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u-Substitution
If u = g(x) is a differentiable function and f is continuous, then
Z Z
0
f (g(x)) g (x) dx = f (u) du
Integration by Parts
The formula for integration by parts is
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f (x)g (x) dx = f (x)g(x) g(x)f 0 (x) dx
0
or Z Z
u dv = uv v du
(a) If m is odd, save a factor of sin x and use the identity sin2 x = 1 cos2 x.
Then, use a u-sub with u = cos x and du = sin x dx.
(b) If n is odd, save a factor of cos x and use the identity cos2 x = 1 sin2 x.
Then, use a u-sub with u = sin x and du = cos x dx.
(c) If m and n are both even, try using different trig identities to simplify the integrand.
Z
Integrals of the form tanm x secn x dx
(a) If m is odd, save a factor of sec x tan x and use the identity tan2 x = sec2 x 1.
Then, use a u-sub with u = sec x and du = sec x tan x dx.
(b) If n is even, save a factor of sec2 x and use the identity sec2 x = tan2 x + 1.
Then, use a u-sub with u = tan x and du = sec2 x dx.
(c) If m is even and n is odd, try changing the integrand into term of sin x and cos x or try using different
trig identities to simplify the integrand.
Trigonometric Substitutions
Expression Trig Substitution Identity Triangle
a
x
a2 x2 x = a sin cos2 = 1 sin2
a2 x2
a2 + x2
a2 + x2 x = a tan sec2 = tan2 + 1 x
a
x
x2 a2 x = a sec tan2 = sec2 1 x2 a2
a
2
6.3 Partial Fractions
(x a)n+1
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1 1
dx = ln |x a| + C dx = + C for n 6= 1
xa (x a)n n + 1
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x 1 1 1 1 x
dx = ln x2 + a2 + C
2 2
dx = tan +C
x +a 2 x2 + a2 a a
R(x)
For rational functions of the form f (x) = , completely factor the denominator Q(x).
Q(x)
R(x) A B C
distinct linear factors = + + +
(x a)(x b)(x c) xa xb xc
R(x) A1 A2 A3 An
repeated linear factors = + + + +
(x a)n x a (x a)2 (x a)3 (x a)n
R(x) A1 x + A2 B1 x + B2 C1 x + C2
distinct quadratic factors + = 2 + 2 + 2
(x2 + a2 )(x2 2 2 2
+ b )(x + c ) x +a 2 x +b 2 x + c2
R(x) A1 x + B 1 A2 x + B 2 A3 x + B 3 An x + B n
repeated quadratic factors = 2 + 2 + 2 + + 2
(x2 + a2 )n x + a2 (x + a2 )2 (x + a2 )3 (x + a2 )n
ba
n = # subintervals of [a, b] x =
n
Midpoint Rule
Z b
f (x) dx Mn = x [f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) + f (x3 ) + + f (xn )]
a
2i 1
where xi = a + x is the midpoint of the ith subinterval for i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n.
2
3
Trapezoidal Rule
Z b
x
f (x) dx Tn =[f (x0 ) + 2f (x1 ) + 2f (x2 ) + + 2f (xn1 ) + f (xn )]
a 2
where xi = a + ix for i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n.
Simpsons Rule
Note: n must be even to use Simpsons Rule.
Z b
x
f (x) dx Sn = [f (x0 ) + 4f (x1 ) + 2f (x2 ) + 4f (x3 ) + + 2f (xn2 ) + 4f (xn1 ) + f (xn )]
a 3
where xi = a + ix for i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n.
The improper integrals in parts (a) and (b) converge or are convergent if the corresponding limits exist.
Otherwise, the improper integrals in parts (a) and (b) diverge or are divergent if the limits do not exist.
(c) If a is any real number, then
Z Z a Z
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx
a
p-Test
Z
1
If p > 1, then dx is convergent.
1 xp
Z
1
If p 1, then dx is divergent.
1 xp
The improper integrals in parts (a) and (b) converge or are convergent if the corresponding limits exist.
Otherwise, the improper integrals in parts (a) and (b) diverge or are divergent if the limits do not exist.
(c) If f has a discontinuity at c, where a < c < b, then
Z b Z c Z b
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx
a a c
4
Theorem (Comparison Theorem).
Suppose that f and g are continuous functions with 0 f (x) g(x) for x a.
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(a) If g(x) dx is convergent, then f (x) dx is convergent.
a a
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(b) If f (x) dx is divergent, then g(x) dx is divergent.
a a