics that are repetitive (Fig. 10) (cf.
Harding, 1985); (d) a considerable amount of dextral
offset of formation boundaries, rivers and man-made
features (Bozkurt and Kqyigit, 1995); and (e) the
Almus Fault zone is a through going zone of defor-
mation, has a straight trace in plan view (Fig. 3).
continues with local bends and infrequent oversteps.
and has a depression bounded by upward-diverging
fault segments which are typical characteristics of
wrench faults.

TURHALBLOCK TOKATBLOCK

Fig. 10. Sketched block diagram illustrating the structural evolution of the active Kazova basin. Arrows show the relative motion sense of
the fault segments. 2 = Pre-Pliocene basement rocks; 2 = Plio-Quatemary conglomerates (Klzkayasl formation); 3 = Plio-Quatemary
travertines (Ceqi formation); 4 Quatemary alluvial sediments; KB = Kazova basin; YR = Yeaihrmak river; AFZ = Almus Fault Zone and
NAFZ = North Anatolian Fault Zone. Note the considerable amount of normal separation along the upward divergent fault segments which
controls the both margins of the basin.
 E. Bozkurt, A. KoCyiOit/
(2) The regional dip of the bedding planes of the
Lutetian Haydaroglu Formation and younger units
exposed along the fault scarps show little change and
lack of evidence of shortening;
(3) As seen from Fig. 10, both strands of the
Almus Fault Zone, namely the Mercimekdagi-
Camdere and Tokat fault sets, diverge upward with
respect to the master strand the Dokmetepe fault, and
bound a relatively down-dropped graben-like slice;
(4) The graben-like Kazova basin is bounded by
active strike-slip faults along which the northern
Turhal and southern Tokat blocks have moved
obliquely apart (i.e they are divergent or transten-
sional wrench faults).
The kinematic behaviour of fault-bounded crustal
blocks within a transform zone has long been consid-
ered the principal control on the development of
strike-slip basins (Quennell, 1958; Crowell, 1974;
Reading, 1980; Aydm and Nur, 1982; Mann et al.,
1983). The general idea is that subsidence occurs
where strike-slip is accompanied by a component of
divergence, as a result of bend or an overstep in the
fault-trace (pull-apart basin of Burchfiel and Stewart,
1966) or through extension near a fault junction
(fault wedge basin of Crowell, 1974). Uplift occurs
where the strike-slip is accompanied by convergence
(Christie-Blick and Biddle, 1985). In other words, if
the strike-slip movement is inhibited by restraining
bends (Crowell, 1974), convergent strike-slip or
transpression (Harland, 1971) occurs and leads to
crowding, crustal shortening and uplift. By contrast,
releasing bends (Crowell, 1974) provide transtension
(Harland, 1971) or divergent strike-slip accompanied
by stretching, crustal extension, subsidence and for-
mation of pull-apart basin (Slyvester, 1988). Conse-
quently, where the strike-slip movement is divergent,
crustal blocks may sag, subside or tilt between or
adjacent to bounding faults, making local sites for
deposition of sediments.
In the light of the above-mentioned evidence, the
divergent character of the AFZ after its bifurcation
into two fault sets (Mercimekdagi-Camdere and
Tokat fault sets) and the oblique extension along
these branching fault set is explained; in other words,
the normal separation of upward divergent fault seg-
ments of the Almus Fault zone is the most favourable
model for the origin of the Kazova basin, a shallow
sag overlying the upward spreading strike-slip faults
Tectonophysics 265 (1996) 239-254 251
with normal separation, which is typical for nega-
tive jlower structures (cf. Harding and Lowell,
1979; Harding, 1983, 1985; Slyvester, 1984). As
seen from Fig. 10, the faults controlling both mar-
gins of the Kazova basin have a considerable amount
of normal separation (cf. Bozkurt and Koqyigit,
1995b), an essential criteria for negative flower
structures (cf. Harding and Lowell, 1979; Harding,
1983, 1985; Slyvester, 1984).
The present configuration of the North Anatolian
Master Fault Strand (NAFMS) and its splays, Almus
fault zone, Yagmurlu-Ezinepazan fault zone and
Tazova-Corum fault zone is consistent with the
fishbone structure created by the rotation of en-
echelon wedges away from the principle fault (cf.
Sengijr and Barka, 1992; Fig. 11). As is seen from
Fig. 11, all splay faults branches off the NAFMS and
trend in approximately E-W direction for some dis-
tance and then they bend southwards and trend in
approximately NE- to NNE-direction running into
the Anatolian block. The E-W-trending sections of
the splay fault zones display fairly strike-slip charac-
ter with some reverse component whereas the NE- to
NNE-trending sections mainly have the normal
oblique-slip character.
Sengiir and Barka (1992) argued that a fish-
bone structure, created by rotation of en echelon
wedges away from the principal fault, commonly
forms if the escaping block is being shortened along
its escape direction. This leads to a decrease in offset
along the principal escape faults and to a shortening
in the length of its purely strike-slip segments. This
mechanism perfectly explains the high-angle thrust
fault character of the Almus Fault Zone in the area to
the east of Bakimh village (Fig. 7).
Tatar et al. (1995) have demonstrated the exis-
tence of a considerable counterclockwise rotation,
with respect to the both Eurasian plate and Anatolian
block, within Eocene formations along the Almus
Fault Zone. They also suggested that anticlockwise
rotation takes place involving successively larger
blocks with one boundary located respectively at the
Almus, Yagmurlu-Ezinepazan and Tagova-Corum
dextral fault zones, the other in each cases being the
North Anatolian Fault Zone. They considered that
this mechanism may be related to the convergence
between Eurasian and Arabian plates and the west-
ward escape of Anatolia and suggested that north-
252 E. Bozkurt,
Fig. 11. Simplifed map showing the counterclockwise
Fault Zone (NAFZ). 1 Sugehri-Tafova segment of the North Anatolian
Almus Fault Zone (splay), 4 Yagmurlu-Ezinepazart
Merzifon Fault Zone (splay). The shaded area shows the pull-apart
ward motion of the Arabian plate causes anticlock-
wise motion of Anatolian block relative to Eurasia.
In this model, the bifurcation of the Almus Fault
Zone and the southward bending of its general trend
by about 7-15, to the west of Balumh village is
expected to produce restraining bend. In contrast,
instead the anticlockwise rotation along the Almus
Fault Zone allow the fault segments to acquire a
divergent character while the resultant subsidence of
the Tokat and Turhal blocks between different seg-
ments gives rise to the formation of the Kazova
basin (Fig. 10). This is compatible with the presence
of extension along the NE-trending section of the
Almus Fault Zone and also with occurrence of
thrusting along the E-W-trending section to the east
of Bakimh village.
6. Conclusions
The shape, nature and general pattern of the ac-
tive border faults of the Kazova basin strongly sug-
gest that the basin is an active negative flower
structure located between two major dextral strike-
slip fault sets (Mercimekdagi-Camdere and Tokat
fault sets) of the Almus Fault Zone. The basin-
bounding faults consist of numerous active fault
segments which show a considerable amount of net
extension. The sediment fill of the Kazova basin
A. Ko$yiait/ Tectonophysics 265 (1996) 239-254
rotation and fishbone structure related to major splays of the North Anatolian
Fault Zone (NAFZ), 2 Niksar-Kargt segment of the NAFZ, 3
Fault Zone (splay), 5 Tagova-Corum Fault Zone (splay), 6 LaGin Fault Zone (splay), 7
basin.
comprises the Plio-Quaternary coarse-grained conti-
nental elastics (Kizkayasi formation) and Quaternary
coarse-grained alluvial fan and fine-grained plain
sediments. The latter rest unconformably on the an-
cient alluvial fans, suggesting that the Kazova basin
must have started to form in the early Pliocene.
The Kazova basin strikingly differs from strike-
slip basins located along the North Anatolian Fault
Zone. Most of the strike-slip basins along the North
Anatolian Fault Zone forms as: (1) pull-aparts (cf.
Burchfiel and Stewart, 1966) where there is an over-
step along the fault trace (e.g., Niksar basin, Aydm
and Nur, 1982; Tatar, 1993); (2) fault-wedge basins
(cf. Crowell, 1974), through extension near a fault
junction (e.g., Sugehri and Gijlova basins, Kqyigit,
1989, 1990; Vezirkiiprii basin, Dirik, 1991); (3)
complex pull-aparts, bounded by an active strike-slip
along one margin and a thrust fault along the other
(e.g., Geyve basin, Ko$yigit, 1988a); or (4) compos-
ite pull-aparts (cf. Aydm and Nur, 19821, formed by
the coalescence of smaller pull-apart basins (e.g.,
Merzifon-Suluova basin; Kogyigit and Rojay, 1988b;
Erzincan basin, Kosyigit and Rojay, 1992). In all
these examples, basins are bounded by master strand
faults whereas the master fault lies approximately at
the center of the Kazova basin. Moreover, basins
located within the NAFZ are formed where the
strike-slip is accompanied by divergence, as a result
of overstep in the fault trace or through extension
 E. Bozkurt, A. Kogyiait/Tectonophysics 265 (1996) 239-254 253

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