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Bovine Respiratory Disease-An Updated Review

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 Journal of Immunology and Immunopathology
Vol. 18, No. 2, July-December, 2016: 86-93
DOI: 10.5958/0973-9149.2016.00014.9
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Review Article

Bovine Respiratory Disease An Updated Review

Vivek Joshi 1, V.K. Gupta 2, O.R. Vinodh Kumar 3*, B.S. Pruthvishree 4, U. Dimri 5 and
Shahjahan Alam1

1
Ph.D. Scholar, Division of Medicine, 2Senior Scientist, Division of Medicine, 3Scientist, Division of Epidemiology,
4
M.V.Sc. Scholar, Division of Epidemiology, 5Principal Scientist and Head, Division of Medicine, ICAR-Indian Veterinary
Research Institute, Izatnagar-243122, Uttar Pradesh, India
*Corresponding author email id: vinodhkumar.rajendran@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
Joshi V, Gupta VK, Vinodh Kumar OR, Pruthvishree BS, Dimri U and Alam S (2016). Bovine Respiratory
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Disease An Updated Review. J. Immunol. Immunopathol. 18(2): 86-93.

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Bovine respiratory disease (BRD) is the most common and severe disease in calf-rearing herds. It is
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common in intensely raised and newly transported calves and refers to the animal displaying an undifferentiated
fever in addition to a number of clinical signs, notably respiratory distress. BRD is known to be caused by a
number or combination of viruses and microorganisms. The diagnosis of BRD in the field is mainly based on
physical examination, lung auscultation and empiric diagnosis supported by experience. The late diagnoses
of pathologies underline the lack of adequate observations and the need of early recognition by means of
advanced biomarkers of disease in calves. Conventional treatment for BRD usually consists in antimicrobial
therapy with the application of steroidal and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, mucolytics and
bronchodilators.
Keywords: Antimicrobial, Auscultation, Biomarker, Bovine respiratory disease, Calves, NSAIDs and
Respiratory distress

INTRODUCTION infectious agents (Snodgrass et al., 1986) and

The success of any dairy enterprise depends upon
the survival of the calf crop produced. Survival of
neonatal calves is imperative for livestock propagation;
however, a large number of calves die during the first
year of their life. Calfhood diseases have a major
impact on the economic viability of cattle operations,
due to the direct cost of calf losses and treatment
and the long-term effects on performance (Donovan
et al., 1998; Malik et al., 2011). Martin and Wiggins
(1973) estimated that 20% calf mortality resulted in
reduction of 38% profit of a livestock farm. Neonatal
calf mortality varies from 8.7 to 64% throughout world
and 12.5 to 30% in India (Verma et al., 1980. Mortality
of neonatal calves has been mostly attributed to
conditions like diarrhoea and pneumonia (Shimizu and
Nagatoma, 1978). Respiratory disease in calves
causes great economic losses for the dairy and beef
industry worldwide (Snowder et al., 2006) with a
mortality rate in the range 1.54.2% (Ames, 1997).
Bovine respiratory disease (BRD) is a major source
of economic loss for the cattle industry (Panciera and
Confer, 2010; ). At present, BRD is a great economic
problem in cattle husbandry, especially in young and
feedlot animals all over the world (Adamu and Ameh,
2007). BRD is a worldwide health problem (Griffin,
2010; Horwood and Mahony, 2011). Costs are
significantly greater when labour, isolation, increased
time on feed, mortality, prophylaxis and metaphylaxis
treatments are considered (NAHMS, 2000).

86
 Bovine Respiratory Disease An Updated Review
EPIDEMIOLOGY AND ECONOMIC IMPACT
BRD complex, which is also called enzootic
bronchopneumonia of calves or shipping fever, is a
complex disease of feedlot young cattle that causes
major economic losses to the livestock industry (Van
der Fels-Klerx et al., 1998). Up to 20% of all growing
calves may present antemortem with respiratory
disease. Increased morbidity and mortality, decreased
weight gains, decreased feed utilisation, decreased
carcass quality and increased prophylaxis and
therapy lead to enormous economic losses. Morbidity
may reach 100% and mortality range from 4% to
20% during severe outbreaks. The per cent of
morbidity and mortality depends on the management
system in place, prevention programme and the kind
of pathogens involved. According to Duff and Galyean
(2007), higher morbidity rates but fewer fatalities is
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typically observed when viral pathogens are primarily
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involved. In calves with bacterial infections only, there
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is sporadic morbidity, but higher mortality. The highest
number of animals affected and higher mortality are
observed in case of mixed viral and bacterial
infections.
In calves, the overall prevalence rate of BRD is
2.07%. The highest prevalence (11.58%) rate in age
group 01 months may be attributed to age-related
susceptibility on account of age-related differences
in the development of immune system of calves.
Likewise, highest prevalence (3.61%) during winters
Stress Factors Viruses
Heat Bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV)
Cold Parainfluenza virus type 3 (PI3)
Dust Bovine herpes virus type 1 (BHV)
Dampness Bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV)
Injury
Fatigue
Dehydration
Hunger
Anxiety
Irritant gases
Nutritional deficiencies
Surgery
Journal of Immunology and Immunopathology
might be associated with the post-calving season,
environmental stress and poor immunity in early part
of life. Sex-wise prevalence in male calves is higher
(3.08%) (Joshi, 2015).
ETIOPATHOGENESIS
A range of 1525% pre-weaning mortality would
be typical on many tropical dairy farms. The two major
diseases of calves are scours and pneumonia, which
account for 80% of all calf deaths. Bloat, navel-ill,
accidents and poisoning make up the bulk of remaining
mortalities. BRD complex is a major disease,
classically in the indoor calves. It is a problem with
housed calves, particularly when stocking density is
high and ventilation is poor. The shed temperature
and relative humidity are the two most important
factors influencing its occurrence. Respiratory
diseases are more common in cool, damp sheds,
although they can also be a problem in hot and dry
shed conditions. The etiopathogenesis of BRD is
multifactorial and complex. In this complex aetiology,
an equivalent role plays both the infectious agents
as well as the environmental factors which are called
also as environmental stressors (inappropriate
livestock management like mistakes in animal
nutrition, transport, handling, veterinary interventions
etc.). The most significant agents involved in the
etiopathogenesis of BRD are as follows:
Bacteria
Mannheimia haemolytica
P. multocida
Histophilus somni
Arcanobacterium pyogenes
Streptococcus pneumonia
Staphylococcus aureus
Chlamydiales spp.
Fusobacterium necrophorum
Corynebacterium bovis
Streptococcus spp.
Micrococcus spp.
Mycoplasmas
87
 Vivek Joshi, V.K. Gupta, O.R. Vinodh Kumar, B.S. Pruthvishree, U. Dimri and Shahjahan Alam
CLASSIFICATION
BRD complex includes several syndromes that
have been defined according to different
epidemiological conditions:
Enzootic pneumonia or Dairy Calf Pneumonia
As many of the disease causing pathogens are
ubiquitous and adult animals are often immune, BRD
occurs most frequently in young calves, during the
period between passive and active immunity. The
disease is then called enzootic pneumonia. It is
known that in bronchopneumonia, pathogens use
many mechanisms to evade calves immune system.
Shipping Fever or Pneumonic Pasteurellosis
The term shipping fever is used when BRD
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appears after long, stressful transports and mixing
of animals from different origin, as performed in feedlot
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rearing. Pneumonic pasteurellosis is also often used
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in these cases although Pasteurella or Mannheimia
spp. are probably seldom the only aetiological agents.
Atypical Interstitial Pneumonia
Some forms of interstitial pneumonia, such as
fog fever, bovine farmers lung or hypersensitivity
reactions against massive Dictyocaulus viviparus
infections, have previously been classified as atypical
interstitial pneumonia.
Predisposing Factors
Viral Infections
Viruses are believed to predispose to bacterial
infection in two distinct ways. First, viral agents can
cause direct damage to respiratory clearance
mechanisms and lung parenchyma, facilitating
translocation of bacteria from the upper respiratory
tract and establishment of infection in compromised
lung. Second, viral infection can interfere with the
immune systems ability to respond to bacterial
infection.
Shipping
Transportation is the most universally accepted
non-infectious risk factor for BRD and led to the
88
laymans term shipping fever. The most researchers
have attempted to identify what component of
transportation has the greatest effect on incidence
of BRD. The distance and/or time in transit have been
examined in various studies, with conflicting
conclusions. Dehydration is a frequent sequela to
transportation and has been suggested as a
mechanism by which transport impacts disease.
Weather
Weather has long been implicated in occurrence
of BRD because the highest incidence is observed
in the fall. Human factors have also been proposed
to be involved in the seasonality of BRD. Specifically,
high cattle traffic and long work hours lead to fatigue
among stockyard workers at this time of year.
Consequently, potential delay in identifying and
treating sick calves could worsen disease occurrence.
BRD mortality peaked at approximately the same
time as the largest decrease in mean daily ambient
temperature. Many authors have suggested that
sudden and extreme changes in weather conditions,
rather than simply cold or inclement weather,
predispose cattle to BRD.
Age and Weight
Yearling cattle are reported to have a lower
incidence of morbidity and mortality. Several studies
suggested that lighter weight calves were at greater
risk than heavier ones.
Castration and Dehorning
Castration is a stressful event; given the
immunosuppressive nature of increased cortisol
levels, castration of older bulls may put them at
greater risk of BRD than non-castrated cattle or those
castrated at a younger age. This supposition was
supported by several studies, whereas others found
no association or inconsistent findings between
delayed castration and BRD.
Dehorning is similar to castration in that it is
painful and is recommended to be performed early in
life. Martin et al (1982) found increased BRD in groups
where greater than 30% of the calves were dehorned.
This effect was accentuated if calves were castrated
at the same time.
Vol. 18, No. 2, July-December, 2016
 Bovine Respiratory Disease An Updated Review
BREED CHARACTERISTICS
Heritability of BRD susceptibility appears to be
low, but breed differences have been detected.
Snowder et al. (2006) found crossbred cattle had a
lower incidence of BRD. Cusack et al (2003) found
Bos taurus to be at greater risk for BRD than Bos
indicus.
Clinical Signs
Although the different pathogens involved in
aetiology of BRD are present in the heard throughout
the years, the outbreak of the disease and an
appearance of clinical symptoms are seasonal.
Usually, there are two seasonal peaks of enzootic
pneumonia: the first is between October and
December and the second from February to May.
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The signs of the disease depend on its clinic form
that is chronic or acute.
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Acute Form
During the acute case of the disease
inappetance, pyrexia (4042C), dull sweaty coat,
mucoid and mucopurulent oculo-nasal discharge,
tachypnoea (respiratory rate RR over 40 breaths
per minute) are presented. Moreover, there is a
tendency to a persistent coughing. The cough can
be harsh, dry, hacking type but sometimes is moist.
During the auscultation of the thorax under both
inspiration and expiration there are loud, harsh
sounds or whistling, wheezing or squeaking.
Chronic Form
The chronic form of BRD generally shows no
signs. The calves are bright, eat well but may have a
slight mucoid or mucopurulent oculo-nasal discharge,
the body temperature is normal or slightly raised at
38.539.5C and dry, explosive cough usually is
produced singly.
Immunopathogenesis
Local inflammation is the first response of the
immune system to noxious stimuli. When infections
and tissue injuries overwhelm local defences, the
organism responds by activating a wide ranging
systemic response). These events are collectively
Journal of Immunology and Immunopathology
referred to as acute phase reaction (APR). The most
evident phenomena include fever, leukocytosis, and
the over- or under-expression of a large family of
structurally unrelated proteins, the acute phase
proteins (APP) (Murata et al., 2004; Ceciliani et al.,
2002). APPs are a large, heterogeneous group of
proteins with a wide range of biological activities
(Nikunen et al., 2007). During the APR, the serum
concentration of the APP changes dramatically
(>25%). Bacterial infections usually lead to a strong
systemic APR (Alsemgeest, 1994). The APP can be
produced by both hepatocytes and peripheral tissues
and can be classified according to their concentration
in positive APP [Serum Amyloid A, Haptoglobin (Hp)],
if they increase or negative APP (Serum Albumin), if
they decrease (Petersen et al., 2004). Measurement
of the APP is a potentially useful clinical tool in
veterinary medicine Gruys et al. (1994). The
circulating concentration of APPs is related to the
severity of the underlying condition, and thus,
quantification of their concentration provides a ready
means of evaluating the presence and extent of the
disease processes causing the response. Mainly,
the two major bovine APPs, Hp and serum amyloid-
A (SAA), have been tested to evaluate APR in cattle
(Eckersall, 2000).
Bovine Hpt expresses a marked rise (14-fold) in
BRD stressed calves as opposed to the normal. This
reveals the fact that Bovine Hpt is, particularly,
sensitive to acute inflammation occurring during
natural cases of BRD in calves (Joshi, 2015). Hpt by
simply binding free haemoglobin makes the iron
unavailable for invading bacteria and leads to
avoidance of disease in calves. Hpt is, therefore, the
most sensitive diagnostic biomarker of BRD in calves.
Likewise, Bovine SAA might show an increase up to
three times its normal value in the serum (Joshi,
2015). SAA is found to be specifically associated
with Escherichia coli-induced BRD in calves as was
suggested by Ceciliani et al. (2012). These can,
therefore, be categorised as major positive APPs.
Bovine Albumin, a negative APP biomarker, showed
a significant decline in its serum concentrations during
BRD (Joshi, 2015). The decrease is well correlated
with severity of BRD as liver stops synthesis of
transport protein albumin to increase the production
of most desired positive APPs during the marked
inflammation as in BRD (Jacobsen et al., 2006).
89
 Vivek Joshi, V.K. Gupta, O.R. Vinodh Kumar, B.S. Pruthvishree, U. Dimri and Shahjahan Alam
Changes in lipid level have been reported in a
variety of infectious diseases. Lipoproteins have been
implicated to play a role in innate immunity.
Furthermore, the host response during infections is
mediated by proinflammatory cytokines, capable of
influencing lipid metabolism in liver. Therefore,
circulating lipoproteins seem to play a crucial role in
pathophysiology of infectious diseases (Civelek et
al., 2007).
A significant relationship exists between bacterial
BRD and serum lipid profile in calves. Decreased total
cholesterol and high density lipoprotein (HDL-c) with
increased serum triglycerides and low density
lipoprotein (LDL-c) might be attributed to septic
conditions, excessive oxidative stress and
inflammation during BRD which cause lipolysis of
hepatic lipids and altered serum lipid concentrations
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serum lipid profile may be employed as prognostic
marker in calves with BRD (Joshi et al., 2015).
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Diagnosis
The initial viral or mycoplasmal diseases are
usually mild and are clinically distinguishing. The
syndrome can be in form of subclinical to acute; most
are somewhere in between. The initial viral/
mycoplasmal diseases cause a moderate fever,
sometimes accompanied by constipation. This is
followed by rhinitis with a serous-to-mucopulurent
discharge and pneumonia with a harsh, hacking
cough, tachypnoea, dyspnoea and diarrhoea. The
calves very often are depressed, listless and
anorectic. The bacterial infection increases intensity
of these signs, with high fever, severe dyspnoea
and depression and signs of toxaemia. Calves are
particularly difficult to auscult and abnormal lungs
sounds may be hard to detect. In cases with severe
consolidation, the normal breath sounds are replaced
by harsh, high-pitched, large airway noises in the
anteriorventral lung fields. When secondary infection
with Pasteurella multocida occurs the temperature
rise to 4141.5C, the area of lung affected is much
increased and increased breath sounds due to
congestion are followed by pleuritic friction rub. The
acute course is 10 to 14 days. The differential
diagnoses should include aspiration pneumonia from
improper tubing or feeding practices and purely viral
pneumonias such as those caused by infectious
90
bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR), bovine viral diarrhoea
(BVD) and bovine respiratory syncytial virus.
The laboratory diagnostics of BRD is directly
connected with an isolation and identification of
suitable species of viruses, bacteria or mycoplasmas
presented in a sample tested. In the intravital
diagnostic process, a usual material collected is the
nasal swabs or lung lavages and sera samples. On
the other hand, post-mortem tissue samples are
collected from lungs and parenchymatous organs
(liver, kidneys and spleen).
The diagnosis of bacterial infections involved in
BRD is based on many species specific methods,
such as conventional bacterial cultivation or
molecular biology techniques. From the latest a
polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method is applied
for main bacterial agents of the syndrome. To identify
viral infections in the respiratory syndrome there are
methods for detecting the presence of both antigens
and specific antibodies.
Treatment
The control of BRD mainly based on therapeutic
management because of its multifactorial aetiology,
including different vaccination programmes with using
both monovalent and polyvalent inactivated or
modified live vaccines but they are not sufficiently
effective till now.
Antimicrobials
Antibiotic treatment must be initiated before
irreversible damage characterised by oral breathing,
orthopnea, lactatemia and cyanosis occurs. Among
antibiotics presently used, most often are
administered long-acting antibacterials such as some
tetracyclines (long-acting oxyteracycline 20 mg/kg
b.w. i.m.), macrolides (tulathromycin 2.5 mg/kg b.w.
s.c.) and fluoroquinolones (enrofloxacin 7.5 mg/kg
b.w. s.c.).
The technique of nebulisation (aerosol therapy)
of sodium ceftiofur at a dose of 1 mg/kg body weight
is effective for the treatment of respiratory diseases
in calves. The clinical and haematological parameters
of the calves treated with aerosols of ceftiofur return
to the normal values more quickly (13 days earlier)
Vol. 18, No. 2, July-December, 2016
 Bovine Respiratory Disease An Updated Review
than those of the calves treated intramuscularly with
ceftiofur (Joshi, 2015).
Anti-inflammatory Drugs
In the complex of advanced therapeutic strategy
of BRD, the second component is the modulation of
pulmonary inflammatory reaction. In this aspect, at
present, there are used both steroidal anti-
inflammatory drugs (SAIDs) and non-steroidal anti-
inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).
SAIDs are powerful anti-inflammatory agents, but
their effects on the animals defensive mechanisms
reduce the value of their use in syndromes of
infectious origin unless they have a short duration of
action or are administered locally. In BRD adjunctive
therapy, there are used different kinds of
corticosteroids include betamethasone (210 mg/
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animal), dexamethasone (25 mg/animal),
prednisolone (up to 20 mg/animal), cortisone (up to
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500 mg/animal), hydrocortisone (up to 300 mg/
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animal), flumethasone (0.5 mg/animal) and
trimcinolone (up to 5 mg/animal). The drugs because
of their strong immunosuppresive character are
usually used only in a single administration
throughout the therapy.
NSAIDs have a wider safety margin, which largely
compensates for their narrower anti-inflammatory
spectrum. NSAIDs have also the ability to improve
gas exchange. The drugs most commonly used in
BRD therapy are flunixin meglumine (2.2 mg/kg b.w.
i.v.), carprofen (1.4 mg/kg b.w. i.v., s.c.), ketoprofen
(3 mg/kg b.w. i.v., i.m.), meloxicam (0.5 mg/kg b.w.
s.c., i.v.), tolfenamic acid (2 mg/kg b.w. i.m.) and
metamisole sodium (1050 mg/kg b.w. i.m., i.v.).
Expectorants/Mucolitics
It is also very important to use expectorants/
mucolitic drugs like bromhexine hydrochloride.
Bromhexine is a mucolytic agent used in the
treatment of respiratory disorders associated with
viscid or excessive mucus. In addition, bromhexine
has antioxidant properties.
Bronchodilator
It is administered whenever bronchospasm is
present. Among bronchodilators, mostly atropine
Journal of Immunology and Immunopathology
sulfate (0.06 mg/kg s.c.) and theophylline (110 mg/
kg slow i.v., i.m.) are used.
DIURETIC
In the most severe cases of BRD in calves,
pulmonary oedema is suspected and diuretic like
furosemide 1 mg/kg b.w. i.v. could be added.
Control
Pneumonia is a problem with housed calves,
particularly when stocking density is high and
ventilation is poor. Control is mainly through improved
housing. The best way to maintain calf health is to
ensure an adequate intake of colostrum
immunoglobulins within the first few hours of life.
Prevention through adequate colostrum intake is far
more effective than cure by drugs. Vaccination of
calves can be undertaken to maximise acquired
immunity. Calves should be kept sheltered, dry and
free from stress. Rags can be used to cover the body
of calves to protect them from cold wind. The owner
should quickly respond to early symptoms of
pneumonia, isolate sick calves and rectify the cause.
Early recognition and treatment of affected calves
with antibiotics will minimise losses through deaths
and poor calf growth. So, seek veterinary advice at
the earliest if pneumonia is suspected. The use of
solid walls to atleast 2 m high and then shutters or
blinds to control air movement, particularly during cool
weather, is ideal. Regular use of hoses in cleaning
pens and laneways should be avoided as it can
introduce water vapour and blast infectious particles
from the manure into the air. Animal shed designs
need to be carefully planned to avoid draughts and
overcrowding. Buying calves from sale yards should
be avoided, because these could introduce disease
agents. The farmers should buy calves directly from
farms which practise good colostrum feeding
management and good hygiene. Quarantine of
purchased calves for the first week or so is important.
Stresses associated with routine management
practices, such as dehorning and castration, should
be minimised. Maintaining strict hygiene by cleaning
and sterilising feeding utensils is a vital measure to
control spread of BRD.
91
 Vivek Joshi, V.K. Gupta, O.R. Vinodh Kumar, B.S. Pruthvishree, U. Dimri and Shahjahan Alam
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