Aspects of the Butterfly Theorem

Rudolf Fritsch
Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitat Munchen

1 Basics
The object of the following study is the complete quadrangle consisting of four
points (the vertices) in the real affine plane, no three on a line, and the six
lines (the sides) connecting each pair of vertices. Given a side connecting any
two vertices there is an opposite side connecting the remaining two. We refer
to a given side and the corresponding opposite side as a pair of opposite sides.
Even though there is now no distinction between the sides and diagonals of the
quadrangle, the term diagonal point will designate the intersection of a pair of
opposite sides. According to the Fano property, a complete quadrangle in the
real affine plane has at least one proper diagonal point since there are three
pairs of opposite sides, one has three diagonal points from which two might be
improper. In the main sections of this paper, the classification of the complete
quadrangles by properties of the diagonal points is needed and will be used in
the following form:

1. The class of convex quadrangles consists of all quadrangles with a (unique)

diagonal point which is an interior point of both sides intersecting in that
point. The terminology reflects the fact that in this case the convex hull
of the vertices is a convex quadrangle; the distinguished diagonal point is
an interior point of this convex set and will be referred to as the interior
diagonal point of the quadrangle. The class of convex quadrangles has
three subclasses; they are
r r r r rXX rP
Z Z bJ Z XXX Xr ZPPPr
Z Z Z ! Z A
Zb

ZJ
!Z!b ! Zb
Z ZJ ! Z Z A
r
Z
Zr r
Z
Z
Jr r!! Z
Zr
r ZAr
Z
parallelogram trapezium general convex affine kite
(a) parallelograms containing all quadrangles with two improper diagonal
points, in particular, rectangles and squares;
0 The main part of this paper was written during a stay at the Kaliningrad State University

which I thank for hospitality. Thanks also to Roland Eddy and Chris Fisher for careful reading
and improvement of the English text.

1
 (b) proper trapezia containing all quadrangles with one improper diago-
nal point; and
(c) general convex quadrangles consisting of all convex quadrangles with
no improper diagonal point. Within this subclass, the subsubclass of
(convex) affine kites where one side (a bisector) bisects its opposite
side, deserves special attention. Note that a trapezium which is an
affine kite is a parallelogram.
2. The class of nonconvex quadrangles consists of all quadrangles with three
proper diagonal points such that each of them is an interior point of one
of the sides intersecting there and an exterior point of the other. In this
case, the convex hull of the vertices is a triangle and one vertex is an
interior point of this triangle; this vertex will be called the interior vertex
of the nonconvex quadrangle. Furthermore, the subclass of nonconvex
affine kites quadrangles has the notable property that such a quadrangle
may have one or three side bisectors. In the latter case, the interior vertex
is the centroid of the triangle formed by the other three vertices.1
r r r
Z
J Z
A AZZ
Z Z
J
JrZ A
A..r. Z A Z .c
..c
HH Z H ...
H Z .. ....
.... ...A .... ....Z
. .A
... r
HZ
...
H Z ..P
....
.
... P Z
HZ ...
H Z PP
Z

.
r
H
Zr
H r

.
.
...
c HH
Zr r
...
..c PZr
P
general nonconvex one bisector three bisectors
This general (affine) point of view will be essential in Sections 4, 5 and 6 of
this paper. The following two sections deal with some known results surrounding
the Butterfly Theorem and are based on the usual Euclidean plane.

2 The Butterfly Theorems of the 19th Century

Coxeter and Greitzer [6] trace the Butterfly Theorem back to a paper published
in 1815 by William Horner (17861837), the namesake of the Horner scheme,
for evaluating polynomials [34]. Because of the lack of access to the original
version, we state the theorem in a form similar to that given in [6].
Theorem 1 (Butterfly Theorem) Through the midpoint M of a chord [P Q]
of a circle K, two chords [AB] and [CD] are drawn with A and C on the same
side of the line P Q2 . If chords [AD] and [BC] meet [P Q] at points X and Y ,
then M is the midpoint of the segment [XY ].

1 When one considers a quadrangle to be an ordered quadruple of points (with the four

sides defined as the segments joining consecutive points) one has three main classes: convex,
concave and crossed quadrangles, [27]; from our point of view there is no difference between
convex and crossed quadrangles
2 The assumption A and C on the same side of the line P Q is not explicitly formulated

in the statement of the Butterfly Theorem in [6], but implicitly used in the proof. The case
A and C on different sides of the line P Q is given there as a problem for the reader.

2
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This theorem has gained a lot of interest in the past, in particular, in the last
quarter of the 20th century, see the list of references, in particular [1], and for
an Einstein-like treatment [16], [22]. It is interesting to look at it from the point
of view of real projective geometry, but this will not be done here. A variety of
proofs can even be found on the internet [31] where one can also see the nice
demonstration on page [32]. Here is a proof using complex numbers that I have
not found in any reference. Such a proof is appropriate for theorems in plane
Euclidean geometry whenever a circle plays an essential role. This circle will be
taken as the unit circle in the Gaussian plane.
Proof of the Butterfly Theorem. Without loss of generality one can assume the
circle K to be the unit circle of a Gaussian plane and the line P Q parallel to the
real axis. Thus, the coordinates a, b, c, d of the points A, B, C and D satisfy
the relations
1 1 1 1
a = , b = , c = , d =
a b c d
while the coordinate m of M is purely imaginary, ie,

m = m

with the line P Q described by the equation

z z = 2m .

In general, the line connecting two points R and S with the coordinates r and
s has the equation [18]

(r s) z + (s r) z = r s r s .

This can be seen by taking Z as an arbitrary point on the line RS and noting

that the vector RZ is a scalar multiple of the vector RS. Thus the quotient
(z r) : (s r) must be real, and so,
zr z r
= ,
sr s r
which is equivalent to the former equation. If R and S belong to the unit circle,
then the righthand side of the latter equation reduces to
r s z s
,
rs

3
which yields the simple form

z + r s z = r + s

as the equation of the connecting line. Since the point M belongs to the lines
AB and CD, one has
mabm=a+b
and
m c d m = c + d,
which gives
ma mc
b= , d= .
1+am 1+cm
Note that the above denominators do not vanish since
1
1 + a m = 0 m = m = = a m = a,
a
which is impossible because A K and M 6 K. This allows one to compute
the coordinates x and y of the points X AD P Q and Y BC P Q to be

m + 2am2 acm c + a m + 2cm2 acm a + c

x= , y=
1 + (a + c)m ac 1 + (a + c)m ac

in view of the fact that x = x 2m, y = y 2m. The denominators 1 + ad

and 1 + bc cannot be zero: multiplying 1 + ad = 0 by a yields a = d implies
AD k P Q, which is impossible, since the points A and D lie on different sides
of the line P Q by assumption. One can now compute
x+y
= m,
2
which is the desired result.
This computational proof has the following advantages over the geometric
proof in [6].

1. It is really easy to remember which, in our opinion fails to be true for the
latter (although the authors claim that their proof is easily remembered.
2. It points out the role of the condition that the points A and C lie on the
same side of the line P Q: the lines AD and P Q are not parallel. Therefore,
one can interchange the labelling of the points C and D, as long as the
lines AC and P Q are not parallel, without any change of the argument.
That means that M is not only the midpoint of the segment [XY ] but
also of the segment [V W ], where V and W denote the intersections of the
line P Q with the lines AC and BD respectively.

4
 Aq.................. ... Cq
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This confirms the following remark by H. Lenz in [15, p. 46]:

. . . the arguments of synthetic geometry require, quite often, the
careful discussion of many exceptions. Thus one can understand
why some mathematicians refuse synthetic methods on principle
and work only with the algebraic representation . . . Sometimes
one can find synthetic proofs shorter and more elegant than the
algebraic but this needs luck.
3. The coordinates of the points P and Q dont appear in the proof. It
suffices to know that the point M is the foot of the line perpendicular to
the line P Q drawn from the center of the circle. So one can translate the
point M and the line P Q almost arbitrarily along this perpendicular line
without changing the statement of the theorem. The only problems which
might occur are caused again by vanishing denominators like 1 + a m = 0
implying M K. In this case, the two chords would have a common
endpoint and ABCD would not be a quadrangle, while the hypotheses of
the Butterfly Theorem in the given form imply that the points A, B, C,
D are the vertices of a complete quadrangle.

Thus, our proof yields more than the original Butterfly Theorem by estab-
lishing the following

Theorem 2 Given a complete cyclic quadrangle and a line g not parallel to any
side of the quadrangle. If one diagonal point of the quadrangle is the foot M of
the line perpendicular to g through the center of the circumcircle, then the two
other pairs of opposite sides cut the line g in equal distances from the point M .

V..b ...
Xb Mq Yb Wb
...... ........ ....
........ ........ ........ .. .. ........
........ ........ ........ ... ...... ......
.. ........
........ ........
........ ................ .... ....... .......Aq .. ........
Cq
......................................................... ...... .
.......
..... . ............................................... ........
...... ... ......... ..... .......... ........
..... .. ............ .........
..... ..... ...... ..................................
........
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...
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...
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......
....
qD ................
..............
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..... .................................
.......................... q ..
.
..
.......
... Bq ...
...
... ...
... ...
... ...
... ...
....
..... ...
.....
..... ..
...... K .....
....... ......
........... .......
................................

5
 Just for fun, note the special case of this theorem if M is the center of
the circle. Then, by Thales theorem, the quadrangle under consideration is a
rectangle and, the other way around, any diameter of the the circle may serve
as the line g.

.......
................ .......................
........ ......
......
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.....
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.
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................ C
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W
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... D ...................
................... ......... ..........
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..... ......................
...
q
......
.......
......... .......
...... B
........................................

The following variation of the Butterfly Theorem is taken from [12, p. 78]
which gives credit to an 1884 publication [17] by John Sturgeon Mackay (1843-
1914), the first president of the Edinburgh Mathematical Society. This society,
in contrast to other learned societies, was founded mainly by school teachers
[33].
Theorem 3 Given a complete cyclic quadrangle. If any line not parallel to a
side of the quadrangle cuts two opposite sides in two different points3 equidistant
from the center of the circumcircle, it cuts every pair of opposite sides at equal
distances from the center of the circumcircle.

W
.b ...
Tb .
Xb Yb Ub Vb
..... ... ... ......
.... ... ... . .. ...... ....
... ... ..... .......... ....... .. .....
........
.. .. ..
.. . ........ .
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.........
... ... .... .. .. .
. . ..................................... . .
C
q
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...
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...
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.
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.................... ....... . ..
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...

..... ......... ............ .. .. ... . ... ...

... ................. ... ..
. . .. .. ...... ... ...
.
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...
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K .....
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......... q
.........................................
..........
B
Proof. Again we assume the circumcircle K to be the unit circle in the
Gaussian plane with the line g parallel to the real axis described by the equation
z z = 2m. Here m, a purely imaginary number, is the coordinate of the foot
of the line perpendicular to g through the center of the circle. The vertices
of the complete quadrangle under consideration are labelled as in the original
Butterfly Theorem, as are the intersection points V , W , X, Y . In addition, we
3 Again, the assumption in two different intersection points is not formulated in [12]. But

without this assumption the statement of the theorem is evidently wrong. That would mean
that any line through a diagonal point of the complete quadrangle under consideration would
cut the two remaining pairs of opposite sides at equal distances from the circle.

6
denote by T and U , with coordinates t, u, the intersections of the line g with
the lines AB and CD respectively, and we assume T 6= U . Now, let the points
T and U be equidistant from the center of circle (the origin); this gives

t t = u u .

Since the points T and U belong to the line g, it follows that

t (t 2m) = u (u 2m),

which is equivalent to
t2 u2 = 2m (t u) .
Since T 6= U one can cancel t u and obtain t + u = 2m. From T AB and
U CD one derives
a + b + 2mab c + d + 2mcd
t= , u=
1 + ab 1 + cd
and
a + b + 2mab c + d + 2mcd
+ = 2m .
1 + ab 1 + cd
The latter equation is equivalent to the equation

a + b + c + d + abcd(a + b + c + d + 2m) = 2m

which is invariant under permutations of a, b, c, d and, thus, it is also equivalent

to x + y = 2m as well as to v + w = 2m. From these one obtains

x x = x (x 2m) = x (y) = y (x) = y (y 2m) = y y

and, analogously, v v = w w, which proves the theorem.

Remarks 1. The unmotivated computation in the ultimate step of the
preceding proof could be replaced by noting that x + y = 2m means that the
points X and Y are equidistant from the point M and thus, by Pythagoras
Theorem, from the origin.
2. The six points T , U , V , W , X, Y form a quadrangular set in the sense
of [26, p. 49] and [5, p. 20], denoted by Q(T V X, U W Y ) and (T U )(V W )(XY )
respectively. Note that also the five points M , V , W , X, Y in Theorem 2
constitute a quadrangular set Q(M V X, M W Y ) or (M M )(V W )(XY ). A quad-
rangular set of four points cannot appear in this situation; it would require a
further diagonal point on the line g. But, according to Jungius Polar Theorem
[12, Nr. 139], the diagonal points different from the diagonal point M belong
to the polar of M which is parallel to the line g but different from g; so none of
them can lie on the line g.

7
3 Generalizations of the 21st Century
In this section, the results of [28], [3], [29], [4], and [25] are recalled4 . These
papers inspired the considerations presented in the following sections of this
paper.
In [28] a version of Mackays theorem (Theorem 3) is presented which con-
tains Theorem 2 as a special case.
Theorem 4 Given a complete cyclic quadrangle and a line g not parallel to a
side of the quadrangle. If the line g cuts a pair of opposite sides in two points
equidistant from the foot M of the line perpendicular to it through the center of
the circumcircle, then it cuts the other pairs of opposite sides at equal distances
from the point M .

W T XMb Y U V
.... ... .....
...
...
... ...... ...
..... ..
.. .. .......
. ...... ..
... ........ .
..... ........ ........
.....
...
...
.. .
. C
q
.
.
... .................................... ........
...
..... ... .............................................................................
...
..... Aq .
...
. .
...............
............. .... .........
... ...
...
......
.....
.....
... ........ ... ........ ... ....
..... ......... ................
. ...
...
...
...
...
.................... ..... .
... ...
........ q
..... .............. ..... ... ...
...
D.. ......
... .......
...
...
...
.
...
...
...
...
...
...
.....
.....
.....
.....
...
q
...
....
...
...
..
.
..
... ..... ... .
... ..
...... .... ... .
.
... .
.. . .
.
... ..... . . .
... ..... ..... .... ...
... ..... .. .. ...
..... ... ...
... ...
.....
.....
..... .. ..
..... ... ..
..... .. .. K ....
....
...... .......... .........
.......
......... q
.......................................
.......... .......
.
B
The proof of this theorem can be easily extracted from our proof of Theorem
3.
A first generalization to conics can be found in [3] which is reproduced
without proof.
Theorem 5 Given a complete quadrangle inscribed in a conic and a line g not
parallel to a side of the quadrangle but perpendicular at a point M to an axis of
the conic. If g cuts one pair of opposite sides in two points equidistant from M
then it cuts the other pairs of opposite sides at equal distances from the point
M.
4 It seems that the Zagreb mathematicians Vladimir Volenec and Zvonko Cerin tried to

surpass each other with generalizations of the Butterfly Theorem.

8
 ..
bX
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..... . ..... .. . .
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.........................................
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...........................
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.. .....
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.. bT ........
...
..
...
..
...
bY ..

The next step for a generalization needs the notion of the conjugate diameter
of a line with respect to a conic. Recall the definitions and the basic properties
of a conic in the real affine plane:

A line is called a diameter in the case of a central conic if it passes

through the center and in the case of a parabola if it is parallel to
the axis.
The affine hull of the locus of the midpoints of all chords parallel
a line g is a diameter, the conjugate diameter of the line g;
An asymptote of a hyperbola is considered to be selfconjugate, ie,
conjugate to itself.

If the conic is
an ellipse, every line g has a conjugate diameter d and is parallel
to the tangents at the intersection points of the diameter d and the
ellipse;
........ ........
........
........
, ........
........
q,
.... ........
... ........
....................................... ........
............. ........ ........
.
...
..........
.. ........
............ , ............
..
.... .......
........
........
........
....
. ,........
........
... . .
....... ........

,q
........ .
.... ........
... ........ ........ ........
........ ... . ........
... ........ ........
...
..... , d
.....
...
.
.
. ........
........
........
........
g
,q
...... .. . ........
........ .......... ........
........
.............. ..
.............................. ....... ....

a parabola, a line g has the conjugate diameter d if and only if

it is parallel to the tangent at the intersection point of d and the
parabola;

9
 ........ ........ ..........
................................................................. ...........
.......
......
........ ......................
.
d ....... ......

...
g ... ....... ..
.
..
.
... . ........
..........
...........
.......
..... ...........
................
.............
. .....................
.
.......
.....................
..

a hyperbola, a line g different from the asymptoptes has a conju-

gate diameter d if it is not parallel to an asymptote; if the diameter
parallel to such a line g does not meet the hyperbola then g is par-
allel to the tangents at the intersection points of the diameter d and
the hyperbola.

g
g
d
d

The version of a generalized butterfly theorem stated and proved in [29] is

Theorem 6 Given a complete quadrangle inscribed in a conic and a line g not
parallel to a side of the quadrangle but conjugate to a diameter of the conic.
If g cuts a pair of opposite sides in two points equidistant from the point of
intersection M of the line g with the conjugate diameter, then it cuts the other
pairs of opposite sides at equal distances from the point M .
........
........
bV
........
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.
..
.................................... ,. . ...... ...... ....... .... ........ .......... ...... ..
. ..
. ... .... ... ..... .. . . .. ..
B
.. . ..
.
..
................... ........ ........ . ...
.... ........ .....
.. . .....
... ... .. ....

D .....
.....
...... , ..
.....
.....
...

,
.......
........
..........
..........
........
.....
.
. .

, ..................
........................................
,
,

An interesting degenerate case has been overlooked in the proof of the pre-
ceding theorem in [29]. If the conic is a hyperbola and the line g an asymptote
then the line g itself is the diameter appearing in the statement of the theorem
and every point on the line g may serve as point M . It is worthwhile to state
and prove this special case separately.

10
Theorem 7 If a complete quadrangle is inscribed in a hyperbola, the three pairs
of opposite sides cut any asymptote h in segments with the same midpoint.

B h

aa
A
a
q
a
Ca a
D

Proof. In [29], the following pair of functions

1
() = , () = 2
2 1 1
is given as a useful parametric representation of a hyperbola. A quadrangle
inscribed to the hyperbola is given by four different values A , B , C , and D
for the parameter while the equation
1
xy+ =0
2
describes an asymptote g. Furthermore, the midpoint of the segment cut from
g by the lines AB and CD has the coordinates

4 4 3 3 + 2 2 1 3 4 4 3 3 + 2 2 1
1 , ,
4 (4 3 + 2 1 + 0 ) 2 4 (4 3 + 2 1 + 0 )

where i denotes the elementary symmetric functions of the variables A , B ,

C , and D of degree i. From the symmetry of these coordinates the claim
follows.

In [25], the point of view is slightly different and indicates the direction of the
following developments in this paper. The main result of [25] is here reproduced
without proof.

Theorem 8 Given a complete cyclic quadrangle there is an infinite number of

points which obey the conditions of Theorem 4. All these points are located on
the equilateral hyperbola containing the diagonal points of the quadrangle and
the center of the circumcircle.

11
 1

0.5

1 0.5 0 0.5 1

0.5

Indeed, the hyperbola is the locus of the points M in Theorem 4 which will
be clear later on.

4 Butterfly points and lines

Consider a complete quadrangle Q = ABCD and an arbitrary line g. This line
is parallel to at most two sides of the quadrangle and, if parallel to two of them,
then those two form a pair of opposite sides. Thus, the line g is cut at least by
two pairs of opposite sides in line segments. The line g is called a butterfly line
(of the quadrangle Q) if two of these segments have the same midpoint which,
in turn, is called a butterfly point of the quadrangle Q associated with the line
g. Recall Theorem 1 in [4]:

Theorem 9 If a butterfly line is cut by all three pairs of opposite sides in honest
line segments, then the midpoints of all three segments coincide.

Proof. The proof in [4] uses complex numbers as coordinates. But the claim
is an easy consequence of basic properties of quadrangular sets. The three pairs
of endpoints of the line segments under consideration are three pairs of a unique
involution [5, Theorems 5.32 and 5.33]. If two pairs have the same midpoint,
this involution is in affine terms the reflection in this midpoint. Thus, the
points of the third pair are interchanged by this reflection and so they have the
same midpoint.
Indeed, another proof of this fact is implicitly contained here in the subse-
quent developments. Note that all the sides of the quadrangle Q are butterfly
lines and the midpoints of the sides are the associated butterfly points.
In the following discussion, butterfly points and lines will be studied by the
means of analytic geometry. Since, the butterfly property of a point or a line
is invariant under affine transformations, one can restrict the considerations
to a special affine coordinate system. Given a quadrangle Q, choose a proper
diagonal point O and a labelling A, B, C, and D of the vertices such that O is
the intersection point of the lines AC and BD. It should be noted that, later
on, a more specific choice of the diagonal point and the labelling of the vertices
will be useful. If one now chooses the point O as origin of the coordinate system

12
and the points A and B as the unit points on the x- and y-axis respectively, the
vertices have the coordinates of the form

A = (1, 0) , B = (0, 1) , C = (c, 0) , D = (d, 0)

with c, d 6= 0, 1.
2

1 B
!! @
C!! @A
4 e
2 1 2
e
e
2
e
eD
4

Given a line g the intersection points with the sides of the quadrangle are
labelled as in Section 2, but now affine coordinates are used. For future com-
putations the following observation is helpful.

Theorem 10 Given a quadrangle, a line parallel to a side but different from it

can be a butterfly line only if the side is parallel to its opposite side.

Proof. In our coordinate system, it will be shown that no line x = k with k 6= 0

is a butterfly line. Such a line g is cut only by the pairs (AB, CD) and (BC, DA)
in segments, thus being a butterfly line requires that the midpoints of these two
segments coincide. The coordinates of T AB g, Y BC g, U CD g,
and X DA g are computed as
k kd
T = (k, 1 k) , Y = (k, 1 ) , U = (k, d ) , X = (k, d (1 k))
c c
while the midpoints of the segments [T, U ] and [X, Y ] are

c(1 + d) k(c + d) c(1 + d) k(1 + cd)
k, , k, .
2c 2c

They agree only for k(c + d) = k(1 + cd), ie, k(1 c)(1 d) = 0; this, according
to the assumptions on the numbers c and d, implies k = 0, in which case the
line is the y-axis.

As a consequence of the preceding theorem, the search for butterfly lines

using the chosen coordinate system can be restricted to lines which can be
represented in the form
y = m x + t, (1)
where m and t are arbitrary real numbers. For these lines the y-coordinates of
the midpoints of the segments under consideration are easily computed. Fur-
thermore, if the labelling of the endpoints of the segments is taken as in Theorem

13
3, then one obtains
c(1 + d) m2 + ((c + d) t + d (1 + c)) m + 2d t
[T U ] : ,
2(1 + m) (d + c m)

t
[V W ] : ,
2

c(1 + d) m2 + ((1 + c d) t + d (1 + c)) m + 2d t

[XY ] : ,
2(1 + c m) (d + m)
where the midpoints exist if the denominators dont vanish. From this, one
easily derives again Theorem 9 (ie, Theorem 1 of [4]) and the necessary and
sufficient condition
c (t 1 d) m2 d (1 + c) m d t = 0 (2)
for a line (1) to be a butterfly line different from the y-axis.

Next we turn our attention to the butterfly points. In addition to the mid-
points of the sides, there are other remarkable points of the quadrangle which
are butterfly points.
Theorem 11 A proper diagonal point O of a complete quadrangle is a butterfly
point of the quadrangle. If the quadrangle is not a parallelogram, then there is
exactly one butterfly line whose associated butterfly point is the point O.
Proof. We again use our coordinate system with the diagonal point O as origin.
The quadrangle is a parallelogram if and only if c = d = 1. Setting t = 0 in
equation (2), one obtains
c (1 + d) m2 + d (1 + c) m = 0 .
In the case of a parallelogram, the equation does not pose a condition on the
slope m of a butterfly line and, thus, every line through origin is a butterfly line
with the origin as associated butterfly point.
If d = 1 6= c then m = 0 and thus, the x-axis is a butterfly line. However,
the associated butterfly point has the coordinates

1+c
,0 ,
2
and is different from the origin, so the y-axis is the only butterfly line with the
origin as associated butterfly point.
If both parameters c and d are different from 1, then the equation for the
slope m has the roots 0 and
d (1 + c)
,
c (1 + d)
giving rise to two butterfly lines, the x-axis and another one which has the origin
as associated butterfly point.
The second part of the previous statement holds in a more general form.

14
Theorem 12 If the point P is a butterfly point of the quadrangle Q then it is
contained in exactly one butterfly line of the quadrangle passing through P except
when the quadrangle Q is a parallelogram and P is its only proper diagonal point.
Proof. If the point P = (xo , yo ) does not lie on the axes of the coordinate
system, the line meeting the axes in the points (2xo , 0) and (0, 2yo ) is the only
candidate for a butterfly line passing through this point.
By symmetry, one can restrict the argument to butterfly points on the x-
axis. With respect to the previous lemma, one can also assume the point under
consideration to be different from the origin, ie, P = (xo , 0) with xo 6= 0. The
corresponding butterfly line cant be parallel to the y-axis so it must have an
equation of the form y = mx + t with t = m xo . If the slope of such a
butterfly line does not vanish, then the associated butterfly point cant lie on
a coordinate axis. It follows that the slope must be zero, and the only possible
butterfly line is the x-axis. Note also that this implies xo = (1 + c)/2.

In the following, a special choice of the origin and a more careful labelling
of the vertices will be used. In particular, the origin is taken as the interior
diagonal point in the case of a convex quadrangle, and as an interior point of
the side [BD] in the nonconvex case. Moreover, the following affinely invariant
rules should be satisfied
O AC [BD],
in the case of a convex quadrangle
|OB| |OA|
1,
|OD| |OC|

in the case nonconvex quadrangle

|OB| |OA|
1, 1.
|OD| |OC|

The parameters c and d then obey the following restrictions:

c = d = 1 for a parallelogram,
c = d < 1 for a proper trapezium,
d < c 1 for a general convex quadrangle, in particular,
d < c = 1 for a convex bisecting quadrangle,
c > 1 and d 1 for a nonconvex quadrangle, in particular,
c > 1 and d = 1 for a nonconvex affine kite quadrangle and
c = 3 and d = 1 for the nonconvex quadrangle whose interior vertex is
the centroid of the triangle formed by the other vertices.

15
Remark. From the Euclidean point of view the picture for the proper trapez-
ium (c = d < 1) shows an isosceles trapezium. Sometimes it is necessary to
get rid of the additional symmetry due to the isosceles property. Then in
contrast to the conventions before a proper trapezium will be characterized
by
1
1 < c = < 0;
d
note that one still has d < c, 1 by the lack of c < 1.

5 The locus of butterfly points

The section starts out by recalling two well-known theorems from elementary
geometry. The first, by Pierre Varignon (1654-1772), states that the midpoints
of two pairs of opposite sides of a quadrangle form a parallelogram whose sides
are parallel to the remaining pair of opposite sides. The second, formulated by
Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) in a more general form, states that the vertices of a
hexagon with parallel opposite sides belong to a conic. It follows from these
theorems that the midpoints of the six sides of a complete quadrangle belong
to a conic that also contains the diagonal points; moreover, the center of this
conic is the vertex centroid of the quadrangle. This midpoint conic is the locus
of the centers of the conics passing through all vertices of the quadrangle.
It is a hyperbola in the case of a general convex quadrangle; one branch
contains the centers of the circumscribed ellipses, the other the centers of
the circumscribed hyperbolas, while the points at infinity belong to the
axes of the circumscribed parabolas.

It degenerates to a pair of intersecting lines for trapezia.

If the quadrangle is a proper trapezium one line, g say, is the line
midway between the parallel sides, the other, h, connects the mid-
points of the parallel sides. The lines supporting the parallel sides
form a degenerate circumscribed conic with all points of the mid-
line g as centers. The line h is divided by g into two rays. The
ray which meets the smaller of the parallel sides consists of the cen-
ters of the circumscribing hyperbolas, the other of the centers of the
circumscribing ellipses.
If the quadrangle is a parallelogram, then the midpoint conic consists
of the midlines; their intersection point, the proper diagonal point, is
the center of many circumscribed ellipses and hyperbolas, the other
points on the midlines are centers of the degenerate conics consisting
of the pairs of parallel lines which support the pairs of parallel sides.
In the nonconvex case the midpoint conic is an ellipse; all circumscribed
conics are hyperbolas.

16
 B B
C A C
A

D D
The center of the midpoint conic belongs to a side if and only if this side is
a bisector. If there are three bisectors (which is only possible for a nonconvex
quadrangle) then the interior vertex is the center and the midpoint conic is the
Steiner ellipse inscribed in the triangle formed by the three other vertices.
Returning for a moment to the Euclidean plane, we note that the equation
of the locus describes a circle if and only if the quadrangle is orthocentric. In
this case, the circle is the familiar 9-point (or Feuerbach) circle of the convex
hull and the diagonal points are the feet of the altitudes.
Remark. From the point of view of dynamical geometry if one has a dynamical
process with transforms a hyperbola into an ellipse, one might expect a parabola
at the transition point. Here moving the point C along the line AC from outside
the triangle ABD C and A on different sides of the line BD inside one
gets a pair of parallel lines if C is located on the line BD.

Theorem 13 The locus of the butterfly points of a complete quadrangle is its

midpoint conic.

Proof. The equation for the desired locus is obtained by eliminating the
slope m and the axis segment t from the equations (2) and
t
y =mx+t= .
2
This yields
2 2
1+c 1+d 1
d x c y = (c d 1) (c d).
4 4 16

Thus, the butterfly points not on the y-axis satisfy this equation as do the
butterfly points on the y-axis, the origin and the point (0, (d + 1)/2). Clearly,
the set of butterfly points is contained in the conic described by this equation.
It remains to show that every point of this conic is a butterfly point. This
follows immediately for the two points of intersection of the conic with the y-
axis. On the other hand, for a point (xo , yo ) on the conic but not on the y-axis

17
set
yo
m= , t = 2 yo
xo
in order to obtain a butterfly line corresponding to (xo , yo ).
Note that it does not make sense to ask for the main axes of this conic
because these are not invariant under affine transformations. But the equation
shows that the pair of opposite sides meeting in the origin is parallel to a pair
of conjugate diameters. Since we are interested in affine properties, each proper
diagonal point can be taken in turn as the origin, and therefor each pair of
non-parallel opposite sides is parallel to a pair of conjugate diameters.
If the quadrangle is a proper trapezium, then the vertex centroid belongs
to the middle parallel and the conic is a degenerated hyperbola composed of
middle parallel and the line connecting the two proper diagonal points. In
the case of a parallelogram, one has the degenerate conic consisting of the two
middle parallels which could be seen immediately without any computation.
Moreover, Theorem 4 of [25] states that, in the case of a cyclic quadrangle,
the locus of butterfly points coincides with the locus of the centers of all central
conics passing through the vertices of the quadrangle. This pencil of conics is,
in the coordinate system considered here, given by the equation

d x2 + d x y + c y 2 d (c + 1) x c (d + 1) y + c d = 0 (3)

with R , while the conic

2 2
c+1 d+1 1
d x c y = (c + d + 2) (c d) .
4 4 16

is locus of the centers. From the Euclidean point of view, one has a cyclic
quadrangle if c = d which is an isosceles trapezium. In this case the locus of the
butterfly points and the locus of the centers of the circumscribed central conics
agree, in fact, they form the degenerate conic consisting of the angular bisector
of the first and third quadrant and the middle parallel line of the trapezium.

6 Sets of butterfly lines

We now describe the set of butterfly lines for arbitrary quadrangles, which is
the principal aim of this paper.
According to equation (2), the set of butterfly lines envelops an algebraic
curve C of class 3. Our main result is the following
Theorem 14 The algebraic curve C enveloped by the set of butterfly lines of a
quadrangle is
1. for a parallelogram, the union of three pencils of lines determined by the
diagonal points, one proper and two improper;

18
2. for a proper trapezium, the union of the parabola touching all four non-
parallel sides with the pencil of lines determined by the improper pencil
point
B

C A

(The picture shows the case with the vertices given in Section 4, specialized to
c = 0.5, d = 2 see the remark at the end of Section 4; the parabola is
given by the equation

16x2 + 16xy + y 2 16x + 8y + 4);

3. for the case of a general convex quadrangle, an irreducible rational quartic

with one cusp and the line at infinity as a double tangent;
B
C A

19
 4. for the case of a nonconvex quadrangle, an irreducible rational quartic with
three cusps not meeting the line at infinity in real points

Proof. The coordinate system described previously is used.

Case 1: The quadrangle is a parallelogram (c = d = 1) in which case the
defining equation (2) reduces to

t (1 m) (1 + m) = 0

The curve thus decomposes into three pencils of lines determined by the three
diagonal points (one proper and two improper). These comprise the pencil of all
lines through the center of symmetry of parallelogram (the origin, where t = 0),
the pencil of all lines parallel to one pair of parallel opposite sides (lines with
slope 1 parallel to the angle bisector of the first and third quadrants), and
the pencil of lines parallel to the other pair of parallel opposite sides (lines with
slope 1 parallel to the angle bisector of the second and fourth quadrants).
Case 2: The quadrangle is a proper trapezium. Assume see the remark at the
end of section 4 cd = 1, c 6= 1, which gives more insight in the geometric
situation. Now the defining equation reduces to

(1 + c m) ((c (t 1) 1) m t) = 0 .

In this case, the curve decomposes into the pencil of lines through the improper
diagonal point (with slope 1/c), and the parabola with the point form

(x y)2 (1 + c) (2 x + 2 y 1 c) = 0 .

Among the tangents to this parabola, there are the midline and the sides through
the proper diagonal points of the trapezium. The tangency point of a side is
obtained by reflecting the diagonal point on this side in the sides midpoint.
Since the latter is the butterfly point associated with the side, one finds that,
in general for a butterfly line, the associated butterfly point and the point
where it touches the enveloping curve are different. In particular, the chord of
the parabola determined by the tangency points on a pair of opposite sides is

20
parallel to the parallel sides of the trapezium; thus the corresponding conjugate
diameter intersects the midline in the point of tangency.5
Case 3: In the case of a general convex or a nonconvex quadrangle, the given
line form of the curve C is irreducible. Its point form, obtained as described in
[2], is the equation

f (x, y) = 4 (dx2 cy 2 )2
4 px (3 x2 3 px + p2 ) d2 4 qy (3 y 2 3 qy + q 2 ) c2
cd (qx + py pq) (20 xy qx py + pq) = 0,

where p = c + 1, q = d + 1. Thus, C is an irreducible quartic. From this

representation of the curve C the claims concerning its relation to the line at
infinity in parts 3 and 4 of the theorem are immediately clear. In the case
of a general
p convex quadrangle the curve C touches the line at infinity at the
points ( c/d, 1, 0) while in the case of a nonconvex quadrangle the equation
dx2 cy 2 = 0 fails to have a nontrivial real root.
A possible rational parametrization of this curve is given by the pair of
functions
d2 (p(d2 + c(d 1)2 ) + 2 cq(d 1))
() = ,
(d2 c(d 1)2 )2

c(d 1)2 (q(d2 + c(d 1)2 ) + 2 dp(d 1))

() = ,
(d2 c(d 1)2 )2

although there may be a simpler one. Next, one has to look for the singular
points of the quartic C. According to the general theory of algebraic curves, a
quartic has at most three singular points. The singular points are obtained as
commons zeros of the function f and its partial derivatives fx , fy .
A simple special case is that of the bisecting quadrangles where, in the convex
case (d < 1 and p = 0), the singular points can be easily computed as

3q 3d q
(0, q) , i , .
8d 8

For the nonconvex case (c > 1, q = 0), there are three real singular points of
the form !
p 3p 3c
(p, 0) , ,
8 8c
obtained by a symmetry argument.
In the convex case, the case of an affine kite, there is only one bisector which
contains the single cusp of the curve C.
5 Note as an aside that all five tangency points are easily to obtain for any trapezium; thus

any dynamical geometry software producing a conic from five points allows one to visualize
this parabola.

21
 B
C A

Here is a picture of the complete curve after a projective transformation

transforming the line at infinity u into a proper line.
C A

u D

B
For nonconvex, one may have one or three bisectors furthermore, a side
contains a cusp if and only if it is a bisector.

C
A

Now, general convex and nonconvex quadrangles without bisectors will be

22
considered with the main role in the discussion being played by the polynomial

g(y) = 64 cy 3 48 cqy 2 + 3 9 dp2 5 cq 2 y cq 3 .
This polynomial and its derivative with respect to y have greatest common
divisor 1, so it has three different roots, y1 , y2 , y3 say. Consider, next, the three
points (xi , yi ), where
p (q yi )
xi =
8 yi + q
for i = 1, 2, 3. Since, these points represent all singular points of the curve
C, the existence of three singular points is verified. Since the determinant of
the Hessian matrix of the function f vanishes at these singular points, they are
cusps.
It remains to decide if these singularities are real or complex. Since the
polynomial g has order 3, it has at least one real root, and the corresponding
singular point is real.
Observe under the given assumptions that the function g has two extrema
such that the product of their ordinates is positive in the convex case and
negative in the nonconvex case. This proves the claim.
In the picture showing the general convex case in the statement of the pre-
ceding theorem, Case 2, it looks as if the cusp might belong to a side of the
quadrangle; but the following enlargement of the neighborhood of the cusp
shows that this is not the case.
0.9

0.95

1.05

1.1
0 0.02 0.04 0.06

In the discussion of Case 2 of the previous proof, it was mentioned how, when
a butterfly line is a tangent to the parabola, the associated butterfly point is
related to the point where the line touches the parabola. This turns out to be
true in a more general version.
Theorem 15 If Q is a general convex or a nonconvex complete quadrangle and
g a butterfly line of it, then there is exactly one hyperbola circumscribing the
quadrangle for which g is an asymptote. The point where the line g touches
the curve C of the preceding theorem is obtained by reflecting the center of this
hyperbola in the butterfly point associated to the butterfly line g.

23
 Proof. The previously described coordinates will be used for the vertices of
the quadrangle under consideration. Since the claim is trivial if the line g is the
y-axis, we can restrict our attention to lines g given by an equation of the form
y = mx + t. The hyperbola in question then has the equation

mdx2 xyd m2 xyc + mcy 2 mdpx mcqy + dmc,

while its center is the point

cm(cqm2 + 2 dpm + dq) dm(cpm2 + 2 cqm + dp)
, ,
(cm2 d)2 (cm2 d)2
and the point where g touches the curve C has the coordinates

d(cpm2 + 2 cqm + dp) cm2 (cqm2 + 2 dpm + dq)
, .
(cm2 d)2 (cm2 d)2

Adding the second coordinates one obtains using equation (2)

m(cqm + dp)
= t,
cm2 d
which proves the claim, since the second coordinate of the butterfly point on
the line g is t/2.

The section will close with a curious observation. The results presented in
the Section 3 ask for some reversion of the argument, but, surprisingly, the
following holds true.

Theorem 16 Let Q be a quadrangle and g a butterfly line for this quadran-

gle. Then the butterfly point associated with g is the intersection of g with its
conjugate diameter, where the conjugate is taken with respect to any conic K
circumscribing the quadrangle Q.

Proof. We use equation (3) for the pencil of conics circumscribing the quad-
rangle Q. Consider a butterfly line g with the equation y = mx + t. Since the
associated butterfly point is the midpoint of the segment cut from the line g by
such a conic, it belongs to the diameter conjugate to the line g.

7 The set of butterfly lines in the space of lines

The aim of this section is to describe the set of butterfly lines of a quadrangle
Q = ABCD considered as the set of lines given by equation (2) plus the
y-axis and the line at infinity in the space of lines which is defined as usual
as the Grassmann manifold G2 (R3 ). It is the real projective plane for whose
points homogeneous coordinates (g, h, k) are chosen such that the line at infinity
is represented by (0,0,1), the line AC, (ie, the x-axis), by (0,1,0), the line BD,
(ie, the y-axis), by (1,0,0) and the line AB by (-1,-1,1). The pencil of the lines

24
through the origin is the set {(g, h, 0)} which will serve as the line at infinity of
the projective plane G2 (R3 ). Then the set of butterfly lines of the quadrangle
Q is the the set of points of the cubic B given by the equation

c(1 + d)g 2 h + cg 2 k d(1 + c)gh2 dkh2 = 0. (4)

Theorem 17 1. The cubic B decomposes into three different lines if the

quadrangle Q is a parallelogram. Taking c = d = 1 and the affine
picture with k = 0 as line at infinity, one obtains the angular bisectors
of the quadrants and the line at infinity (as in the figure)
2

2 1 1 2
g

2. The cubic B decomposes into the product of a quadric and a line if the
quadrangle Q is a proper trapezium. Taking the affine picture as be-
fore, one obtains a hyperbola passing through the origin and the diameter
through the origin

c = 83 , d = 38

3. The cubic B has the line at infinity (0,0,1) as a crunode (ordinary double
point) if the quadrangle Q is general convex

c = 2, d = 3 with the unique real inflection point marked

If, moreover, the quadrangle Q is an affine kite, the affine picture is an
axial cubic with the only real inflection point being improper.

25
 c = 1, d = 43

4. The cubic B has the line at infinity (0,0,1) as an acnode (isolated point)
if the quadrangle Q is nonconvex.

c = 2, d = 10, marked acnode, three inflection points

The affine picture is the axial mixed cubic6 with one improper real in-
flection point if the quadrangle Q is moreover an affine kite;

c = 2, d = 1, marked acnode
there is no further specialization if there are three bisectors.

Proof.
1. For d = c = 1 equation (4) reduces to

(h g)(h + g)k = 0.

2. For d = c 6= 1 (and c 6= 0) equation (4) reduces to

(g h)((1 + c)gh + (g + h)k) = 0;

ie, the curve decomposes into the line B1 given by g = h and the quadric
B2 given (1 + c)gh + (g + h)k = 0. Taking k = 0 as the line at infinity and
6 In German this cubic has the flowery name Kinderhemd (childrens shirt) [9, page 164].

26
 substituting k = 1 the quadric becomes a hyperbola with the center

c c
,
1+c 1+c

belonging to the line B1 .

Here it is worthwhile to consider the alternative possibility, mentioned
at the end of Section 4, for assuring the quadrangle Q to be a proper
trapezium:
1
d = 6= 1.
c
In this case equation (4) reduces to

(cg h)((1 + c)gh + (cg + h)k) = 0;

ie, the cubic decomposes into the line B3 given by x = y and the quadric
B4 given (1 + c)gh + (g + h)k = 0. In the affine derivation the quadric
becomes again a hyperbola with the center

1 c
,
1+c 1+c

belonging to the line B3 .

3. In the remaining cases the cubic B is irreducible, and it is immediate that
(0,0,1) is a double point. The classification of singular cubics is given in
[9, page 112]. The tangents at the double point obey the equations
r
c
h= g;
d

so they are real if the parameters c and d have the same sign, ie, if the
quadrangle Q is convex. In this case there is one and only one real inflec-
tion point.
Now assume that in addition the quadrangle Q is an affine kite, that means
according to the conventions in Section 4 d < c = 1 6= d < 0.
Equation (4) reduces to

g 2 ((1 + d)h + k) + dh2 k = 0

from which one obtains the claimed symmetry. The Hessian of the cubic
is computed as

(k 2(1 + d)h)g 2 + d(1 + d)h3 + dkh2 .

Thus the real inflection point is the point (1,0,0), the improper point of
the y-axis.

27
 4. If the quadrangle Q is nonconvex the parameters c and d have different
signs and the tangents are conjugate imaginary. There are three real
inflection points. The same computations as before show the symmetry
and one improper real inflection point in the case of a bisecting nonconvex
quadrangle.
Three bisectors are obtained for c = 3 and d = 1 so that the equation of
the cubic reduces to
3g 2 + 4gh2 + h2
which does not exhibit further special properties.
Remarks. 1. If one looks at part 2 of the preceding theorem from the Euclidean
point of view, the first case discussed in the proof deals as mentioned earlier
with an isosceles trapezium, and the cubic under consideration decomposes
into an isosceles (rectangular) hyperbola and its main axis.

c = d = 2

2. Note again as in Section 5 an interesting observation from the point of

view of dynamical geometry. At the stage of a transition from the convex to the
nonconvex case one does not obtain a cubic with a cusp. Consider for example
the case c = 0. Then the cubic decomposes into the x-axis counted twice and
the line x = 1 parallel to the y-axis.

We now investigate the location of the curve of butterfly lines in the partition
of the dual plane induced by the fundamental quadrangle Q = ABCD will
be studied. The four lines corresponding to the pencils of lines through the
vertices of Q form a complete quadrilateral in the dual plane whose vertices
correspond to the sides of Q. The complement of this quadrilateral consists
of seven domains, four triangular and three quadrangular; these will be called
Q-triangles and Q-quadrangles respectively.
HH a
a aa a aa a

HH

a
a
a a a a a

HH aaaaaaaaaaaa

H
aaaaaaaaaaaa
HH aaaaaaaaaaaa
...H .
.. aaaaaaaaaaaa

. . . . . .H
......
aaaaaaaaaaaa
..
. . . . ..
............................H
.
....
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .H
.. a a a a a a a a a a a a
. .
..
.........................................................H
.
. ................................................ H
....................... .
a aaaaaaaa
..................................................... HH a aaaa
aaaaaaa a .
........................................................
H
a a aa H

28
 The three Q-quadrangles shaded in three types

The geometric meaning of these domains is given in the next theorem, which
needs an introductory explanation: The three pairs of opposite sides of a quad-
rangle meet any line (not through a vertex) in an induced quadrangular set
consisting of three pairs of an involution, assigned to the pair (Q, l) [5, Theorem
5.33], [21, page 138]. This involution (i.e. projectivity on l of period 2) [5,
Section 5.4] and is called elliptic and hyperbolic according as there are 0 or 2
fixed points.

Theorem 18 Let a quadrangle Q = ABCD and a proper line l not passing

through a vertex of the quadrangle be given. The involution assigned to the pair
(Q, l) is
elliptic if the l line belongs to Q-triangle and
hyperbolic if the l line belongs to a Q-quadrangle.
In particular, the cubic B is contained in the union of the Q-quadrangles and
their vertices.

Proof. A coordinate system as in Section 4 is chosen. Then the Q-triangles have

one vertex the x-axis or the y-axis on the line at infinity whose other points
belong the Q-quadrangles.
Since the origin in the plane of the quadrangle Q is a diagonal point of Q
and thus a fixed point of the involutions induced on the lines containing it, these
involutions are hyperbolic. This takes care of the cases where the line l passes
through the origin, ie, belongs to the line at infinity of the projective plane
G2 (R3 ).
It remains to consider lines l with coordinates (g, h, 1), ie, with coordinates
(g, h) 6= (0, 0) in the affine derivation of the projective plane obtained by taking
k = 1. The condition that the line l does not pass through a vertex of the
quadrangle Q yields the following restrictions on the coordinates (g, h):
A 6 l g + 1 6= 0
B 6 l h + 1 6= 0
C 6 lcg + 1 6= 0
D 6 ldh + 1 6= 0
Here is a picture of the decomposition of the affine plane assuming c < 0, d < 0
assuring the quadrangle Q to be convex with the Q-quadrangles shaded.

29
 a aa a aa a aa a aa a aa a aa a aa a
6 6
aaaaaaaaaaaaaaa

aaaaaaaaaaaaaaa

aaaaaaaaaaaaaaa
1 + dh < 0
aaaaaaaaaaaaaaa

aaaaaaaaaaaaaaa

a a a a a a a a D
......................................................... ?
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
6
......................................................... 0<1+h
.........................................................
.........................................................
A C
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
0
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
0 < 1 + dh
.........................................................
.............................
a aa a aa a aa a aa a aa a aa a aa ?



B aaaaaaaaaaaaaa 6

aaaaaaaaaaaaaa

aaaaaaaaaaaaaa 1+h<0

aaaaaaaaaaaaaa

aaaaaaaaaaaaaa

aaaaaaaaaaaaaa ? ?
1 + g < 0 - 0<1+g -
0 < 1 + cg - 1 + cg < 0 -
The lines are labelled by the centers of the corresponding pencils.
A similar picture can be drawn for c > 0, d < 0, when the quadrangle Q is
nonconvex. In both cases it is easy to check that the line l with the affine
coordinates (g, h) belongs to a Q-quadrangle if and only if

cd(1 + g)(1 + cg)(1 + h)(1 + dh) > 0. (5)

The intersection points of the line l with the sides of the quadrangle Q can
be easily computed:

h+1 g+1 c(dh + 1) d(cg + 1)
T = , , U= , ,
hg gh dh cg cg hd

1 1
V = , 0 , W = 0, ,
g h

dh + 1 d(g + 1) c(h + 1) cg + 1
X= , , Y = , .
dh g g dh h cg cg h
Note that in these expressions at most two of the denominators may vanish,
namely if the line l is parallel to one side or two opposite sides of the quadrangle;
if there are two vanishing denominators, they belong to the same row of this
table. In this case the corresponding intersection point(s) belong to the line at
infinity.
As said in the introduction to this theorem, the pairs (T, U ), (V, W ), (X, Y )
are pairs of one involution. The task is to determine the type of this involution.
Assume first the line l not being parallel to the y-axis, ie, h 6= 0. Then the

30
projection onto the x-axis yield three pairs of an involution of the same type,
which can be considered as an involution on the real line.
Now recall that an involution on the real line R is given by an assignment
[21, page 281]:
a1 + bt
t 7 (6)
a2 t b
with a1 , a2 , b R, a1 a2 + b2 6= 0. It is elliptical for a1 a2 + b2 < 0 and hyperbolic
with the fixed points
b a1 a2 + b2
c
for a1 a2 + b2 > 0; in particular, it is a reflection for a2 = 0.
In the case under consideration one may take

a1 = c(1 + h)(1 + dh),

a2 = d(1 + c)gh2 + dh2 c(1 + d)g 2 h cg 2 ,
b = a1 g.

According to equation (4) parameter a2 vanishes if and only if the line l is a

butterfly line of the quadrangle Q. Now compute

a1 a2 + b2 = cd(1 + g)(1 + cg)(1 + h)(1 + dh)h2 .

The comparison with the inequality (5) proves the claim for h 6= 0.
Finally, if h = 0 projection on the y-axis yields the pairs

1 d d 1
1 + ,d + , (0, ) , d + , 1 + .
g cg g cg

Now

a1 = d(1 + g)(1 + cg),

a2 = cg 2 ,
b = 0

do the job. The decision between elliptic and hyperbolic involution depends on
the sign of
a1 a2 + b2 = cd(1 + g)(1 + cg)g 2
which agrees with the sign of the left-hand side of the inequality (5) after the
substitution h = 0.

In order to get a better visualization of the curve B of butterfly lines in the

Grassmann manifold G2 (R3 ), which is the real projective plane, a finite model
of the Grassmann manifold is chosen: the unit disk in R2 with identification of

31
the pairs of diametral points on the boundary circle. To a point (g, h, k) in the
coordinatisation before the point
!
g h
p ,p
g 2 + h2 + k 2 g 2 + h2 + k 2

of the unit disk is assigned. Then the points represented by points on the unit
circle are associated to the pencil of lines through the origin; in particular, the
points [(1, 0), (1, 0)] and [(0, 1), (0, 1)] correspond to the y-axis and the x-axis
respectively. The centers of all other pencils of lines produce half ellipses with
a diameter of the unit circle as main axes; this diameter joins the points on
the unit circle which represent the line joining the center of the pencil with the
origin. Parallel pencils correspond to diameters.

Translating equation (4) into this framework yields

p
(cg 2 dh2 ) 1 g 2 h2 + gh(c(1 + d)g d(1 + c)h). (7)

The corresponding curve Bp is depicted together with the decomposition of the

unit disk into (curved) Q-triangles and Q-quadrangles:

Q convex, c = 1, d = 2 Q nonconvex, c = 2, d = 3

D
D
A C AC

B B

The half ellipses labelled A, B, C, D depict the pencils of lines with the re-
spective vertices A, B, C, D of the quadrangle Q as centers. The points of
intersection of these half ellipses correspond as already said to the sides of
the quadrangle.
The curve Bp consists of those points (g, h) of the sextic

c2 g 6 + c(2(cd + c d) + cd2 )g 4 h2 2cd(1 + c)(1 + d)g 3 h3 +

+d(2(cd c + d)d + c2 d)g 2 h4 + d2 h6 = (cg 2 dh2 )2

for which
gh(d(c + 1)h c(1 + d)g)(cg 2 dh2 ) > 0.
This leads to the version of the pictures explaining Theorem 17 presented in the
following table.

32
quadrangle curve parameters picture

parallelogram half ellipse c = 1

(circle) d = 1
and
2 diameters

3
proper quartic c=
8
trapezium and
1 diameter 8
d=
3

isosceles axial c = 2
proper quartic and d = 2
trapezium 1 diameter
which is
the axis

general sextic c = 2
convex d = 3

bisecting axial sextic c = 1

convex 4
d=
3

33
 general sextic c=2
convave d = 10

nonconvex axial c=3

with sextic d = 1
3 bisectors

Final Remark. The esthetic shape of a butterfly has inspired the imagination
of mathematicians in various contexts which have nothing to do with the topic
treated here. There are for example butterfly curves [35], [7, page 72], [8],
butterfly graphs in graph theory and the Zassenhaus Butterfly Lemma in group
theory.

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34
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35
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[34] http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk./history/Mathematicians/Horner.html
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36