Running head: THE ROLE INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE PLAYS IN LANGUAG 1

The Role Intercultural Competence Plays in Language Teaching

Frederick Wehbe

Monash University, Clayton Campus

Second Language Acquisition

APG5348

Julie Bradshaw

4 November 2013
THE ROLE INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE PLAYS IN LANGUAG 2

The Role Intercultural Competence Plays in Language Teaching

People must be interested in other cultures, be sensitive enough to notice cultural

differences, and then also be willing to modify their behaviour as an indication of respect for the

people of other cultures, (Bhawuk & Brislin, 1992, as cited by Cheng, 2012, p. 165).

Introduction

The effect of globalization has considerably increased opportunities for the rise

of intercultural interactions, which has become an important ingredient in the teaching of

foreign languages (Hismanoglu, 2011, p. 805). Consequently, this also affects English

teachers when it relates to what materials to use that are appropriate, or suitable for a

particular culture (Baker, 2011, p. 63). Brown (1994, as cited in East, 2012, p. 56) claims

that a language is part of a culture just as much as a culture is part of a language.

Therefore, both are intertwined and cannot be separated from each other without

sacrificing the value of either culture, or language. Nevertheless, East (2012) indicates

that even though Brown (1994) claims that both language and culture are inseparable, in

foreign language classrooms; it is not always the case. East (2012) explains culture

becomes merely a supplementary topic in the teaching a foreign language, which

concentrates more on teaching the facts about the target country rather than the cultural

aspects. Furthermore, Baker (2011) explains that cultural awareness has become an

important part in envisaging to what extent culture affects language teaching. However,

Sakuragi (2008, as cited in Hismanoglu, 2011) indicates that there is a lack of knowledge

in the study of language when it is associated with intercultural communication, even

THE ROLE INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE PLAYS IN LANGUAG 3

though the concept of communicative competence dates back to 1972 in the study which

Hymes conducted.

This study will attempt to examine the significance culture and intercultural

competence plays in language teaching, the obstacles language teachers may face in

achieving such competences. The study will examine the theories behind cultural and

intercultural awareness plays on the teaching of language, what constitutes it, and ways

of implementing it into the education system. The study will further investigate the

impact of intercultural communicative competence on teachers and students alike,

supported by examples. A conclusion will provide a summary of the investigation of

this study drawing on the issues discussed.

The Rise of Cultural Awareness

Block (2004, as cited in Baker, 2011) explains that English in the global arena is

versatile and is neither harmful nor harmless. The widespread use of English in different

countries around the world has forced people to try to understand to whom English

belongs, as well as the different shapes it is taking (Baker, 2011). These factors become a

significant issues in countries belonging to Kachrus (1990) expanding circle, and

causes problems in understanding the main concepts of the use of the English language,

where neither the first language nor the second language is the official language of the

country (Baker, 2011). Kirkpatrick (2007 p.28) explains that the expanding circle

belongs to Kachrus (1985) model of the Three Concentric Circles. These three circles

comprise of the inner circle which refers to countries where English is the native

language, such as the United States and United Kingdom; the outer circle which refers

to countries where English has been standardized becoming the official second language
THE ROLE INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE PLAYS IN LANGUAG 4

(ESL) such as Ghana, India, and Singapore; and the expanding circle belongs to

countries where English is used as a foreign language (EFL) such as China, Indonesia,

and Korea (Xiaoqiong & Xianxing, 2011). The problems become even more significant

as Crystals (2008, as cited in Baker, 2011) results indicates that English is now more

abundantly used in the expanding circle, and this means that the majority of English

Language Teaching (ELT) classrooms will belong to this expanding circle. As

Kirkpatrick (2007, p. 30) indicates that in China, English is now being used in education,

and that in China alone there are more people learning English than the total number of

population of countries such as United States, United Kingdom, Australia, and Canada.

According to East (2012), Brown (1994 as cited by East) views language as the

primary mechanism by which culture is conveyed, inferring that intercultural

communicative competence entails more than just knowing the facts about language;

hence, the ability to use language properly is necessary in order to resolve differences, or

as (Byram, 1997; Zarate, 1993, as cited in East, 2012, p. 57) termed it as otherness. As

well as using language in the right context, awareness in relation to otherness requires

the need for careful consideration on what using language properly means in essence

when people are communicating both through language, or through behaviour.

Consequently, it is crucial to explore the significance of cultural awareness in the

language teaching arena.

Risager (2007, as cited in Baker, 2011, p. 62) states that the cultural aspect to

language has always existed in the teaching of language although it may not always be

apparent. Baker (2011) indicates that as critical culture awareness became warranted by

the concept of intercultural communicative competence lately, the role of culture in the
THE ROLE INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE PLAYS IN LANGUAG 5

education system has been expanded in order to effectively prepare students for

intercultural communication. Baker (2011) explains that one of the most comprehensive

approaches undertaken in order to find out what sort of knowledge, skills, and attitude is

required to effectively establish intercultural communication was Byrams (1997)

Cultural Awareness (CA). The vital element of critical CA is recognizing the pattern of

social behavior that is typically expected, which enables an ability to evaluate, critically

and on the basis of explicit criteria, perspectives, practices and products in ones own

and other cultures and countries (Byram, 1997, as cited in Baker, 2011, p. 65).

Therefore, cultural awareness is not just confined to understanding ones own, but also

the cultures of other countries, which enables to identify discrepancies and differences in

various cultural behavior.

Elements Constituting Cultural Awareness

Baker (2011) explains that in order to communicate efficiently through English in

the expanding circle in a lingua franca environment, is not enough to be culturally aware,

but also to have intercultural awareness. Below, Baker (2011, p. 66) gives a definition of

Intercultural Awareness (ICA):

Intercultural awareness is a conscious understanding of the role culturally based forms,

practices, and frames of understanding can have in intercultural communication, and an
ability to put these conceptions into practice in a flexible and context specific manner in
real time communication.

In order to clarify the above definition, Baker (2011, p. 66) identifies 12 features of

cultural awareness (CA):

Level 1 Basic Cultural Awareness

An awareness of:
THE ROLE INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE PLAYS IN LANGUAG 6

1 culture as a set of shared behaviours, beliefs, and values;

2 the role culture and context play in any interpretation of meaning;

3 our own culturally induced behaviour, values, and beliefs and the ability to
articulate this;

4 others culturally induced behaviour, values, and beliefs and the ability to
compare this with our own culturally induced behaviour, values, and beliefs.

Level 2 Advanced Cultural Awareness

An awareness of:

5 the relative nature of cultural norms;

6 cultural understanding as provisional and open to revision;

7 multiple voices or perspectives within any cultural grouping;

8 individuals as members of many social groupings including cultural ones;

9 common ground between specific cultures as well as an awareness of

possibilities for mismatch and miscommunication between specific cultures.

Level 3 Intercultural Awareness

An awareness of:

10 culturally based frames of reference, forms, and communicative practices

as being related both to specific cultures and also as emergent and hybrid in
intercultural communication;

11 initial interaction in intercultural communication as possibly based on

cultural stereotypes or generalizations but an ability to move beyond these
through:

12 a capacity to negotiate and mediate between different emergent

socioculturally grounded communication modes and frames of reference
based on the above understanding of culture in intercultural communication.
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Baker (2011, p. 67) explains that these 12 features provide the necessary

skills, knowledge, and attitudes for users of English in a lingua franca environment to

enable them to communicate effectively in the above multifaceted settings. However,

Baker further explains that it is not necessary that one has to progress in that exact order

to be successful because, for example, some students may have already lived in

multilingual surroundings, even though they may be aware either consciously or

subconsciously of the later features of intercultural awareness.

It is necessary for learners to have cultural knowledge in order to cultivate a

clear and comprehensive understanding of culture, so that they can develop their

intercultural awareness, even though this cultural knowledge is no longer associated with

the outcome of learning (Baker, 2011 p. 67). Baker (2011) explains, however, that is it

not essential to concentrate on just one cultural language such as the English of the

United States or United Kingdom; rather, one can select cultural content suitable to the

different kinds of intercultural interaction students may come across in their

surroundings.

Implementing Intercultural Awareness

Baker (2011) suggests six different elements which can assist in the

development of intercultural awareness in particular environments:

1) Exploring local cultures the learner here will start to discover how
people of diverse and complex cultures group together, locally and
nationally. This allows the learner to be exposed to multi-voiced
utterances which characterizes the nature of the culture.

2) Exploring language learning materials ELT textbooks which illustrate

images of different cultures could be an effective practice to illustrate
differences in culture.
THE ROLE INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE PLAYS IN LANGUAG 8

3) Exploring the traditional media and arts through English materials

such as newspapers, novels, magazines, and exposure to television and
radio can be used for the learner to get to visualize the nature of cultures.

4) Exploring IT/electronic media through English resources such as the

internet, chat rooms, instant messaging (IM), or group learning are also
good sources in helping students acquiring intercultural awareness.

5) Cultural informants local and non-local teachers who have previous

experience in intercultural interaction, and with other cultures, can use
their experiences as part of a discussion topic in the classroom for
example.

6) Face-to-face intercultural communication students and teachers alike

can bring their experiences to share in the classroom to discuss and reflect
upon, and therefore express their thoughts.

Baker (2011) concludes that the most crucial elements when exploring culture are in this

case, the knowledge, skills, and attitudes anticipated, in intercultural awareness.

The Importance Of Understanding Intercultural Communicative Competence

It is not enough ... to identify differences or tensions between teachers' beliefs and practices;
rather, attempts need to be made to explore, acknowledge and understand the underlying reasons
behind such tensions. (Phipps & Borg, 2009, as cited in Fleming, Bangou, & Fellus, 2011)

According to Fleming et al. (2011) Hymes (1972) communicative competence principals were

later adapted by Canale and Swain (1980). This became a very significant study which became

categorized into a four part language competence model: a) Linguistic competence, which

include elements such morphology, syntax, phonology, and grammar; b) Sociocultural

competence, which are the social and cultural rules essential to language; c) Strategic

competence, which involves methods of overcoming language difficulties, and improving

communication; and d) Discoursal competence, which is the type of discourse, and habitual use

in patterns of communication (Canal & Swain, 1980, as cited in Fleming et al., 2011, p. 41).
THE ROLE INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE PLAYS IN LANGUAG 9

Alptekin (2002, p. 58) explains that for foreign language students to fully benefit from

the target language culture, it is important to use target language based communicative

competence as a communicative approach. Thus, for the teaching model to be implemented

successfully, it is the native speakers, the target language culture and its inhabitants, who are the

important components that are essential. Alptekin (2002) clarifies that students are not only

expected to grasp the structures of the target language, but also how to apply them in certain

social settings in the target language setting in order to express comprehensible, suitable, and

competent explanation for the native speaker. Alptekin (2002) calls this process enculturation,

which is essentially when a person adapts to and assimilates the culture in which he lives.

Implementing culturally appropriate pedagogy became an important issue in the early

1990s, and was triggered as a result of the influence of both globalization and multiculturalism

(Nguyen, Terlouw, & Pilot, 2006). Due to globalization, many have started to think on how to

adapt the education system to global development. This is important in order to prepare new

students to better adapt to the international arena equipped with the necessary knowledge, skills,

and attitudes (Nguyen et al., 2006, p. 1).

Thomas (1997, as cited in Nguyen et al. 2006, p. 2) classifies two important challenges

for teachers: 1) what factors of globalization is possibly going to affect education, and which

ones should be included in planning teacher training as well as deciding whether to include it as

part of the school curriculum; 2) to choose and handle the traditional customs, the way various

cultures interact in groups, and being aware of when learning should be administered in a more

sensible manner appropriate to the culture. It is the second challenge which Nguyen et al. (2006)

claims relates to the concern of culturally appropriate pedagogy, which is a pedagogy that
THE ROLE INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE PLAYS IN LANGUAG 10

concentrates on educational proficiency on a global scale, and to talk about the cultural

environment of both students and teachers.

Nguyen et al. (2006, p. 3) claims that a persons cultural heritage has been ignored in

many non-Western developing countries is due to the import of educational policies, theories,

and practices being supported by the import of new technology. This was the result of

modernizing the educational system, which governments adopted with the hope to better prepare

teachers and students for political power, and economic success (Thomas, 1997, as cited in

Nguyen et al. 2006). Africa and Asia are two countries that demonstrate this trend by using

constructivism, student-centered learning, active learning and autonomous learning, are

among the named few. In Korea for example, 100% of kindergarten teachers used US/Western

child-centered educational philosophy as the primary goal for preschool education (Young-Ihm,

2002, as cited in Nguyen et al. 2006).

Furthermore, since 2000, all Hong Kong schools teachers have been summoned to apply

appraisal using Western style model approaches, and understandings (Walker & Dimmock,

2000, as cited in Nguyen et al., 2006, p. 3). In China for example there are an increasing number

of schools implementing Western style methods of teaching, and in Vietnam a school system

recently put together which allows students to be educated in a Western fashion focusing on

learning self-sufficiently for example.

Nguyen et al. (2006) identify, however, that preliminary results yielded different

outcomes, which is why the study of Young-Ihms (2002) claims that Westernizing the

education system drove teachers to rely on Western style child-centered approaches as opposed

to the traditional manner learners usually practice as many in the community opposed to these

practices. Walker & Dimmock (2000, as cited in Nguyen et al., 2006) have argued that this
THE ROLE INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE PLAYS IN LANGUAG 11

cross-cultural cloning should be examined, and that there a need to look for more culturally

appropriate approaches. As a result of westernization of the educational system, this has caused

negative impacts. For example, in Hong Kong, the importance of applying Western style

approaches such as in staff appraisal, public accountability, and promotion has led many

experienced staff to resign (Dowson et al., 2000, as cited in Nguyen et al., 2006). In China,

parents have neglected Western style teaching approaches in favour of preserving traditional

educational methods (Munro-Smith, 2003, as cited in Nguyen et al., 2006).

Furthermore, policy makers who are usually under pressure to make changes, seem to

adopt the Western style teaching approach, believing that it the approach was successful in the

West than it is likely to be as successful in their country (Walker & Dimmock, 2000, as cited in

Nguyen et al., 2006, p. 4). Additionally, Witty et al. (1998, as cited in Nguyen et al., 2006)

claims that by applying policies, theories and practices through cultures without realizing the

cultural aspect could cause a false universalism, implying that one size cannot fit everyone.

Cultural pedagogies

One of the crucial barriers that affect the progress of cultural competence is due to the

lack of knowledge of the local cultural pedagogy practiced in a specific country. For example, in

China, the Confucian Heritage Culture (CHC) prevails as well as other countries which are

influenced by China such as Vietnam, Japan, Korea, Singapore, Taiwan, Hong Kong and

Malaysia (Nguyen et al., 2006, p. 5). According to Confucius, the stability of society is based on

unequal relationship between people. In the education domain, the teacher-student relationship

becomes twosome. Nguyen et al. (2006) explain that teachers who teach in CHC countries have

a high ranking social status, but are also models of appropriate conduct. For example, students

stand up when a teacher enters the classroom, and students can only speak if they are asked to. A
THE ROLE INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE PLAYS IN LANGUAG 12

teacher is treated with compliance and obedience, and seldom students dare to ask a question

(Nguyen et al., 2006).

Culture Shock - According to Coates (2004, as cited in Liu, 2011, p. 78), causes of

anxiety can also originate from language challenges, social isolation, identity confusion,

weather and food differences, accommodation, separation from home, role and status

change, and a different educational system. Liu (2011) explains how she struggled with

all the above factors, to the point she began justifying the reason for her move; for

example she explains how with her identity as an international student in Canada, she did

not earn the respect she had as a teacher back in China. Losing her sense of identity

affected her self-esteem, and as a result she only associated with fellow Chinese graduate

students. This is what Siu (1952, as cited in Liu, 2011, p. 79) defines as in-group

tendency which is common among international students. Liu (2011) admits that

culture shock is one of the main features that deter students from using their English

beyond the classroom, and the one she struggled most in adapting to.

Improving Language Proficiency - According to Brown (2008 as cited in Liu, 2011, p.

80), what contributed to negative outcomes for their language-learning is the international

students lack of English language skills. For instance, lack of confidence leading to low

self-esteem was typical among international students (Liu, 2011). She herself, found it

difficult to understand what her teacher was saying let alone her peers. She struggled with

simple things like asking for directions, or taking the correct bus. All of these issues

ultimately made her feel inferior to others in her class, which triggered this barrier.

Jackson (2002, & Trice, 2004 as cited in Liu, 2011) state that when adjusting to a host

culture becomes a problem, the less proficient an international student is. As they then
THE ROLE INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE PLAYS IN LANGUAG 13

gradually lose confidence in their proficiency, they will find difficulty in improving their

English.

Cultural Personality Liu (2011) explains that western students are more extroverted in

their character as they seem to be more open in the way they interact, whereas the

Chinese on the other hand are more introverted. Therefore, when it comes to engaging in

a conversation, the Chinese are more the listeners than those doing the talking. She

further explains that this is influenced by her firm belief in the traditional Confucian

values of modesty and implicitness; hence, what makes her take on the role of an

observer rather than one trying to challenge her way improving her English. Searle &

Ward (1990, as cited in Liu, 2011) state that language learners who are always looking

for new ideas and experiences are more successful than the ones who are introverted.

This is why Liu (2011) explains her reading and writing skills were better, and her poor

speaking and listening ability was due to the lack of interpersonal communications skills.

Buddhism and the Role It Plays On the Teaching and Learning English

There are several key areas in which forms of Buddhism also affect the implementation

of teaching and learning approaches. One of these is the belief in Karma because karma plays a

crucial role in the way the community identifies itself. In Thailand, people believe if someone

was born to a wealthy family, the person is considered to have done a good deed in the previous

life, thus to have good karma (Foley, 2005, p. 227). The belief in karma works also as a

sedative in a persons mind; the status of ones life, whether it is socially, politically, or

physically, therefore becomes commonly accepted. This only encourages society throughout

their lifetime to carry on practicing good karma (Foley, 2005). Buddhism teaches the proper
THE ROLE INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE PLAYS IN LANGUAG 14

behavior that must be practiced between husband and wife, teacher and student, superior and

subordinate, and parent and children. With this degree of tolerance, most people tend to grow up

incapable of expressing deep emotion, and the ability to challenge, which clearly becomes an

obstacle in the teaching and learning process for teachers and students alike (Foley, 2005).

Consequently, the belief in karma makes student-centered learning difficult to successfully

practice.

Status and respect are highly salient, which are represented through the hierarchical status

in language. For example, depending on the rank and social status, there are many words that

represent the I and You, much of it derived from the royal status of the King and members of

the Royal Family. Just for the words I. The following words are used according to status and

hierchy: phom, khraphom, dichan, chan, rao, khaphachao, kha, and ku. In this

ranking, the teachers hierarchy is very high, which also applies to parents just as much (Foley,

2005, p. 228).

A third aspect which affects the teaching of English in Thailand explains Foley (2005) is

the Bun khun concept. For instance, whenever someone does a good thing, or renders a favor,

and would not be expecting a favor or something in return, Thais call this Bun Khun. In

teaching for example, the teacher is providing knowledge and education to a student, but is not

expecting something in return. Here, the student then has an obligation to show their appreciation

by doing something in return, in this case avoiding confronting the teacher with questions. To

teachers, the act of Bun Khun ranks second to parents; just a child shows gratitude to the

mother for giving him/her life, and raises them, similarly students are obliged to pay their

gratitude for the knowledge the teacher is spreading (Foley, 2005). Furthermore, teachers are

always addressed as Khruu or Ajarn, which means he who teaches disciples and he who
THE ROLE INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE PLAYS IN LANGUAG 15

spreads knowledge to his disciples respectively. Just like a mother, teachers are self-sacrificing

for the good of their students, thus creating a moral debt on the students part (Mulder, 1996, as

cited in Foley, 2005). When teaching in Thailand, therefore, an inner-circle teacher of English

must take on board every aspect of their students culture to facilitate their teaching process.

One final aspect that becomes a barrier in initiating student-teacher and teacher-student

pattern of communication in a Thai classroom environment is the concept of the word

Krengjai. When the Thais feel that they are putting someone out of the way to do something for

them, or when they think that they should not interrupt, or disturb their superior, this is when

they have the krengjai feeling. As a result of this behavior, students would hesitate to ask their

teacher to repeat a question, or ask for further explanation simply for that particular reason

(Foley, 2005, p. 229).

Conclusion

After getting a better insight on what cultural and intercultural competence entails, it is

clear that they are important goals for language teaching. As East (2012) citing Brown (1994)

that language and culture are one; they are intertwined and thus cannot be separated from each

other. The need to be aware of not only ones own culture, but that of others as well is needed in

order to teach and yield positive outcome. The need to be inter-culturally adaptable or to be able

to blend into a given culture is crucial for the success in teaching as Liu (2011) has attempted to

achieve. Therefore, the study shows that as a result of globalization, cultural and intercultural

competence has become an important ingredient that must be delicately applied in language

teaching.
THE ROLE INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE PLAYS IN LANGUAG 16

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