SVG 708 REMOTE SENSING APPLICATION II (2 units)

1. Sensor platforms.
2. Geometry of artificial satellite orbits.
3. GPS positioning,
4. Fundamentals of pattern recognition, functions.
5. Pattern classifier concepts.
6. Digital image processing.
7. Pre-processing of RS data, image enhancement techniques, image transforms.
8. Filtering.
9. Classification techniques.

PLATFORMS
Platforms refer to the structures or vehicles on which remote sensing instruments are mounted.
The platform on which a particular sensor is housed determines a number of attributes, which may
dictate the use of particular sensors.
These attributes include:

distance the sensor is from the object of interest,

periodicity of image acquisition,
timing of image acquisition, and
location and extent of coverage

In a broadest definition of remote sensing, there are innumerable types of platforms upon which to
deploy an instrument called sensor.
.
This topic was discussed in SVG707course .
Therefore we shall only limit our discussion here to the commercial platforms most commonly
used in mapping and GIS applications.- Satellites and aircraft
Satellites and aircraft collect the majority of base map data and imagery used in GIS;
the sensors typically deployed on these platforms include film and digital cameras, light-detection
and ranging (lidar) systems, synthetic aperture radar (SAR) systems, multispectral and hyperspectral
scanners.
In RS Platforms are in three categories namely; GROUND-BASED, AIRBORNE AND SATILLITE
As of today, a significant percentage of data used in GIS and mapping originate from satellite and
aircraft sources

Platform satellite contn.

However, there will always be important differences, strictly related to characteristics of the
platform, in the effectiveness of satellites and aircraft to acquire remote sensing data.
One obvious advantage of satellites over aircraft is the global accessibility; there are numerous
governmental restrictions that deny access to airspace over sensitive areas or over foreign
countries.
Satellite orbits are not subject to these restrictions, although there may well be legal agreements to
limit distribution of imagery over particular areas.

Platform - Aircraft
Aircraft often have a definite advantage because of their mobilization flexibility.
They can be deployed wherever and whenever weather conditions are favorable.
Clouds often appear and dissipate over a target over a period of several hours during a given day.
Aircraft on site can respond with a moment's notice to take advantage of clear conditions, while
satellites are locked into a schedule dictated by orbital parameters.
Aircraft can also be deployed in small or large numbers, making it possible to collect imagery
seamlessly over an entire county or state in a matter of days or weeks simply by having lots of
planes in the air at the same time. Aircraft platforms range from the very small, slow, and low flying
(Figure 2.03), to twin-engine turboprop and small jets capable of flying at altitudes up to 35,000
feet.
Unmanned platforms (UAVs) are becoming increasingly important, particularly in military and
emergency response applications, both international and domestic.
Flying height, airspeed, and range are critical factors in choosing an appropriate remote sensing
platform.
Example of Airplatform

GEOMETRY OF ARTIFICIAL SATELLITE ORBITS

A satellite is basically any object that revolves around a planet in a circular or elliptical path (orbit).
The moon is Earth's original, natural satellite, and there are many manmade (artificial) satellites,
usually closer to Earth. Thousands of artificial satellites orbit Earth. Although anything that is in
orbit around Earth is technically a satellite, the term satellite is typically used to describe a useful
object placed in orbit purposely to perform some specific mission or task.
It takes a lot of energy to put a satellite in orbit. Most satellites are launched into space on rockets.
A satellite orbits Earth when its speed is balanced by the pull of Earth's gravity. Without this
balance, the satellite would fly in a straight line off into space or fall back to Earth. They need to
reach at least 120 miles (200 km) above the earth at a speed of over 17,000 mph to get in to orbit.

ARTIFICIAL SATELLITE
Artificial Satellites were satellites launched into the space for specific imaging operation of earth
surface.
Artificial satellite was 1st launched in 1957 by the then Soviet Union.
This singular advance in space technology triggered the space race among the world power,
particularly between Soviet Union and United State.
The 1st US satellite was launched in 1958

Geometry of artificial satellite orbits- contn.

Satellite position is determined principally by orbit physic, with influence from satellite dynamics
The set of parameters that define an orbit are referred to as the satellite ephemeris
The orbit of an artificial earth satellite is a twisted space curve, wound about the earth in a
complicated wave.
The waves in this space curve are removed by introducing a processing plane, called the Orbital
Plane, upon which the orbit may be mapped as a plane curve

The latter plane curve is often referred to as the orbit itself.

In general, it is not closed circuit even for bound orbits. Thus an additional artifice is required
before one may properly speak of the motion of the orbit.
The motion of the osculating ellipse is interpreted as the motion of the satellite orbit though, the
two are somewhat unrelated.
The motion of the orbit plane as a rigid body is introduced, and a non-elliptical satellite motion in
this plane is defined.

The plane orbit so defined represent a succession of satellite positions and hence reveals the true
motion of the satellite.
Other theory of earth satellites based on the gravitational potential of an oblate sheroid which
contains, in addition to the fundamental , the second and fourth sherical harmonics.
The second harmonic is considered to be small of first order , and the fourth harmonic is considered
to be small of secound order. Expansions of the solutions to secound order are obtained without
the usual limitation as to eccentricity or orbit inclination
Elements of the orbit of an artificial satellite

In consequence of the ellipticity of the orbit, the height of the satellite from the earth will vary
during one revolution; the point at which the height of flight is maximum is called the apogee,
whereas the point of minimum height is called the perigee.
In order to be able to determine completely the shape, size and position of the orbit of such a
satellite, it is sufficient to have a knowledge of five different magnitudes (see diagram at start of
this article): the height of the perigee, the height of the apogee, the inclination of the orbit (ie the
angle which the plane of the orbit makes with the plane of the equator), the distance between the
nodes (ie, the angle which the line crossing the orbital plane and the equator makes with a given
celestial line also lying in the plane of the equator - the line fixed by the vernal equinox) and, finally,
the angular distance between the perigee and the node'.
'These magnitudes are called the elements of the orbit; they provide the fundamental data required
for determining the number of revolutions within a 24-hour period.
They will have to be determined as many times as possible in order to ascertain the variations
which will occur in the satellites orbit before it reaches the point at which it begins to fall rapidly
and finally disintegrates.

The orbital plane of the satellite does not share in the rotation of the earth, whereas the observers,
who are located on the surface of the earth, naturally follow the rotation of the earth from west to
east.
During the time of one rotation of the artificial satellite (which will probably be approximately 1.5
hours) an observer located on the equator would be moved 2500 km towards the east, whereas an
observer situated at a latitude of 450 would be moved 1760 km and an observer situated at a
latitude of 600 would be moved 1000 km.
The northern and southern limits of observation are determined by the inclination of the orbit of
the satellite, which defines how far the satellite will move either to the north or to the south.
During every period of twenty-four hours the artificial satellite will make 16 revolutions round the
earth and in so doing will make, as it were, a regular pattern or network over the earths surface.

GLOBAL POSITIONAL SYSTEM (GPS)

WHAT IS GPS?
GPS is acronym for Global positioning System. It is a Navigation Satellite Timing and Ranging
(NAVSTAR) system developed and controlled by the United States Department of Defense as a
worldwide, all weather navigation and timing system.
It is a joint service programme managed by the U.S. Airforce with representation from the Navy,
Army, Marine Corps, Defense Mapping Agency (DMA), Department of Transportation, NATO and
Australia.
The National Ocean and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) and the United States Geological Survey (USGS) have an interest in either
the development or in the application of GPS for geophysical and geodetic purposes.
Conventional methods of surveying and navigation require tedious field and astronomical
observations for deriving positional and directional information.
Rapid advancement in higher frequency signal transmission and precise clock signals along with
advanced satellite technology have led to the development of Global Positioning System (GPS).
GPS allows suitably equipped users anywhere in the world to determine, instantaneously, their
position and velocity.
TYPES OF GPS
Apart from dual/single frequency and Handheld GPS, that many of us familiar with, there are
various types available in the market depending on the use. GPS can be categorized based on the
multiple applications.
1. Street Navigation Systems (SNS)- it is a GPS that gives turn by turn directions, including mileage,
speed and estimated time of arrival.
Most of SNS GPS are preloaded with some utility maps that provides information such as Airports,
Police stations, hospitals any other places of interest
2. Sport GPS systems and watches- are actually like mini-computers strapped to a wrist with
multitude of features specific to your need.
3. Phone with GPS- Many of todays phone offer a GPS features for an additional service. Since most
phones these days come with mandated tracking capability that will help locate you in case of an
emergency
4. GPS child located watch- this kids watch is a combination of GPS and wireless radio that helps
determine the where about of a child. This operate via a web or phone based service.
One can conclude this section by saying that virtually all the facet of human endevours as it relates
to location and direction has input of GPS technology.
GPS SEGMENTS
Satellite
Constellation (space segment)

User Segment
Ground Control Segment

The Space segment

This part consists of 24 satellites and about 6 sphare satellites which orbit at approximately
21,000km altitude.
They (satellites) are about the size of a car, and weigh about 19,000 Ibs. Each satellite is in orbit
above the earth at an altitude of 12660 miles and takes 12 hours to orbit one time.
The exact location of each of the satellites is known at any given moment. The satellites also have
designed on them solar panels that keeps them running every time.

The satellite continuously orient themselves to ensure that their solar panels stay pointed towards
the sun, and their antennas point towards the earth.

Their signals continuously provide position and time to GPS.

The nominal GPS Operational Constellation consists of 24 satellites that orbit the earth in 12 hours.

The satellite orbits repeat almost the same ground track(as the earth turns beneath them) once
each day
 Artificial Satellite

The Control Segments

Control segment is the vital link in GPS technology. There are 5 worldwide monitoring and control
stations around the world where the GPS satellite's almanac is predicted, computed and up linked
to the satellite for transmission to the receiver. It consists in a single Master Control Station at
Schriever Airforce in Colorado (USA), and Five Monitor Stations located in Hawaii, Ascension
Island, Diego Garcia Atoll, Kwajalein island and Colorado Springs. There are three Ground antennas
at the monitor stations excluding Hawaii and Colorado Springs.
The control segment is responsible for ensuring that the GPS satellites are in working condition and
functioning properly. It is from these stations that data from the satellites are transmitted to GPS
unit and back, ensuring that this data is transmitted correctly.
In summary, the control segments perform the following functions
i. provide command for orbital maneuvering
ii. Adjust satellite clocks thus, determine GPS system time
iii. Track satellites to maintain health and station of the satellite constellation.
iv. It Monitors and controls the satellite system continuously
v. It Predicts the satellite ephemeris and the behavior of each satellite clock.
vi. Update periodically the navigation message for each particular satellite

The User Segment

The User Segment of GPS consists of the GPS receivers and the user community.
GPS receivers convert satellite vehicle (SV) signals into position, velocity, and time estimates.
GPS receivers are used for navigation, positioning, time dissemination, and other researches.
All GPS tracking equipments have the same basic components. These are Almanac- which tells
where each satellite is at any given moment, Antennal, Radio frequency section, Microprocessor
control and display units (CDU), Recording device, power supply.
All these components may be individual units, integrated as one unit or partly integrated.
The GPS receivers, decode and process the signals received from the satellites.
The receiver is usually used in conjunction with computer software to output the information to
the users in form of coordinates and maps.
A minimum of 4 satellites are required to compute the four dimension of X,Y,Z and time.

TYPES OF GPS POSITIONING

Positions on the earth surface can be determined with the GPS in 3 ways;
1. Single point positioning eg Hand held GPS
2. Relative or differential positioning Using DGPS
3. Static and kinematic positioning

Single point positioning

Single point positioning- employs only single GPS receiver and is used mainly when a relatively low
accuracy is required.
Here, coordinates of a receiver at an unknown point are sought with respect to the earths
reference frame by using the known position of the GPS satellites being tracked.
This is also referred to as absolute positioning or just a point positioning using the broadcast
ephemerides.
The position of any satellite at any point in time may be computed. Example of this type of
positioning is the one obtained with hand held GPS

Differential positioning

the system employs at least 2 GPS receivers simultaneously tracking the same satellite.
The coordinates of a receiver at an unknown point are sought with respect to a receiver at a known
point.
Carrier-phase or/and code measurements can be used in this mode, depending on the accuracy
measurements; though much higher accuracies achieved with this methods because most GPS
observation errors are common to both the known and unknown site.

. Static and Kinematic positioning.

In static positioning, a GPS receiver is required to be stationary while in kinematic positioning a

receiver collects GPS data while on motion.
For kinematic relative positioning, one receiver is left stationary (base station) on a known point
while a second receiver (rover) is moved over the path to be positioned.
List other positiong methods pls

GPS DATA PROCESSING

Positional data could be obtained in two ways;
a. Real-time the positions are computed on-site. Real-time relative positioning requires a data link
to transmit corrections from a monitor receiver at a known point to a rover (receiver) at an
unknown point.
b. post-field processing- this is usually for relative positioning and it requires bringing together the
data from all receivers after an observation period. Even with real-time point positioning, for many
GPS application, it is still necessary to download data and enter it in a database depending on the
users needs and applications
FACTORS AFFECTING GPS ACCURACY
SATELLITE VISIBILITY
The functionality of GPS receiver depends on the numbers of satellites to which it can establish on
unobstructed time of sight. This is largely due to the dynamic positions of GPS satellites relative to
the earths surface. GPS receiver performance is usually affected by terrains or buildings, especially
in mountainous or urban areas commonly referred to as urban canyons. The line of sight (LOS)
paths of the GPS receivers can be blocked by these elements.
The location of satellites with respect to a specific point on the earth is described in terms of
elevation angle and azimuth. The elevation angle is the angle from the antenna between the
horizontal and the line of sight to the satellite while azimuth is the clockwise angle from north to
the location of the satellite in the sky.

There are two major factors that affect satellite visibility (ie no of satellite that can be seen at a
given time).
1. Mask Angle
The mask angle refers to the elevation angle below which GPS signals will not be recorded (outside
the coverage of the receiver antenna). It is an important factor to be considered in obtaining good
satellite visibility by the GPS receiver. Most GPS receivers, regardless of price, have a setting facility
where you can adjust the instrument to require mask angle. In a typical surveying application, mask
angle is usually set at 150.

Mask angle filters out signals from satellites below a certain angle of elevation above the horizon.
Satellites that are very close to the horizon, from the point of view of a GPS receiver, experience
more errors, or noise, caused by the atmosphere than satellites high in the sky.
By setting the elevation mask, GPS receiver users can effectively mask noisy signals, so that they are
not used to calculate the latitude, longitude and altitude of the GPS receiver. GPS receiver is usually
set between 10 and 15 degrees. Setting the elevation mask angle too high introduces the
possibility of few satellites being high enough in the sky to provide sufficient positional data.