Computer Science Fundamentals

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Agenda
1.1 Basic Theory of Information
1.2 Information and Logic
1.3 Data Structures
1.4 Algorithms

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Basic Theory of Information

Radix Conversion
Octal: 3 bits (0 through 7)
Hexadecimal: 4 bits (0 through F)

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 Conversion of Decimal Integers to
Binary Numbers
The number is divided by 2 repeatedly until the
quotient becomes 0.

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Decimal fractions to binary

The number is multiplied by 2 repeatedly until
the quotient becomes 0.
Repeating binary fraction

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Binary to Hexa
group the binary number into blocks of 4 bits,
starting from the lowest bit (rightmost bit), and
then assign the corresponding hexadecimal digit
for each block

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 Hexa to Binary
Assign the corresponding 4-bit binary number to
each digit of the given hexadecimal number.

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Decimal to Hexa
convert the decimal number to binary first, and
then convert the binary number to hexadecimal
number

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Q->
Hexa to Decimal
convert the hexadecimal number to binary first,
and then convert the binary number to decimal

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 FAQ
There are many questions mixing multiple radices
(bases) such as Which of the following is the correct
result
(in decimal) of adding the hexadecimal and binary
numbers?
If the final result is to be represented in decimal, it is
better that you convert the original numbers to decimal
first and then calculate it.
If the final result is to be represented in a radix other
than 10 (binary, octal, hexadecimal, etc.), it is better that
you convert the original numbers to binary first and then
carry on the calculation

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Numerical Representations
Decimal numbers are represented in packed or
zoned format.
Binary numbers are represented in fixed-point or
floating-point format.

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Numerical Representations

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 Decimal Number Representation
Zoned decimal format
Each number is represented by 1 byte (8 bits)

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Decimal Number Representation

Packed decimal format
Each number is represented by 4 bits
Padded by 4 leading 0s

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Fixed-Point Number Representation

Fixed-length binary
2s complement for negative values
-2n-1 through 2n-1 1, a total of 2n numbers, can
be represented by using n bits.

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 Twos complement

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Floating-Point Number
Representation
A real number is represented in exponential
form ( a = +m x r e ) using a fixed-length binary
number
IEEE 754

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Floating point number

Overflow
This means that the positive exponent is too large to
fit in the exponent field.
Number is too large
Underflow
This occurs when the negative exponent is too
large to fit in the exponent field.
Number is too small

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 Floating point number
Biased notation
IEEE 754 uses a bias of 127 for single precision
(-1)S x (1 + Fraction) x 2 (Exponent - Bias)
S is the signed bit 0 is positive
1 is negative

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Example
Show the IEEE 754 binary representation of the
number -0.7510 in single precision

Convert to binary -0.112

-1.1 x 2-1
(-1)1 x (1 + .1000 0000 0000 0000 000)
x 2 (126 - 127)

Exponent part

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Floating point addition

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 Floating point addition example
Add 0.5 and -0.4375

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Floating point addition

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Floating point addition

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 Floating point multiplication

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Floating point multiplication

Multiply 1.11010 x 1010 by 9.20010 x 10-5

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Floating point multiplication

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 Floating point multiplication

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Floating point multiplication

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FAQ
There are many questions on converting a given
binary number into the corresponding negative
number and converting a given negative number
into the corresponding positive number.

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 Non numeric representation
In general, each character is represented by 8
bits.
In multimedia, data associated with still image
data, moving picture data, and sound data is
handled

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Character representation
BCD Code (Binary Coded Decimal Code)
Each digit can be represented by 4 bits

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Standardizations of Character Codes

Code Name Explanation

EBCDIC Computer code defined by IBM for general

purpose computers
8 bits represent one character.
ASCII 7-bit code established by ANSI (American
National Standards Institute) Used in PCs, etc.

ISO code ISO646 published as a recommendation by

The International Organization for
Standardization (ISO), based on ASCII
7-bit code for information exchange

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 Standardizations of Character Codes
Code Name Explanation

Unicode An industry standard allowing computers to

consistently represent characters used in
most of the countries
Every character is represented with 2 bytes
EUC 2-byte and 1-byte characters can be used
together on UNIX (extended UNIX code).
Chinese and Hangul characters are also
handled

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Image and Sound

Still Images

GIF Format to save graphics, 256

colors displayable

JPEG Compression format for color

still images, or the name of the
Joint organization of ISO and
ITU-T establishing this standard

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MPEG
Compression format for color moving pictures,
or the name of the joint organization of ISO and
IEC which established this standard

MPEG-1 Data stored mainly on CD-ROM

MPEG-2 Stored images like video; real-

time images

MPEG-4 Standardization for mobile

terminals

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 Sound
Sound

PCM Converting analog signals

(sound, etc.) into digital signals

MIDI Interface to connect a musical

instrument with a computer

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FAQ
There have been many exam questions that
require some knowledge of organizations which
have established functions and standards
regarding JPEG and MPEG. Several keywords,
such as JPEG, ISO, and ITU-T for still images,
MPEG, ISO, and IEC for motion pictures, should
be checked prior to the exam.

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Operations and Accuracy

There are two types of shift operations:
arithmetic shift and logical shift.
Operations in computer depend on the number
of significant digits, so the result could have a
margin of error

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 Shift operations
A shift operation is the operation of shifting
(moving) a bit string to the right or to the left.
Arithmetic left shift
Logical left shift
Arithmetic right shift
Logical right shift

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Arithmetic shift
Data is treated as numeric data with a positive
or negative sign
Right shift inserts a value identical to the sign bit
into the leftmost place

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Q->
Logical shift
Data is treated as bit string
0s are inserted in the vacated bits

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 Errors
Since operations are executed by a computer
register with a limited number of digits,
numerical values that cannot be contained in the
register are be ignored.

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Rounding Error
Since computers cannot handle an infinite (non-
terminating) fraction, bits smaller than a certain
bit are rounded off, rounded down, or rounded
up to the value with the limited number of
significant digits. The difference between the
true value and the result of such rounding is
called the rounding error (or round-off
error).

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Cancellation of significant digits

When one number is subtracted from another
number almost identical to it, or when two
numbers, one positive and the other negative,
with almost identical absolute values are added
together, the number of significant digits could
drop drastically.

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 Loss of trailing digits
When a very large number and a very small
number are added together, or when one is
subtracted from the other, some information (or
a part thereof) in the lower digits, which cannot
be contained in the mantissa, can be lost due to
the alignment of the numbers.

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FAQ
Understand the different characteristics of the
errors
Questions may be asked about the type of error
that may occur when values are manipulated

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Information and Logic

Logical Operations
Logical sum, logical product, logical negation,
and exclusive logical sum are the basic logic
operations.
The grammar of a programming language is
written in BNF

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 Definitions of Logical Operation
Logical Notation Meaning
operation
Logical A B The result is 1 only when both bits
product (AND) are 1s

Logical sum A+B The result is 1 when at least one of

(OR) the bits is 1

Logical A Reversal of the bit (0 for 1; 1 for

negation A 0)
(NOT)

Exclusive The result is 0 if the bits are the

logical sum A B same, and 1 if the bits are not
(EOR, XOR) equal to each other.

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Expanded form of Exclusive sum

Exclusive logical sum can be expanded, as
shown below. Many questions can be easily
answered if you know the expanded form of
exclusive logical sum, so be sure to know the
expanded formula.

A B = A B+ A B

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De Morgans Theorem

(A B)=A+B

(A +B)=A B

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 FAQ
Many questions can be easily answered if you
know De Morgan's theorem. There are also
many
questions that can be easily answered if you
know the expanded form of exclusive logical
sum.

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Adder
An adder is a circuit that performs addition of 1-
bit binary numbers, consisting of AND, OR,
and NOT logic circuits.
Half adder
Full adder

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Half adder

A B C S
Truth table 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
C=A B
1 0 0 1
S=A B
1 1 1 0

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 Full adder
There are three input values, one of which is the
carry-over from the lower bit.

X Y Z C S

0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1

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Karnaugh Maps
Karnaugh Maps

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BNF (Backus-Naur Form)

A means of strictly expressing the grammar of a
programming language.
The terminal symbols cannot be further
decomposed.
To define the grammar of a programming
language (syntax definition), expressions free
from any ambiguity are required. To express
such a grammar, BNF (Backus-Naur Form) is
used

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 BNF
Sequence
<x >:: =<a><b>
This gives a definition which means the syntax element x
is a string of the character a and b.

The symbol ::= means is defined to be.

Repetition
<x >:: =<a>
This gives a definition which means the syntax element x
is a repetition of the character a, It also means that the
character a repeats once or more times.

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BNF
Selection
<x >:: =<a | b>
This gives a definition which means the syntax element x
is either the character a or the character b. If one of the
options is missing, the following expression is used:
<x >:: =[<a>]
This gives a definition which means the syntax element x
is either the character a or the null character (blank). The
symbols [ ] means that it can be omitted.

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BNF
Terminal and Non-Terminal Symbols
A syntax element already defined can be used to define
another element or even itself. These
syntax elements are called non-terminal
symbols. Characters that are used directly in
sentences are called terminal symbols.
In the following definitions, the underlined <x> is a non
terminal symbol whereas a, b, and c are terminal symbols.
<y >:: =<a><x >
<x >:: =<b><c >

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 FAQ
An example of syntactical rules: often, questions
follow the pattern of selecting the sentence that
satisfies given syntactical rules.

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Reverse Polish Notation

Reverse Polish Notation is a way to
mechanically
interpret mathematical formulas.
It is characterized by two variables followed by
an operator.

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Conversion of Mathematical Formula

to Reverse Polish Notation
Reverse Polish Notation follows the order of
operations in the formula when converting.

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 Polish Notation
Polish Notation places the operator in front of
the variables. The fundamental concept is the
same as that of Reverse Polish Notation

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FAQ
Conversion into Reverse Polish Notation or into
a
mathematical formula is a very frequent theme
on exams. It is best if you learn how to answer
these questions intuitively.

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Data Structures
Arrays can be used in every data structure.
Arrays are referred to by index.

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 Array
An array is a data structure consisting of
multiple data of the same type.

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FAQ
There are hardly any questions directly on
arrays
themselves. However, any question on a data
structure or an algorithm always uses an array.
Hence, you must understand arrays properly.
More specifically, be sure that you understand
how to use the index.
Questions on algorithms on the exam may
have indexes starting at 0 or 1, so care must be
taken.

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Lists
Lists are characterized by being connected with
pointers.
Operations for a list are controlled by changing
the values of pointers
A list is a set of identical or similar data placed
logically linearly.

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 Basic operations of list
Insertion

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Deletion
To delete an element from a given list, just as in
insertion, all we have to do is to change pointers.

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Garbage collection & Memory leak

Garbage collection: It is the procedure whereby
small, fragmented
unused memory and other areas not usable due
to memory leak are combined together in order
to increase usable memory space.
Memory leak: It means the situation wherein the
main memory secured dynamically by an
application is not released for some reason and
remains in the main memory.

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 FAQ
Many questions involve insertion into and
deletion from a list. You must carefully consider
which element it is whose pointer should be
stored

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Stacks
Stacks are data structures of LIFO (Last-In First-
Out).
Stacks are used to manage the return addresses
of subroutines
A stack is a data structure in which data
insertion and deletion both take place on the
same end of the list.

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Stack
Pop
Deletion is pop-up.
Push
Insertion is called push-down
The stack pointer (SP) is used to keep track of
where the top of the stack currently is

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 Uses of the stack
When a main program calls a subprogram
(subroutine) or a function, often the return
address of the program being executed is stored
in a stack; when the subprogram is completed,
the return address of the main program is taken
from the stack to return the control.

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Stack Implementation using a list

Insert

Delete

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FAQ
Many questions involve stacks. The pattern is
that frequently there are questions asking what
happens to the contents of a given stack when
push and pop are repeated.

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 Queues
Queues are data structures of FIFO (First-In
First-Out).
Queues are used for online transaction
processes.
A queue is a data structure in which insertion
takes place at one end while deletion (taking-
out) occurs at the other end

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Use of the queue

In multiple programming, programs waiting to
be executed are placed into the queue for
execution as long as their priorities are equal,
and they wait for the CPU to be available.

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Implementation of the queue

Implement of a queue using a list, a pointer is
used to indicate the position of the last
element of the list. Insertion is performed at the
end of the list, and deletion is performed at the
head.

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 Operations of a queue
Insertion

Deletion

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Tree
Trees clearly indicate a hierarchical structure.
Among the various types of trees, binary trees
are to be thoroughly understood.
A tree is a data structure that expresses the
hierarchical structure between elements

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Tree

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 Binary Tree
A tree in which each node has no more than two
children is called a binary tree.
Complete binary tree
All leaves are at the same depth, or if the
difference of depth between any two
leaves is 1 or less
The leaves are laid out
from the left

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Binary Search tree

A binary search tree is a binary tree such that the
value of an element is assigned to each node
under the following restriction
Value of the left child < Value of the parent
element < Value of the right child

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Heap
A binary tree where the node values are
assigned from the root level and from left
to right on the same level with the following
conditions:
value of a parent element > value of a child
element (max-heap) OR
value of a parent element < value of a child
element (min-heap)

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 Q -> FAQ

In the Exam, questions involve only binary

trees.
Keep straight in your mind the characteristics
of various binary trees, such as complete
binary trees, binary search trees, and
heaps.

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Hash
Hash is the concept of using the key values
directly as the index.
Two methods to avoid collisions are
the open-address method
the chain method
Hash is the concept of using key values directly
as the storage locations of data.

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Hash
To convert key values to index numbers, a hash
function is used to calculate hash values, which
are then used as index numbers. The array that
stores elements using such a method is called
a hash table.

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 Collision
When the same hash value is generated in this
way, it is called a collision.
Resolution is by
Chain Method (Open Hash Method)
Open Address Method (Closed Hash
Method)

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Chain Method (Open Hash Method)

This is the method of using a list to store
elements with the same hash value when a
collision occurs. The hash table contains in
advance only the pointer indicating the first data
of the list.

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Open Address Method (Closed Hash

Method)
This is the method of dealing with collisions with
re-hashing. Re-hashing refers to re-calculating
the storage location when a collision occurs and
storing the new data there if the location is
empty.

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 Q FAQ
->

Many questions dealing with hash will ask you to

calculate the storage position, and a "mod
function is often used as the hash function in
such cases. mod (a,b) is the remainder of a
divided by b.

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Algorithms
Search algorithms
There are two types of search algorithms: linear
search and binary search.
In binary search, the elements are be sorted
in ascending or descending order.

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FAQ
To express algorithms, questions on Morning
Exams use flowcharts, while questions on
Afternoon Exams use pseudo-language. Rules
on
the pseudo-language are not released, so it is a
good idea to look through them in advance.

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 Linear Search
This is the method of searching for the desired
element in the table from the beginning of the
table in order.
Sentinel search
The same data (sentinel) as the data to
retrieve is placed at the end of a table
Decrease no of comparisons
Simplify the search algorithm

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Linear search

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Binary search
This method narrows down the target data while
successively dividing a search area into two
parts.
Number of comparisons reduced compared with
the linear search method
Elements must be in ascending or descending
order

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 Binary search

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Q ->
Search efficiency
Mean number of comparisons = N /2
for linear search
Maximum number of comparisons = N
for linear search
Mean number of comparisons = [log2N]
for binary search
Maximum number of comparisons = [log2N] + 1
for binary search

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Q ->
Search efficiency
Slower Faster

Linear Binary
search Search
Average N/2 [log2N]
comparisons
Max no of N [log2N] + 1
comparisons

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 FAQ
The average number of comparisons and the
maximum number of comparisons in binary
search are frequently asked on exams, so it is a
good idea to have these formulas memorized.

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Sorting algorithms
Be careful when manipulating index numbers in
bubble sort, selection sort, and insertion sort.
Recursive call is used in quick sort and merge
sort.

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Sorting
Sorting the contents of an area in a program,
such as an array, is called internal sorting
sorting data stored in an external device such as
records in a file is called external sorting

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 Sorting algorithms
Bubble sort
Selection sort
Insertion sort
Quick sort
Merge sort
Shell sort
Heap sort

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FAQ
Questions involving internal sorting in the
exams are almost always about array
manipulation. Be careful not to switch the
index numbers when data is switched.

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Bubble sort
In bubble sort, each adjacent pair of elements is
sequentially compared and exchanged if
necessary.
One of the simplest sort methods
Efficiency is low since data item are
unconditionally compared even if they are sorted
correctly.
If the volume of data is large, the process is
time-consuming.

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 Bubble sort

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Bubble sort
Average and worst times
N2

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Selection sort
Selection sort finds the maximum value (or the
minimum value) from the array and exchanges
it with the element at the end of the array.
Next, it finds the maximum (or minimum) value
from the array except for the last element and
exchanges it with the second-to-the-last element
of the array.

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 Selection sort

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Selection sort
Average and worst times
N2

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FAQ
Bubble sort and selection sort very frequently
appear on the exams.
The questions are given in a variety of ways,
such as on the contents of an array at an
intermediate stage and filling in blanks of a
flowchart. Be sure that you understand the
algorithms well.

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 Insertion sort
Insertion sort starts with an already sorted array,
compares the element to be inserted with the
elements in the array, starting from the back,
and inserts the element in the appropriate
location

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Insertion sort

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Insertion sort
Average and worst times
N2

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 Quick sort
Quick sort selects a random value from the array
and uses its key value as the pivot;
The elements are divided into two groups: the
first group in which all elements are less than
the pivot and the second group in which all
elements are greater than the pivot (equal
values can go either way).

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Quick sort

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Quick sort
Average time
N log2 N
Worst time
N2

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 Merge sort
In merge sort, two or more arrays, each of
which is already sorted, are merged together to
form one sorted array. In merge sort, splitting is
repeated until each group has only one element.

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Merge sort

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Merge sort
Average time and worst time
N log2 N

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 FAQ
Quick sort and merge sort differ from each other
in the number of elements involved in splitting
processes, but they use the same method.
In such cases, a method known as recursive
call is used.

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Shell sort
This is an improved form of insertion sort; the
sorting is made faster by increasing the moving
distances of the elements.
First, the elements are sorted roughly by using
insertion sort with gaps of a certain size.
Then, insertion sort is used again to complete
the sorting operation.

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Shell sort

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 Shell sort
Average time
N log2 N
Worst time
N2

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Heap sort
A heap is a binary tree in which every subtree
has the property that a parent has a value larger
than its children.
If the root element is picked, we can obtain the
maximum value while the remaining elements
can be re-structured to form a heap

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Heap sort
A "complete" tree is a minimum height tree with all the
nodes on the lowest level in their left-most positions. That
is, the tree is completely filled from the top with any extra
elements strictly on one side (left) of the lowest level.

A heap is (conceptually) a binary tree

that is complete and
exhibits the heap property:
the root, if non-null, is the largest (or smallest) key
in the tree,
its left and right subtrees are themselves heaps.

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 Heap

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Heap sort
unordered array of items into a heap

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Comparison of sorting algorithms

Type of sort Average time Worst time

Bubble N2 N2

Selection N2 N2

Insertion N2 N2

Quick N log2 N N2

Merge N log2 N N log2 N

Shell N log2 N N2

Heap N log2 N N log2 N

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 FAQ
For quick sort, merge sort, insertion sort, heap
sort, and shell sort, questions generally deal with
the concept of each, so you should understand
how each sort processes the data.

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String Search Algorithms

In general, string search compares one
character at a time.
Methods for string search
brute-force method
Boyer-Moore method
String search means the process of looking for a
designated sequence of characters in a text
(character string).

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Brute force (nave) method

Brute-force search is the method in which the
desired string is searched for by comparing the
characters one by one from the beginning of the
array in order.

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 Brute force (nave) method

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Boyer-Moore Method (BM Method)

This is a method that takes the contents of the
pattern string into account to eliminate waste.
If the pattern and a string of the text do not
match up, the number of characters that can be
skipped depends on the right-end character of
the search range of the text being compared.

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Boyer-Moore Method (BM Method)

Analyzing string before search (as KMP).

Storing, for all possible characters, where they

first (right to left) appear in string.

Using this table to quickly find potential

matches.

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 Boyer-Moore Method (BM Method)
If a given letter usually doesnt occur in a
string, only need approx N/M character
comparisons (N=length doc, M=length string).

Worst case N+M comparisons.

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Graph algorithms
A tree is a type of graph.
The order in which tree search is performed can
be breadth-first or depth-first.

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Graph
A graph consists of nodes and edges.
A node is a vertex that forms the graph.
An edge is a segment connecting a point to a
point.

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 Breadth-First Order
The search begins at the root and traverses from
lower levels and from left to right.

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Breadth First Order

Visit the next unvisited vertex (if there is one)
thats adjacent to the current vertex, mark it,
and insert it into the queue.
If you cant carry out Rule 1 because there are
no more unvisited vertices, remove a vertex
from the queue (if possible) and make it the
current vertex.

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Depth-First Order
We start with the root and traverse from the left
child and from leaves.

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 Depth First Search
Search Order in which nodes are traversed
method
Pre-order Parent, left child, right child, in this order

In-order Left subtree, parent, right subtree, in this order

Post-order Left subtree, right subtree, parent, in this order

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FAQ
Depth-first order frequently appears on the
exams.
Understand well how the nodes are
taken out in pre-order, in-order, and post-order.

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FAQ
In string search, there needs to be an index for
the string S and another index for the string R.
When answering a question, the crucial point is
to grasp how to use the indexes.

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 Summary

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