Institute of Ethiopian Studies

Review of the Literature on Ethiopian Resistance with Particular Emphasis on Gojjam: 1936-
1941
Author(s): Seltene Seyoum
Source: Journal of Ethiopian Studies, Vol. 36, No. 2 (December 2003), pp. 37-57
Published by: Institute of Ethiopian Studies
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 JES,Vol.XXXVI,No.2 (December
2003) 37

Review of the Literatureon Ethiopian Resistance

withParticularEmphasis on Gojjam: 1936-1941

SelteneSeyoum

Introduction
In thecontextof thenatureand extentof Europeancolonial impositionand African
resistanceand challenge,theEthiopiancase occupies a ratheruniqueposition.When
Europeancolonialpowerswere speedingup theirpartition of Africa,Ethiopiascored
a decisivemilitaryvictoryover Italyat theBattleof Adwa in 1896. This remarkable
victoryovera colonialpowermade EthiopiatheonlyAfricancountry thatsaved itself
fromtheyokeof colonialism.

But such a situationwas no longertruefortyyearslateras Italyand Ethiopiaagain

enteredintoanotherera of contest,the formerstrivingto colonize Ethiopiaand the
latterstrugglingto defendits rightto exist as a sovereignpower. In October 1935
FascistItalyinvadedEthiopia.It won thewarof 1935-36as a resultof bettermilitary
preparationsand theuse of moderntechniquesof warfare.The Battleof Maichw (3 1
March 1936) broughtthewholeperiodof conventional warfareto an end. The Italians
seized the imperialcapital,Addis Ababa, on 5 May 1936, and fourdays laterthey
declaredthat"Ethiopiais Italian."Fascist authorities
believedthatthisoccasion was
theendof Italy'smilitarymissionin Ethiopia.

However,it was paradoxicalthatthe Italians who won the war in seven months
(1935-36) and who also liquidatedthe firstphase of the resistanceduringthe next
nine months(1936-37) were not subsequentlyable to "pacify" the people and
establishcolonial rule. The politicalsituationremainedunresolvedthroughout the
wholeperiodof Italianoccupationpreciselybecause of theEthiopianstruggle.Thus,
throughout its stayin EthiopiaFascistItalywas forcedto maintainan armyof about
240,000 troops.This was perhapsthelargestarmya colonialpowerkeptin thename
of preservingpeace in a colony.However,Italy's strategyand modernarmaments
werenotdecisiveenoughto quell themass oppositionof theEthiopiansor to save its
militaryfirstfromconfinement to itsgarrisonsand nextfromtotaldisintegration.

In thisregard,theyears 1936-41were fullof crucialeventsthatdecided the fateof

Ethiopiato eitherbecome a colonyor to remainan independent sovereignstate.Its
defeatat thewar frontsubjectedEthiopiato fiveyearsof Italianoccupation.At the
same time, its peoples' continuedresistanceagainst that occupation also made
EthiopiatheonlyAfricancountryto regainits independenceonly afterfiveyearsof
occupation.This was not withoutreason.The underlying factorforcarryingout an
anti-colonialstrugglehas to be soughtin the fightingtraditionof the Ethiopian
people. Thus, not deterredby the lack of any centralgovernment leadershipat the
Journal
ofEthiopian Vol.36:2(Dec.2003),
Studies, Institute
Copyright, ofEthiopian AAU.
Studies,

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38 Seltene : Review
Seyoum oftheliterature
onEthiopian ...
resistance

nationallevel,theEthiopiansrose up in arms,opposedtheforeignoccupationof their

landand foughtagainstenemytroopsuntiltheday of liberationin 1941.

But how and why thishappened,the extentand magnitudeof the struggleand the
organizationalbasis of the resistanceis given less attentionthan it deserves by
Ethiopianistsand perhapstheleastfocusby Africanists. In thisregard,it is hightime
thatone made a reviewof the available literaturein orderto knowhow muchspace
theEthiopianresistanceoccupies in therecentAfricanor Ethiopianmilitarystruggle
againstforeignoccupation.But firstlet's have a briefassessmentof thebackground
of theissue underreview.

Background
The years 1935-41wereperiodsof bitterconflictbetweenEthiopiaand Italy.Several
scholarshave writtenon variousaspectsof the issue. Theirworkscan be generally
classifiedaccordingto the major themestheydiscussed. The followingis a brief
assessmentof themajorworks.

Some writerstried to see the period from the perspectivesof war and its
consequences. Among other things,they focused on achievementsand failures;
hardshipsand theextentof Italianreactionto overcometheEthiopianresistance.1

Otherwriterspronouncedtheliberationcampaignof 1940-41.2 Theydescribedhow

the Allied forcesbroughtItalianEast Africato an end and liberatedEthiopia.From

1
Majorwriters of theperiod1935-41includeGeorgeL. Steer,Caesar in Abyssinia
(London:Hodder& Stoughton, 1936);PietroBadoglio,TheWarinAbyssinia (London:
MethuenPublishers, 1937); GovernoGeneralA.O.I. II Io Anno dell' Impero(Addis
Abeba, 1939); EmilioDe Bono,AnnnoXIII; The Conquestof an Empire(London:
CrescentPress,1947); Ministero della Difesa,OfficialHistory:la Guerrain Africa
Orientale(Roma:RegionalPress,1952);AngeloDel Boca, TheEthiopianWar:1935-
1941 (Chicago:The University of ChicagoPress,1965); idem.Gli Italianiin Africa
Orientale.4vls. (Milan: 1975-85);GeorgeW. Baer, The Comingof the Italian-
EthiopianWar (Cambridge: HarvardUniversity Press,1967);AlbertoSbacchi,Italian
Colonialism inEthiopia1936-1940(Chicago:UniversityofIllinois,1975);idem,Ethiopia
UnderMussolini, Fascismand theColonialExperience(London:Zed Books, 1985);
idem.LegacyofBitterness, EthiopiaandFascistItaly,1935-1941(Asmara:TheRedSea
Press,1997);Anthony Haile Selassie's War:TheItalianEthiopianCampaign
Mockler,
1935-1941(NewYork:RandomHouse,1984);Hailemariam Larebo,TheBuilding ofan
Empire:Italian LandPolicyand Practicein Ethiopia,1935-1941(Oxford:Clarendon
Press,1994).
2. OrdeC. Wingate,"An Appreciation of theEthiopianCampaign,"18.6.41.(Cairo,
1941);GreatBritain, TheAbyssinianCampaign:TheOfficial History oftheConquestof
ItalianEast Africa(London:His Majesty'sStationery Office,1942); GeorgeL. Steer,
Sealed and Delivered : a Book on the AbyssinianCampaign(London: Hodder&

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 Seltene Review
Seyoum: oftheliterature
onEthiopian
resistance
... 39

we learnthatBritishofficialcirclesunderstoodthemilitaryvalue of
theirliterature,
the Ethiopian patriotsand the political value of Haile Selassie. But a close
examination of theliterature
showsthatthewritersbecametoo scrupulousto describe
therolethepatriotsplayedin thecampaign.

The focuson Europeanachievements or failures,be itthatof theItaliansor thatof the

British,without tryingto revealmuch of Ethiopianreaction,is tantamount to ignoring
thepartEthiopianpatriotsplayed.In short,thisattitudehas played a significant role
in obscuringthe historyof the Ethiopiananti-colonialstruggleagainstFascist Italy.
This is whytheexploitsof thepatriotsduringtheperiodof theresistance(1936-41)
stilloccupiesless space in theworksof manyscholars.

However,in the 1960s, new writerswho arguedthatthe issue should be assessed

froma different perspectiveappeared.The Americanscholar,RichardGreenfield
took the lead in thisnew direction.Summarizingthe imbalancein the attitudesand
work of earlier scholars,Greenfieldcommented:"Historiansdo not always give
creditto theworkof thepatriotforces.The Italiancollapse can onlybe explainedif
thelongguerrillawar of attrition
theyenduredis remembered."3 He also wrotesome
worksthatcorroborated his argument. HaroldMarcussharedtheviews of Greenfield
and further developedthe studyon the resistancefromthe Ethiopianperspective.4
Laterseveralotherscholarsappreciatedtheneed fora new approachto theresistance,
thoughmuchof theirworksstillremainedEurocentric. In themiddleof the 1960s Del
Boca wrotethe firstfull-scalehistoryof the Ethiopianwar of 1935-41 in whichhe
added a note to the effectthat"The storyof the Ethiopianresistance...has to be
written."5Moreover,withinthe next threedecades Alberto Sbacchi wrote three
books and several articleson the Italian occupationof Ethiopia. Again, Sbacchi
shared the views of Del Boca and others when he said: "... The Ethiopian
contributionto theoverallwareffectis greaterthanrecorded."6

Stoughton, 1942); W.E.D Allen,GuerrillaWarfarein Abyssinia(London:Penguin

Books,1943);Christine Sandford, EthiopiaunderHaileSelassie(London,1946);Leonard
Mosley,GideonGoesto War(New York: CharlesScribner's Sons,1955);Christopher
Sykes,OrdeWingate (London:Collins,1959);Wilfred Thesiger,TheLifeofMyChoice
(London:WilliamCollins,1987); David Shirref, Barefeetand Bandeliers
: Wingate,
Sandford,thePatriots and thePartTheyPlayedintheLiberation ofEthiopia (London
& NewYork:RadcliffePress,1995).Shirref hasnewmaterials buthe doesnotdiscuss
themsufficiently.
3 Richard the Struggle:A Contribution
Greenfield,"Remembering fromEthiopian
Sourcestowardsa Historyof PatriotResistanceto ItalianOccupation(1936-41)/*
Mekerere Journal,9. (Kampala,1964),p.7; idem,Ethiopia,A New PoliticalHistoiy
(NewYork:Frederic A. Praeger Publishers,
1965),p.258.
4Formore see HaroldG. Marcus,"Ethiopia1937-1941,"inChallenge
information, and
ResponseinInternal Conflict.3. (April1968).
Del Boca,TheEthiopian War,p.242.
Sbacchi,EthiopaUnderMussolini, p.38.

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40 Seyoum: Review
Seltene oftheliterature
onEthiopian
resistance
...

These writersunderlinedthe fact thattherewas an urgentneed for studyingthe

Ethiopianresistancefromthenationalperspective.

But when we examine the issue fromthe Ethiopianside, the matterseeks more
attentionfromanotherdimension.A further analysisof theissue showsthatEthiopian
historiography on the resistancehas been growingto a significant degreefromtwo
directions.Firstly,popular literature has been on the scene much earlierthanone
could expect. From the middle of 1940s to the early 1990s several Ethiopians
producedsignificant worksof historicalnarrativein Amharic.7Most of theseworks
are published.It is also interesting
to notethatmostofthewriterswereparticipants or
contemporaries of the national fightersin the patrioticstrugglefor liberation.It
sufficesto mentionGrima Taffrand Tadds Zwld. The formerwas an
undercoverpriest-agentof Bgmederpatriots,travelingbetween Cairo and his
home-placevia Khartoum,while the latterwas workingin that capacityamong
Shwan patriots.8 Later the autobiography of Haile Selassie and otherimportant
works, such as that of Heywt Hedaru and Haddis Almayhuappeared.9These and
otherworksadd moreknowledgeto ourunderstanding of thepatrioticresistance.

Secondly,more scholarlyworkson the resistancehave begun to appear since the

early 1970s. Richard Pankhurstand Slom Gebre-Egziabhrare among the

7
MajorworksincludeMuluswMeteku, YArbanoch TegelKFascistochGar.KShwa
Esk SudanTrf(AddisAbaba:Berhanena SlamPress,1937E.C.); BerhanuDenq,
YAmestu MkraAmtatAcherTarik(Addis Ababa: TensaeZgubaPress,1942
E.C.); MahtmaSelassWldMsqal,ZekrNgr(AddisAbaba: 1942E.C.); Flq
Dan,AmestuYmkra Amtena Fetsamewen AcherMastawsha(AddisAbaba: 1944
E.C.); MslnAnly,BalfutArnes t Ymkra AmtatFascistochBEthiopia(Addis
Ababa: MrehaTebb Press,1947,E.C.); DmisTola, KzmnGuzoAcherTarik
(Addis Ababa: MrehaTebb Press, 1948 E.C.); Tadds Mcha, TequrAnbsa
BmeerabEthiopia(Asmara:N.D.); GrimaTafr,GondrBgashaw(AddisAbaba:
Tsfa Press,1949 E.C.); TaddsZwlde,YAbalashen Zmn(Addis Ababa,1956
E.C.); idem,QrinGrmw : YArbnoch Tarik(AddisAbaba:Berhanena SlamPress,
1960 E.C.); Kbbd Tsma, YTarikMastawsha(Addis Ababa: MrehaTebb
Press,1962E.C.); HeywtHedaru,YachiQn Trsach(AddisAbaba:Berhanena Slam
Press,1967E.C.); HaddisAlmayahu, Tezeta(AddisAbaba:ArtisticPress,1985E.C.).
8
HeywtHedaruidentifies GrimaTafraas a priestandmessenger ofthepatriot
chief,
DjjazmachDaftwTsma.BothHeywtand Grimaentered from
Ethiopiatogether
Khartoum in 1939.For further see Heywat,p.175. TaddsZwldwas
information,
educatedabroad;thathe was a patriot as wellas an agentcan be understoodfromthe
severalbookshewrote.
9
Qdamawi Haile Selassie, HeywtenYEthiopiaErmeja. I-II. (Addis Ababa:
Berhanena Slam Press,1965 and 1966 E.C.). The worksof Heywtand Haddisare
already citedinf.n.7.

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 Seltene : Review
Seyoum oftheliterature
onEthiopian
resistance
... 41

pioneeringwriterson theissue fromtheEthiopianside.10But itis withtheopeningof

the Departmentof Historyof the Addis Ababa Universitythat more profound
historicalresearchstarted.The staffand studentsof the Departmenttook up the
leading professionalposition. In this respect,the Departmentmade its students
producequantitiesof researchon theresistanceas a partialfulfillment
fortheirB.A.
senioressaysand Ph.D. theses.11Moreover,some of thestaffdevelopedtheliterature
on theresistanceby givingsufficientcoveragein theirworksor by producingarticles
on certainaspects.BahruZewde belongsto thefirstcategoryand Tsma Ta'a and
WuduTaftto thesecond.12

At thisjuncture,thethesesof studentsdeserveparticular attention.

Theyfocuson the
resistanceand otherrelatedissues at the regionalor biographicallevels. These and
othersimilarstudiesgenerallymade use of worksby expatriates. But theyare unique
in several aspects. Firstly,they tried to see the resistancefrom the Ethiopian
perspective.Secondly,and more importantly, theymade use of local archives,and
oral
particularly, sources. this
Thirdly, new approachbroughtfundamental changein

10BothPankhurst andSlomtriedtoelaborate theissuefrom theEthiopian perspective.

See detailsin SlomGebre-Egziabher, "The Ethiopian Patriots:1936-1941," Ethiopia
Observer, 12,2 (1969); RichardPankhurst, "TheEthiopian PatriotsandtheCollapseof
ItalianRule,1940-41",EthiopiaObserver, 12,2 (1969); idem."The Ethiopian Patriots:
The Lone Struggle,1936-1940,"EthiopiaObserver , 13, 1 (1970); idem,"Italyand
Ethiopia:TheFirstFourYearsoftheResistance Movement," AfricaQuarterly , 9 (1970).
11A lotofworkhas beendoneon theresistance movement. on Gojjam,the
Particularly
majorworksincludeManiazawalAssfa,"The Resistancein Bgmdir, Gojjamand
Wellega."B.A. Thesis.(1970); YohannesBerhanu, "ThePatriots in Gojjam1936-1941,
(A StudyofResistance Movement)." B.A. Thesis.(1972); ZlalmAssfa,"Djjazmach
BlayZlq(1912-1945):A Tentative Biography."B.A. Thesis.(1983); DagnentLake,
"BitwddMngshaJmbr (1892-1950)."B.A. Thesis(1988); SamsonChane,"The
CourtSystemof DjjazmachBlayZlaq." B.A Thesis(1991); SelteneSeyoum,"A
Historyof BahirDar Town: 1936-1974."M.A. Thesis(1988); idem."A Historyof
Resistancein Gojjam(Ethiopia):1936-1941." Ph.D. dissertation.
(1999). See also Nga
Ayla,"CentralizationVersusRegionalism inEthiopia:theCase ofGojjam,1932-1969."
B.A.Thesis.(Department ofPoliticalScienceandInternationalRelations, HaileSelassieI
University,1970).
12In his historical
studiesof modern BahruZewdegave theresistance
Ethiopia, wide
coverage andnewdirection forfuture research.
Someotherscholars also wrotearticles
on
certainresistanceissues.For additional information,see BahruZewde,A Historyof
ModernEthiopia, 1855-1974 (London:JamesCurrey;Athens:Ohio University Press;
Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa University Press,1991); Tasma Ta'a, "The Bonyya
Incidentand the Italian Occupationof Nqamt (1936-1941)"; Wudu Tafet,
"
DajjazmachHayluKbbdandthePatriotic Resistance Movement in Wag,1935-41."
See thearticlesineds.Katsuyoshi Fuku,EiseiKurimoto andMasoqoshiShigeta, Papers
oftheXIIIthInternational
Conference ofEthiopian Studies,Kyoto(1997).

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42 Seltene Review
Seyoum: oftheliterature
onEthiopian
resistance
...

thecontentas well as in givingnew orientation

to thesubjectmatterunderdiscussion.
This timethestudyreachedthegrassroots of theEthiopiansociety.

It is intothisnew developmentthatmydoctoralthesison theresistancein thisregion

fits.I had a good opportunity to collect as much oral information as possible by
interviewingknowledgeableelders (many of whom were actors in the patriotic
struggle)and to consultsourcesin thearchivesand librariesof Londonand Rome. As
a comprehensivestudyof the resistancein Ethiopia in general,and Gojjam in
particular,itis hopedthisworkwouldcontribute to developingthenew trend.

Havingthebriefassessmentgivenabove as a background, theobjectiveof thereview

is, therefore,to findouthow muchof thehistoryof Ethiopiananti-colonial opposition
is reflectedin theliteratureby focusingon theanti-Fasciststruggleresolutelycarried
out by the people of Gojjam in north-western Ethiopia.In orderto appreciatethe
problem an effort has been made to assess the literature
by takingsome important
themesintoconsideration.

How the ResistanceBegan

Opposition to Italian occupation spread throughoutthe country,but it became
predominantalong the Ethiopianplateau extendingfromthe Tkz River in the
northto theAwash Riverin the south.This is approximatelytheterritory whichthe
Italianstermed'Amhara governorate'.A significant portionof this resistance
took
place in Gojjam. However, the objectiveof this studyis not to give a historical
outlineof theresistancein Gojjam butto reviewwhathas been writtenon theregion
concerning thestruggle.

Whenand how theresistancebegan is thefirstpointof mydiscussion.Accordingto

severalwriters,an anti-Fascistinsurgency brokeout in Gojjam in 1937. As already
indicated,Marcusand Slom wereamongtheearlyscholarsto statethis.The former
connectedthe flaringup of the issue in the countrysidewith the repressionthat
resultedfromtheGrazianiMassacre of February1937,whilethelatterlinkedit with
the risingpatrioticactivitiesof the summerof 1937. Slom's narrativedepends
largelyon oral informationwhileMarcusassociatesit withthewidespreadrebellions
of thepeople againstthenew master. Mockler'sview fallsin betweenMarcus' and
Slome's. Mockler does not make it as specificas the otherscholarstried,but he
argues thatthe rebellionin Gojjam was a concomitantresultof the killingof the
Dbr Lbanos clergy.How thishappened,he does notexplain.Likewise,thesenior
essays have not come up withanything different
exceptto followin the footstepsof
Marcusand othersregarding thebeginningof therevoltand focuson theescalationof
themilitaryeventsof thesummerof 1937 and thenlaterdevelopment.

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 Seltene Review
Seyoum: oftheliterature
onEthiopian
resistance
... 43

But basingmy studyon oral and archivalsources,I proposeto push thedate much
earlierin my thesis. As earlyas October 1936, in the districtof Yelmana Dnsa
southof Bahir Dar, therewas local resistancewhich broke out in the formof a
skirmish thatdevelopedintotheBattleof Anbesit.13Two reasonscontributed to the
outbreakof the battle. In September,the traditionalrulerof the region,Djjach
SebhatuYegzaw and otherswere arrestedand hanged in Bahir Dar on chargesof
thepeople to rebel.14Sebhatuwas replacedbyDjjach TerfeKassa. This
instigating
measuremade the people angry. The situationbecame worse when Terfeand his
forcesstarteddisarmingthe people by force. Whataction was to be takenagainst
Terfewas alreadypreplanned, as eldersstated.Whilesome peasantsloyal to Sebhatu
beat Terfewithclubs on his head, othersshot at his troops. Terfedied fromthe
beating. Fightingcontinuedin whichthe local rebel groupsdefeatedItalianbanda
troops,capturedthe armscollectedfromthepeople and otherweapons surrendered
by the enemyand retiredto thejungle. This is the earliestlocal fightrecordedin
Gojjam.

Similarly,thoughhe putit in generalterms,theItalianViceroy,RodolfoGraziani,in

his reportof December 1936, mentionsthe worseningpolitico-militarysituationin
theregionof Amhara,and especiallyin Gojjam.15The viceroyfurther remarksthat
Gojjam was in rebellion,fullof armedmenwho blockedItalianarmymovements.

The rebellionthatbegan at Anbesitand otherplaces reachedseriousproportionsat

the firstbattleof Yezora/Yedbi(Rob Gbya) in August 1937 where the patriot
forcesofDjjazmach MngshaJmbrbadlydefeatedItaliantroops.16 It is reported
that,in thesame summer,local victoriesoverenemytroopswerealso scoredin other
partsof Gojjam, suchas Damot,Gonchaand Bechna. This appearsto be thereason
why manyscholarswronglyattribute the beginningof the anti-Fasciststrugglein
Gojjam to thesummerof 1937, whenthiswas actuallythetimethe local opposition
was transformed fromsporadicfightingto a moreorganizedresistance.

13Seltene "A History ofResistance."

Seyoum, OralInformants TamerShefraw, age 78,
interviewed in BahirDar on 5.8.1986;AnliHail,age 88, interviewedin BahirDar on
27.7 1986and 18.81992;DmlwJmbr, age 89,interviewed inBahirDaron 17.31986
and20.7 1989.See also"Letters WrittenbyTaddsGbrMdhentoHis MajestyHaile
SelassieI andOtherFiguresDuringthePatriots Period,"Instituteof EthiopianStudies,
A.A.U.-N. 1799(Hereafter TddsG. Mdhen, MS.N. 1799).
14The execution of Sebhatuis confirmedby Italianarchives.For details,see Seltene
Seyoum, "A History ofResistance,"pp.76-77,133.
15 AddisAbeba,a S.E Ministero
ACS,FG,Graziani, AfricaItaliana,Roma,10 decembre
1936.
16Oralinformants TamerShefraw; DmlwJmbr; Anli Hail;BlwWsn,age 84,
interviewed atGemjabt on 14.31986;TaddsG. MdhenMS. N.1799.

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44 Seltene Review
Seyoum: oftheliterature
onEthiopian ...
resistance

The cause of Gojjam resistanceagainst Fascist occupation is anotherissue to

consider.Accordingto Sandford,theGojjamsrebelledbecause theItaliansfailedto
win the confidenceof the people, while Mockler attributes its beginningto some
otherrelatedissues outsidethe region,specificallythe killingof the Dbr Libanos
clergy.17 Sandford's statementis too general,while that of Mockler is highly
contentious,because Gojyamwas alreadyin rebellionlong beforethe incidentof
Dbr Libanos,whichoccurredin May 1937.

Sbacchi triedto siftthe specificfromthe general. Dependingon the accountsof

Fascistauthorities
of theperiodof occupation,he identified theatrociousacts of the
Italiansin Gojjam, such as thedrowningof severalchiefsof Mcha in the watersof
Lake Tana, the mass executionsof Adt,the defeatand flightof the Fascist army
fromYezora/Yedbiand the unfairtaxationas the main factorsforthe Gojjams to
rebel.18However,he gives littleelaborationon theincidents.

Nevertheless,Sbacchi's accountof Italian atrocitiesis further supportedby senior

essays as well as oral informationand local archives. There is muchevidencethat
therewereseveralhangingsand executionsin variouspartsof Gojjam, such as Bahir
Dar, Yelmana Dnsa, Damot and Goncha,as a resultof whichthesons and relatives
of the deceased chiefsand otherswentintothebush opposingItalianactions.19 But
theextentto whichItalianpolicyon taxationcouldhave becomea directcause forthe
people to revoltis not yet substantiated except in relationto an earlierrumorof
exemption for some time or itsdemandnot in kindbutin cash.

But thereis one fundamental reasonon whichalmostall sourcesagree. This is the

questionof Italy'spolicyof disarmament.However,thereare richlocal oral sources
and Italianarchivalmaterialswhichshedconsiderablelighton theissue.20 A case
in point is the Anbesitincident(October 1936). In my studyI also discuss other
similarepisodes thattookplace at Yezora/Yedbi(August,December 1937), Boksos,
in Damot, and Goncha, in Mota. The battlesat Boksos and Goncha took place in
May 1937. In all the engagementsthe patriotsscoredvictories,capturedarmsand
repulsedenemytroopsfromthecountryside.

17
Sandford,p.94:Mockler,p.184.
18 UnderMussolini,
Sbacchi,Ethiopia
19Oral informants p.196.
TamerShefraw; AnliHail; MulatAbj,age 84, interviewed
in
Dangelaon 16.3.1986;AdmasuYemam,age 79,interviewed atMrawion23.7.1991and
30.3 1995;TaddsG. MdhenMS. N.1799;New TimesandEthiopiaNews, 19 March
1938; Ministryof Justice,
Documents on EthiopianWarCrimesCommission by the
ImperialEthiopianGovernment.I. (AddisAbaba,1949).
20Seltene "A HistoryofResistance."
Seyoum,

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resistance

Moreover,disarmament was one of thecauses forrebellion,whichcan be seen in the

instructionSalvatoreE. Corvo,theItalianresidentat Bahir Dar, gave to Gilagiorgis
Uqbit,an agentof theItaliansat Zg. He ordered:"You are to punishwithoutpity
all personsfoundin possessionof armsand ammunition.I instruct you to burnnot
onlytheirhouses,but also thepersonsthemselves."21Corvo gave thisorderon 20
May 1937. This was the same day when the enemymassacredthe Dbr Libanos
clergyand destroyedthemonastery preciselyforthesame reason.In the literature it
is statedthat,because he was probablytiredof Italianatrocities,Gilagiorgisjoined
the patrioticforcesof Mngsha in Septemberof the same year and seized the
occasion to urge the people of Zg and Mcha to revolt,and accordingto elders,
manyof themdid.

Thatthepossessionand thefailureto handover firearms, whichwas subjectto death

penalty,was one of themajorcauses forrebellionagainstFascist administration is
corroborated by richoral information
as well as written
documents.This could be a
partialexplanation. But in muchof the literaturethereis littlediscussionof other
fundamental causes, such as thequestionof land,theperceptionof whichwas basic
to theresistance.

To appreciateEthiopiancultureand theway thepeople lived and interacted, one has

to understandthe importanceof land to thepeople. Sbacchi discusses the studyof
180,000hectaresin Mcha to be expropriated fromthelocal people, whileYohannes
statestheimportance of landfortheGojjams who roseup to defendit.22But neither
scholarattemptsto show whethertherewere any engagementsbetweenthe enemy
and thepeople of Gojjam because of land as property.In short,thereis insufficient
discussionin the literatureon mattersrelatedto land. HailemariamLarebo has a
lengthy discussion on what happened in other parts of Ethiopia regardingthe
resistance.

When it comes specificallyto Gojjam, my workgrappleswiththethemein whichI

look at theperspectivesof thecountrypeople,theirinstitutions and theirperceptions
of land. I draw upon a richoral informationas well as on reportsby local Italian
officials.EldersassertthatmanyGojjams did notaccept theItaliansas sovereigns,
regardingtheminsteadas invaderswho had come to seize theirland.23Because of
this perception,the people fought,as elders tell it, for theirland as territory
or
country.
21 New Timesand
EthiopiaNews, No. 140, 7 January1939; Ministry of Justice,
Documents,p.20.
Forfurther see Sbacchi,EthiopiaUnderMussolini
information, p.l 1.
, p.97; Yohannes,
Formoredetailssee SelteneSeyoum, "A History " pp.202-03.
ofResistance
23Oral informantsDmlwJmbr, TamerShefraw, AnliHail; Blw Wsn.All
werepatriots
invarying capacities.

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46 Seltene oftheliterature
Review
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resistance

Developmentof the Movement

The literatureon how Gojjam's anti-Fascistmovementdeveloped is growing.This
can be attestedto by thesenioressays and Ph.D. thesesand popularand professional
literaturethathave been emergingof late. The literatureon how the movement
developed is studied by assessing certainthemes. The discussion below is an
elaborationof this.

The prevailingpolitical situationof Gojjam when the Italian forcesoccupied the

region is the firstthemeof the discussion. In 1932 therewas a change in the
governorship of Gojjam. Ras Hailu Tkl Haimanot,thenativerulerof Gojjam, was
detainedand, in his place, Ras ImruHaile Selassie was installedrulerby thecentral
government. Imruhad supporters as well as opponents.The lattergrouprejectedhim
because he did not belong to the ruling house of Gojjam. Such opposition
notwithstanding, in 1935, Imru led the troopsof Gojjam and Bgmederto the
northern war front.He had severalcommanders, suchas Djjach Gsss Blw, the
nephew of Ras Hailu, under him. When they reached Dabat, enemy planes
bombardedthearea and inflicteddamage.Whentheincidentwas over,it was found
out thatDjjach Gsss, leadinga portionof the Gojjam army,had desertedand
returnedto Gojjam wherehe openlyrevoltedagainstthecentralgovernment.

This revoltbrokeout in December 1935 and continueduntilMay 1936. This review

is to showhow muchof Gsss's revolthas been addressedin theliterature
eitheras
a facilitating
factorfortheenemyto occupytheprovinceor as a delayingreasonwhy
the Gojjarns were not able to launch a coordinatedanti-colonialstruggleat the
earliesttime.

The revoltdevelopedintoa regionalproblembetweenthosewho supportedGsss

and those who stood for the centralgovernment.Several of the popular writers
recordedthe Gsss revoltand the actions the governmenttook to suppressthe
rebellion.

Otherwritersrelatethe revoltand the extentto whichthe enemytriedto spreadit

furtherby givingtherebelssome encouragement.24 But it is fromPh. D. dissertations
thatwe learn much about the abundanceof oral information on the issue and its
consequences. In theunpublished literature
theensuingcampaignswerecharacterized
as disastrousand fullof atrocities,
suchas lootingand burningproperty accompanied
by rapes and killings.25
This had seriousrepercussions.As some of thesenioressays
put it,manyGojjams saw thereinforcing government troopsas an additionalarmy
sentto destroyGojjam on thepretextof suppressing Gsss's revolt.In thisrespect,

24Del
Boca,TheEthiopianWar,p.150.
25
Yohannes,p.6;Zlalm,p.7.

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resistance,

forinstance,Zlalm Assfa relatesthattheGojjams consideredtheItalianinvasion

as no greaterdangerthanthe atrociouscampaignof the Shwans.26 It may be in
connectionwith such attitudethatMockler statesthe Gojjams had accepted the
But neitherMocklernor the senioressay writersshow how
Italiansas liberators.27
muchoppositionor supportGsss had in Gojjam. However,in mydissertation I try
to showthatGsss foughtand lostin overtenengagements. On theotherhand,it is
shownthatGsss collaboratedwiththeItalians.Nevertheless,all sourcesagreethat
Gsss facilitatedthe penetrationof the Italians into Gojjam and became
instrumental in fostering
theenemy'spropagandaafterwards.

But the senioressays have neglectedto discuss how Gsss' s revoltcould have
played a partin delayingthe emergenceof a coordinatedanti-Fascistresistancein
Gojjam. Italian propagandapossibly reinforcedGojjam's anti-Shwandiscontent
The Italianspreachedthattheycame notagainstthepeople butagainstHaile Selassie,
who, theysaid, was the enemyof bothItalyand Gojjam.28Furthermore, it is stated
thatthe Italianspromisedthattheywould bringmuchprosperity to the regionand
improvethelivingconditionsof thepeople. In thisrespect,myinformants assertthat
theItalianscapitalizedon theexistingantagonismbetweenGojjam and Shwa. How
muchthiscould have been a factorforthedelay of a coordinatedresistancecan be
moreelaboratedin relationto thethemediscussedbelow.

Anotherpossible factor,butone leasttouchedupon in thepublishedliterature, is the

questionof local leadership.The dissertations of Yohannes and myselfshow that,
beforehe left for Ilubabor,Ras Imru had appointeda native rulerover Gojjam,
namely,the great grandsonof Negus or King Tkl Haimanot,Djjach Ngash
Bzabeh.29Imruhad advisedhis local Gojjam notablesto mobilizetheirpeople and
continuefighting againstthe Italians.30But, thoughresistancecontinued,it did not
developas much as Imruhad expected.

The absence or presenceof effectiveleadershipwas an issue takenup by student

dissertations.
The appointment of Ngash as the rulerof Gojjam was a resortto
tradition.But it came too late; my informants relatethattherewas no strongand
respectedleadership which could command and rallytherestiveand armedpeople to

26
Zlalm,pp.7,10.
27
Mockler,p.12.Thisideais also reflected intheliteraturein Italian.Whenhe occupied
Gojjamin 1936,AchileStaraceconsidered Italyas theliberatorofGojjamfromShwan
rule.Formoreinformation, see Starace,La marciasu Gondar(Milano:A. Mondadori,
1936).
28See detailsin SelteneSeyoum,"A History ofBahirDar,"pp.49-51;idem,"A History
ofResistance,"pp.30-31.
29 "A HistoryofResistance,"
Yohannes, p.9; Seltene, pp88-9,159.
30This is basedon oralinformationelicitedfrom
argument AnliHail;TamerShefraw;
DmlawJmbr.

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..

struggleagainst the enemy, as Ras Hailu had been dismissed earlier and his
replacement, Ras Imru,afterhis retreatfromtheSherfront,
had lefttheprovincefor
westernEthiopiato act as viceroyof the Emperor.To do thisat the local level, as
eldersrelateit,was beyondthecapacityof theyoung,newlyappointedruler,Djjach
Ngash, who had neitherthe timenor the power to consolidatehis leadership,for
therewas oppositionfromwithinand pressurefromwithoutthatsoon overwhelmed
him.

As some of the senioressays and theoral information I gatheredindicate,in some

the of
regions, problem leadership soon workedout in favor of theItalians.Gsss
had alreadybecome a collaborator.This was also trueof manyof his associates.
Furthermore, followingItaliandecreesof submission,otherGojjam notables,such
as Djjach Ngash and Djjach Mangsha,submitted to theItalians.Many of their
chiefsand people followedtheirexample.

Conversely,therewere many otherswho never submittedto enemy authorities.

Among these were Blay Zlq and Hailu Blw. The formerwas the son of a
peasantfromBechna while the latterwas thenephewof Ras Hailu. Both of them
were insubordinateto Ras Hailu and Ras Imru before the war and to Italian
authoritiesduringtheoccupation.In fact,theyrebelledand becamerenownedleaders
of theresistance.

Moreover,severalof thechiefswho had submitteddefiedenemyofficials,

joined the
resistance and intensifiedthe struggle,therebyassuming leadership position.
Mngsha fromMcha and Ngash fromDamot are particularexamples.TTieseare
instancesof theresistancemovementgrowing.

One way of measuringthe developmentof the movementis to examine the

magnitudeof local opposition.How the Gojjarns turnedagainst Fascist Italy,is
describedin greaterdetail in unpublishedstudentdissertations.Among the early
instancesof oppositionto the enemyare includedthe executionsin Bahir Dar in
September1936 (where Sebhatuand otherswere hanged),the Anbesitincidentof
October1936 (whereTerfwas killed),theOctober1936 mass executionsat Adetin
retaliationforthe death of Terf,and the Grazianireportsabout Italian troopsat
variousplaces beingblockedin theirmovementby thehostilepopulation(December
1936).31

Moreover,mystudyshowsthatthepoliticalsituationin Gojjam fromJanuary

to June
/July1937 was more turbulent
thanpeaceful.In Januaryof the same year rebels

31Seltene
Seyoum"A History
ofResistance."

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.. 49

defeatedItaliantroops.32As oral and archivalsourcesconfirm,in easternGojjam,

Blay had emergedas a strongrebel afterscoringsuccessive victoriesover Italian
banda troopsfromMay to July1937. In addition,as notedearlier,in May several
eventsconvergedto showthattherebelcamp was expandingterritorially. As already
stated,theItalianresidentat BahirDar, Corvo,had orderedtheItalianlocal agentat
Zg to burnnot only the houses of the rebelsbut also the rebelsthemselves.The
period also saw mass massacres at Boksos (Damot) and Goncha (Mota), which
resultedin successfulmass resistance.Such inhumanand dreadfulorders could
indicatethattherewas a nascentrebellionabout which the Italians were growing
apprehensive.As indicatedin theliterature,
thiswas also thetimewhenthe Italians
wereapparently massacringpeople in Shwa and otherregions.
arbitrarily

Again,as a correspondent'sreportof 1937 pointsout,thisperiodalso appearsto have

been thetimewhenmanyrebelbands were formedand rebeloperationswere more
coordinated.33
This was accompanied,as thereportstates,by theswearingof oathsby
rebelsthattheywould struggleand remainloyal to each otherand fightthe enemy
untiltheyliberatedtheirland. The local informationcollectedby Slom, Dagnent
and myselffromGojjam also reinforces thisargument.

The eventsfromAugustto December1937 are supportedby evidencespublishedand

unpublished sources.Authorities
confirm thatduringtherainyseason of 1937 Gojjam
was aflamewithlocal revolts.34
Numerousrebelswerereportedto have menacedthe
Italians,themostactivebeingthoseof westernand easternGojjam. Particularly
since
August,Italian garrisonsin various places, such as Bahir Dar, Dangela, Dbr
Marqos and Bechna,werereportedto have fallenunderrebelattack.35The victories
of the patriotsat Yezora/Yedbiin August and December of the same year were
outcomesof this.

For thesame periodof August-December 1937,thereis muchItalianarchivaldata on

Gojjam,chieflyon thedistributionof territories
occupiedby thepatriots,rebelchiefs
and theiractivities.36
This includedthe territories
of Dnsa, Mcha, Guta, Skla,

32Oral informantsTamerShefraw, AnliHail; SirakZgayage 89, interviewed in

BahirDaron 13,3, 1995.
33New Timesand
EthiopianNews, No.47,9 April1937.In Gojjamthereis richoral
informationon the processof rebel formations opposingFascist occupationand
See detailsinSeltene,
repression. "A HistoryofResistance,"
dd.103-109.
34Del
Boca,TheEthiopianWar,pp.24 1-42;bacchi,EthiopiaUnderMussolini,pp.196-97.
Sbacchi,pp. 198-99.
US NationalArchives,Collectionof ItalianMilitaryRecords,1935-45,National
Microscopy,T.821/468, Graziani,
Asmara, a S.E. Ministero
AfricaItaliana,Roma,Tel.N.
64072,26 settembre 1937.Thismaterial is availableon microfilmin thelibraryof the
Institute
ofEthiopian Studies,AddisAbabaUniversity. See also Seltene,"A History of
Resistance."

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..

Saha Banya, Dangela, Bahir Dar, Wndeg, Achfr,and Injebara, in western

Gojjam, and MartulMariam,Dbr Marqos,Gozamenand Dbr Wrq,in theeast.
In fact,as Italianrecordsstate,therebellocalitiesin westernGojjam had becomethe
nuclei of resistance.My dissertationhas elaboratedthis in much greaterdetail.
Moreover,Italiansourcesforthe firsttimementionMngsha,Ngash, Blay and
Hailu Blw as theprincipalresistanceleaders.

Anotherway of lookingat theissue is to reviewtheliterature recounting themilitary

measuresthe enemytook to suppressthemovement.That theresistancespreadand
the patriotsincreasinglybecame more challengingis also reportedby Italian
authorities, such as Pirzio Biroli and others.For instance,Pirzio Biroli,the Italian
governor Gondr, in his September1937 reports,remarkedthat the situation
at
especially in Gojjam was growingso bad thatthe 27th Battalionwas operating
actively against patriots in Mcha, that air bombardmentcontinued in other
territories,such as Enbs and Damot,and thatthepeople of thelocalityof Mrtul
Mariam, by Blay Zlq, were in rebellionagainstFascistrule.37 Likewise,in
led
his reportof 17 September1937 anotherItalianauthority, RegentePeisanti,stated
thatin variouspartsof Gojjam, Italian troopswere operatingaccompaniedby air
bombardment.38 Yet, Fascist authoritiesdid not give sufficientdetails of Italian
operations,let alone revealthe extentof rebelopposition.But it can be shownthat
duringthe summerof 1937, the Gojjams did not only rise in mass and took
concertedactionagainstItaliantroopsbut also threatened the enemy's stayin their
territory. As will be elaboratedlater,this was the timewhen Graziani orderedall
Italian garrisonsand residencesto be concentrated in the townsof Dbr Marqos,
Dangela and BahirDar. Much of Gojjam was underthecontrolof thepatriots.

By the beginningof 1938 Gojjam patriotsreached the peak of theirresistance.

Writingon 8 January1938,theItalianForeignMinister,Galeazzo Ciano noted:"The
Duce is anxiousabouttheempire.Gojjam is in revolt.The rebelsnumber15,000.Our
garrisonsare besieged."39Again, as foreignnewspapersattested,in February,the
enemywas in a criticalsituationbecause thepatriotswere attackingItalianoutposts
almosteverynight.

In orderto restorethe territories

theyhad lost to the patriots,Fascist authorities
undertooka large-scaleoffensive,
whichlastedfromMarchto May 1938. It was also
resumedafterthe summerof 1938. The result,however,was inconclusive.The

37T.82 a S.E. Ministero

AfricaItaliana,
1/468,Graziani, Asmara, Roma,Tel.N.64072,26
settembre1937.
38T.82 a S.E. Ministero
AfricaItaliana,
1/468,Graziani, Asmara, Roma,Tel.N.64072,26
settembre1937.
39As
quotedin Pankhurst,"ItalyandEthiopia,"p.51.FortheexactwordsofCiano,see
Del Boca,GliitalianiinAfricaOrientale.
V.3.(1982),p.125.

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sourcesagree that 1939 was a year of stalemate.40 This timethe Italians,probably

understanding thattheywerenotin a positionto challengetheguerrillasand fearing
thechangingglobalpoliticaland military situation,
preferred to stayin theirforts.On
the otherhand, the patriotswere hoping thatworld events would change to the
advantageof Ethiopia.As theItalianauthorities had feared,scholarsargue,theworld
political situationturned in favor of Ethiopia. Soon afterwardsthe Ethiopian
resistancewas linkedwithglobal politicaldevelopments,which gave the issue an
international character.In this connection,thereis abundantliteratureon how the
Ethiopian in general,and thatof Gojjjam in particular,
resistance became a focusof
collaborationin the overall effortthatbroughtItalian East Africato an end. But
beforewe discuss this,let's have a briefreviewof the literature on the statusof
engagements.

Engagements
Whilethereis extensiveliteratureon how theItaliansdefeatedtheEthiopianforcesat
thewar frontsand subsequently liquidatedtheearlyresistanceactivities,particularly
thosein north-westernShwa, thecentralprovincesand south-western and southern
regions of the country,the evidence about other engagementsafterwardsfrom
publishedsourcesis farfromsufficient.The literatureon Gojjam is no exception,in
whichcase thequestionof engagement deservesparticularattention.

Beforetheinvolvement of theBritishforcesin theregion,theknownwriterson the

Italianperiod,namely Del Boca, Sbacchi and Mockler,mentionat most only two
majorengagements: thatof Yezora/Yedbi (1937) and Fageta (1938), bothin western
Gojjam. Concerning the first
battle,theygive generalaccountsabout thedefeatand
flightof the Italianarmy and thedeathand captureof Italianofficers, whereasin the
secondone, theydescribehow GeneralUgo Cavallero,thenew commander-in-chief
of theItalianArmedForcesin East Africa,conductedintensivemilitary campaignsto
liquidatethe resistancein 1938-1939,the outcomeof which,as alreadynoted,was
inconclusive.However, as will be discussed later, unlike the formerwriters,
Cavallerowroteaboutthecampaignsextensively.*

Similarly,for the campaigns of 1941 Britishwriterskept records about some

such as Bur, Dmbcha and Dbr Marqos, all in Gojjam. These and
battlefields,
otherengagementsare also relatedby Kbbd Tsma fromthe Ethiopianside.
However,even forthebattlesmentionedabove,scholarshave notprovidedsufficient
documentation.

40
pp.190-92;Sbacchi,EthiopiaUnderMussolini,
Mockler, pp.198-200.
* I amgreatly
indebted
toProfessorLuigiGogliawhowaskindenoughtoallowmetoconsult
thewholeseriesofCavallero'
s worksfromhisprivatecollection
inhisresidence
in Romein
1997.

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But research shows that there is extensive informationon engagementsin

unpublishedsources.These are of two types:materialschieflyfromarchivalcenters
and librariesin Rome and London,and oral informationsolelyfromEthiopia.In this
regard,muchof thediscussionon theissue relieson B.A. and Ph.D. worksproduced
by studentsof theDepartment of Historyof Addis Ababa University.

Who werethepioneersand themajorpatriotleadersof theresistancein Gojjam? This

oughtto be answeredbeforewe discusstheliteratureon themilitary encounters
they
had withtheenemy.Studentresearchenumerates a numberof them. For instance,
in westernGojjam, severalrebelchiefsemerged,refusingenemycalls forsubmission
from the outset. The noted ones were Bayabel Dsta (Achfr-Mcha),Mamo
Tsma (Banja-Agwmeder)and GrmwWndwek(Talia-Lejambra).My study
shows thatin September1936 Mngsha also joined the resistancethoughhe came
more in the open in the summerof 1937. Ayalw Mkonnen was anotherwho
rebelledin May 1937, followingthe executionof his fatherby the enemyin Bahir
Dar. Soon he becamea well-knownchiefof theAchfrpatriots.

Moreover,severalothers,such as Zlq Liqu (Blya), Ders Shefraw(Yelmana

Dnsa), Abbra Yemam (Mcha), Altah Gobz (Abkabot) and Ambaw
Gbrmdhen,GilagiorgiosUqbit and MmherLakmariam(Zg), Bql Kassa
(Bur Damot),HailysusFelat(Dga Damot) and Zlq Dsta (Aswa) and others
followed suit. Furthermore,
Ngash rebelledand became theoverallpatrioticleader
in Damot.

A similarsituationof rebellionoccurredin easternGojjam. Numerousrebel chiefs,

such as Blay Zlq (Sheta-Shbl-Brnta),Absha Mjal (Enbs), Tmsgn
Fnta (Enaij-Enawga) and, later,Hailu Blw (Goncha-Sarmeder),rose as rallying
figuresfortheoppostion.

As statedabove, mentionis made of severalpioneeringresistanceleadersof Gojjam.

From the summerof 1937 onwards,the movementbecame more coordinatedand
challengingundertheleadershipof fourprominent figureswho became theprincipal
leadersof thepatrioticresistancein theregion.These were,as alreadynotedearlier,
Blay,Hailu, Mngshaand Ngash.

Military confrontations became more frequent.We have seen how the first
engagementtook place at Anbesitin October 1936. I also describehow a similar
incidentalso took place at Gnj, south of Bahir Dar, in January1937 and its
repercussions.It is relatedthat,as in Yelmana Dnsa, the enemymade a changeof
governorship over Gnj. Removingthe old ruler,theyinstalleda new one called
FitwrariGsss Wadan, who, at the head of banda troops,starteddisarmingthe
people. Probablyemboldnedby the incidentat Anbesit,the local people rose up in

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arms,killedGsss, dispersedhis troopsand retiredto the busheshavingcaptured

old and new weapons.41 Since thenthe regionremainedrebelliousand military
encountersbecamefrequent.

However, some of the pioneeringpatriotchiefs, such as Bayabel, Mamo and

Grmw,suffered serioussetbacks.Theywerein open rebellionfromthesummerof
1936 to thesummerof 1937. Finally,however,theyfellone by one: Bayabel in May
1937; Mamo in July1937; and Grmwin October1937.

But I arguein mydissertationthatthecase of Blay,Mngshaand Hailu is different.

They remained in an obscurepositionuntilan opportunemomentcame forthemto
appear on the scene, when theyopenlyconfronted the enemyin or just beforethe
summerof 1937.

Otherengagements continuedin easternand westernGojjam. Accordingto Zlalm,

Blay firstappearedas a rebelagainstItalianrule in Bechna area in April 1937.42
But it was whenhe scoredhis firstvictoryoverenemyforcesat theBattleof Brnta
(May 1937) that Blay came to be reckonedas a serious rebel by the enemy.
Moreover,Zlalm describesseveralotherengagements whichBlay won and lost.

August 1937 was a time of remarkablesuccess forthe patriotsof Gojjam. They

scoredvictoriesover theenemyalong variousfronts.I discuss severalbattlefields,
such as ShotlMatbyaand Tora Mda Abo (Enbs-Goncha),Gesh Abay (Skla),
Yezora/Yedbi(Mcha-Yelmana Dnsa) and Boksos (Quarit-Damot).In these and
otherengagements, thepatriotstook the militaryupperhand and threatened Italian
positions.As remarked earlier,in August of the same year, Graziani orderedall
militarygarrisons,residencesand vice residencesto withdrawfromwhereverthey
were and be concentratedonly in three towns: Bahir Dar, Dangela and Dbr
Marqos.43

Analyzingarchivaland oral sources,I also relateotherencounters,whichthepatriots

won and lost. The battlesof Bahir Dar (11-12 September1937), Dangela (17
September1937) and Yezora /Yedbi (August,December 1937) could be cited as
examples.I also show how in the firsttwo engagements the Italiansbadly defeated
and repulsedthepatriotswithserioushumanlosses.44The Decemberbattleof Yezora

41Oral informants TamerShefraw; AnliHail; SirakZgy.See also TaddsG.

Madhen,MS. N.1799. For discussionof the sources,see Seltene,"A Historyof
p.108.
Resistance,"
42
Zlalm,p.14.
43 a MAI,Roma,Tel.n.278,31.81937.
ACS,FG,b.36,f.31/7Graziani,
Asmara, See details
in Seltene,
"A HistoryofResistance,"
pp.61,78, 127-8.
44Oralinformants TamerShefraw, MulatAbja and DmlwJmbr invariablyagree
thatthebattlesof BahirDar and Dangela,whichwerefought in openlowlandplains,

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in particularwas so decisive thatit was not onlyheraldedlocally and abroadbut it

also kept the morale of the patriotsand the exiles high.45There is abundantoral
information on each engagement,but limitationof space does not allow detailed
discussion.

By the beginningof 1938 the resistancein Gojyamhad reached its climax. The
patriotsthreatenedItalianpositionsseriously.To counteractthe opposition,Fascist
authoritiesundertooka large-scaleoffensiveoperation.As statedearlier,General
Cavallero led the operationhimself.The operationdemanded of Italy 60,000
additionaltroops,of whom30, 000 weresentto suppresstherebellionin Gojjam.

As theresistancein Gojjjamwas strong,thenew offensivebecame operationalthere

first.It took place frommid-Marchto the end of May 1938 and resumedafterthe
summerof thesame year,forwhichthereis plentyof information frompublishedand
unpublished sources. In thefirst
case, VincenzoBertoja's narration
and theextensive
worksof Carvallerostandoutas themostimportant sources.46

In thepublishedliterature
thereare descriptions
of a seriesof engagementsfoughtin
thedominionsof Mngsha,Ngash,Blay and Hailu. Of the severalbattlesfought,
one of the heaviestwas thatof Fageta.47Cavallero gives a detailedaccountof the
battle,while Bertoja narrateswhat he rememberedabout Fageta when he was a
prisonerof Mngsha's. The scholarlyprogenitors
of Dagnentand myselfrelatethe
events fromthe Ethiopianside. In short,the enemy claimed to have weakened
Mngsha and occupied Fageta. Contrariwise, Ethiopiansources claim victoryfor

weredisastrous forthepatriots. See also US NationalArchives, T.821/468,Regente

Peisantia EccelenzaVice Re, Asmara,17 settembre 1937;Dagnenat, p.16; Seltene,"A
HistoryofResistance,"p. 128.
45See detailsinSeltene,"A HistoryofResistance." dd. 135-36.137.
46
CaptainBertojawas oneoftheItalianofficers captured at theBattleofYezora/Yedbi
(7 December1937),andhe remained a prisonerofMngshauntilhisreleasein March
1941.Later,he wrotea booknarrating hisstaywiththepatriots. Cavallerowrotea series
ofworksin appreciation ofthemilitary eventsfrom1938to 1939.Formoredetails,see
VincenzoBertoja,58707 Racconta(Milano: BaldassareGnochiEditore,1946); Ugo
Cavallero, Gliavvenimentimilitari
nell'Imperodal 12gennaio1938al 12 gennaio1939.
TestoI. (AddisAbeba:OfficioCentrale Topocartografico,1939);idem.Gli avvenimenti
militarinell' Imperodal 13 gennaioal 14 Aprii1939,TestoII. (AddisAbeba:Officio
CentraleTopocartografico,1939).
47
Cavallero,Gli avvenimentii TestoII. (1939), p.95; Bertoja,pp.167-81.For further
analysisofthesources,see Seltene,"A History ofResistance," pp.141-43.See alsoNew
Timesand EthiopiaNews,14 January 1939; Mockler,p.91; Sbacchi,EthiopiaUnder
Mussolini Del Boca,GliitalianiinAfricaOrientale.
, pp.199-200; V.3. (1982),p.318.

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 Seltene
Seyoum oftheliterature
: Review onEthiopian ... 55
resistance

But it is certainthattheenemytroopsretreated
Gojjam patriots.48 to Injebaraand that
Fagetaremainedin thehandsof thepatriots.

Yet, viewing the whole militarysituation,several authoritiesstate thatneither

side won a decisive victory.Moreover, research also shows that Mngsha's
patriotsused to disperse when situations became tense and regroup after a
while. This was also true of other patriotswho foughtthe enemy in Enbs,
Goncha, Bechna, Skla and Damot. Thus, the lull createdas a resultof the
temporarysuspensionof activitieswas deceptive.This explainsthesituation.

If therewere any Italian attemptto retainGojjam, it is a plan of action Colonel

Natale,thenew commanderof theItalianbrigadeat Bur,preparedand submitted to
the governorof Amharain Gondrin July1940.49As Cavallero did earlier,Natale
envisaged a large-scaleoffensive.But as this was never realized, therewas no
resultant
engagement.

In January1941, liberationforcesled by EmperorHaile Selassie and commandedby

Colonel WingateenteredGojyamfromtheSudan.Britishand Ethiopiansourcesrelate
how in Februaryof the same yearthe Italiancolonels,namely,Torelli and Natale,
withdrew theentireItalianforcesfromDangela and Injebarato BaliirDar and Bur,
and how theirattemptsat surpriseattacksfromboth directionswere
respectively,
repulsedby the patrioticforcesof Mngsha and Ngash and supportedby the
forces.
liberation

Soon afterwards,the retreatingFascist troops were defeated at Bur (5-8

March 1941) and then at Dbr Marqos (14-31 March 1941). The enemyforces
fled fromDbr Marqos to Shwa (1-3 April 1941) and fromBahir Dar to Dbr
Tabor (27 April 1941). In bothdirections,theycrossedthe Blue Nile, neverto see
Gojjam again. Yet, when we tap oral sources and Britisharchivalrecordswe can
reconstructthepartthepatriotsplayedin collaborationwiththeliberationforces,as I
have attempted to show in my dissertation.Some of the publishedprimarysources,
such as thoseof Kbbd, Thesiger,Sandford,Steer,and theunpublisheddocument
of Wingatefurther confirmarchivaland oral sources.In fact,withthe exceptionof
Sandford, the rest give eyewitnessaccountsof the battlesof Bur, Dmbcha and
Dbr Marqos.
The Final LiberationCampaign

48Oralinformants
MulatAbj;Atenafu Aynalm, age 79, interviewedon 30.1. 1995in
Dangela;Yehun Mngest,age 85, interviewedon 9.1. 1995 at Gesh Abay.See also
TaddsG. MdhenMS. N. 1799;Mulusw, p.48;Taddsa,QrinGrmw, pp.354-56.
Formorediscussion
oftheevents, " A History
see Seltene, ofResistance,"
dd.141-43.
49
LeopoldoNatale,Il ColonelloComandante Del Settore,a R. GovernoAmara
Commando Truppe-Ufficio
Operazione,Gondar, Burie,28 luglio1940.

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56 Seltene : Review
Seyoum oftheliterature
onEthiopian ...
resistance

This refersto thejoint Ethio-Britishliberationcampaignof 1940-41,whichbrought

Italian East Africato an end. It covers the last phase of the Ethiopianstruggleof
resistanceagainstItalianoccupation.As it applies to Gojjam, it had two phases: the
period of preparation(June-December1940) and that of the militarycampaign
(January-April1941).

The literatureforthisperiod comes fromvarioussources.From Britain,archives,

writersof the campaign and government publicationsformone type of sources.
Amongnewspapers,Sylvia Pankhurss New Timesand EthiopiaNews is valuable.
FromtheEthiopianside, YtarikMastawsha (Kbbd), andHeywtnaYEthiopia
Ermeja (Haile Selassie) are usefulsources.They standout as the most informative
sources that contributemuch to our understanding of the natureand extentof
of
participation both allied partiesin the campaign. I also deal at lengthbothon the
preparatoryphase in the resistancecampaign itself.

Thereis muchinformation on thefirstphase of thecampaignfromBritishsourceson

the extentof relationsbetweenthepatriotchiefsof Gojjam, such as Mngsha and
Ngash. The sourcesrelatehow thesepatriotchiefsand theirlieutenants workedhard
in facilitating
the entryof Britishintelligenceworkersfirst,and then,the liberation
forcesled by Haile Selassie and Wingate.50 They also discuss how thepatriotsfirst
gave themprotectionby repulsingany Italianoffensiveagainstthemand, later,in
reactivatingthe Gojjam patriotsto fight against the Italians. This is also
corroborated by Kbbd and I discussedin greaterdetailin mydissertation.

However,of thelastphase of thestruggle, thatis, theperiodof actualwarfare,some

Britishwriters,ignoringthe whole issue of Ethiopiancontribution to the struggle,
provideus withtheirattitudeand views on the generalstatusand positionof the
patriots. For instance,Allen argues that the patriots"would have faded away
overnightin theeventof an effective Italianadvance."51On theotherhand,he agrees
withSteerthatwhen theyweighedthe strength of the revoltin Gojjam, the British
authoritiesreduced their initial plan of mobilizingfour battalionsto only two
battalions.52Steer also statesthatthe patriotactivitiesin Gojjam alone had tied
twentyFascistbattalions.But itis notclearwhymostBritishwriterswerecarefulnot
to mentiontheextentof theparticipation ofthepatriotsin thecampaign.

Furthermore,Pankhurstcommentson thenegativebias of theBritishpress towards

the Ethiopianresistancethus: "The Ethiopiancampaigncould by no means have

50Fora rather accountofthedevelopmentofrelations - British

interesting ofbothparties
andEthiopian - see theworksofSteer,SealedandDelivered', EthiopiaUnder
Sandford,
HaileSelassie: Kabbada,YTarikMastawsha .
51
Allen,
52 Ibid, pp.23-4. SealedandDelivered 146.
p.366;Steer, , p.

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 Seltene Review
Seyoum: oftheliterature
onEthiopian
resistance
... 57

proceededas itdid withoutthepatriotrevoltand theloyal supportof thepopulace."53

Both Steer and Sandfordheld similarposition. Besides, contrastingthe general
Britishattitudeand the minimalcredit given to the resistance,Pankhurstsays
Ethiopiancontribution "has been carefully obscured." This bias has been reflectedin
contemporary literature.
In his review of historyof worldguerillawarfare,JohnEllis
as
putsEthiopians insurgents and Italians as incumbents,and Wingateas theleaderof
the 1935-1941guerrillawarfarein Ethiopia.54 This shows how muchlittlespace the
Ethiopianresistanceto Fascist occupationhas had in the literatureeven globally
speaking.It also occupiesa rathersimilarpositionin thehistoryof Africanresistance
to colonialoccupation.

In thecase of Gojjam, Kbbd, who, along withDan Sandford,paved the way for
the entryof the liberationforcesinto Gojjam, gives valuable information on the
patriots'role duringtheresistance.Kbbd and Sandfordcould have achievedlittle
withoutthecollaborationof thepatriotsand Haile Selassie. But it is astonishingwhy
Wingate,thefieldcommander,in his appreciationof thecampaign,hardlygives the
Emperorand the Gojjam patriotsany significantrole. I describe how much the
personalityof the Emperorcontributed to the success of the campaignin another
study.55I demonstratethatHaile Selassie successfullyrallied the people around
himselfforthecampaignby issuingseveraledictsand by establishingdirectcontact
withpatriotchiefs,such as Mngsha,Ngash and others.56 Steeris perhapsone of
the few Britishwriterswho triedto give creditto Haile Selassie and the patriots.
WhentheliberationcampaignleadersreachedBlya (Gojjam), Haile Selassie, Steer
says,". . .didmorethanwe could do withpaperand words."57However,manyBritish
writersemphasizedthe partplayed by Sandford,Wingateand the two battalions,
while theyremainedsilenton the role Haile Selassie, Kbbd and, above all, the
patriotchiefsand warriors
playedin thestruggle.

As notedthroughout the discussionreviewedso far,the principalobjectiveof the

researchis to assess whetheror not Ethiopianresistanceis given its due place in
FromtheEthiopianside,thecase of Gojjam showsthatcommendableefforts
history.
have been made at the regionalor biographicallevels. But the review shows that
muchremainsto be done at thenationallevel.

53NewTimesand
EthiopiaNews, 17January 1942.
54SufficeittoseeJohnEllis,A ShortHistory ofGuerrilla Warfare (London:JanAllan
Ltd.,1975),p.208.
SelteneSeyoum, "EmperorHaileSelassieI andtheEthiopian Resistance:
1936-1941,"
ineds.BayeYeman,Richard Pankhurst,DavidChappie,etal.,Proceedings oftheXIVth
International
Conference ofEthiopianStudies,November 6-11,2000,AddisAbaba.V.l.
ofEthiopian
(Institute AddisAbabaUniversity,
Studies, 2002),dd.477-98.
56Ibid.Foradditional see Steer,SealedandDelivered,
evidence, pp.345-47,
365-72;
HaileSelassie,Heywtena YEthiopiaErmeja. V. II. (1966 E.C.),dd,147-76.
57 SealedandDelivered,
Steer, pp.145-46.

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