CHAPTER1ELECTRONICSANDSEMICONDUCTORS

ChapterOutline
1.1Signals
1.2FrequencySpectrumofSignals
1.3AnalogandDigitalSignals
1.4Amplifiers
1.5CircuitModelsforAmplifiers
1.6FrequencyResponseofAmplifiers
1.7IntrinsicSemiconductors
1.8DopedSemiconductors
1.9CurrentFlowinSemiconductors
1.10Thepn JunctionwithOpenCircuitTerminals
1.11Thepn JunctionwithAppliedVoltage
1.12CapacitiveEffectsinthepn Junction

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 1.1Signals

Signalprocessing
Signalscanbeofavarietyofformsinordertocarryinformationfromthephysicalworld
Itismostconvenienttoprocesssignalsbyelectronicsystem,therefore,thesignalsarefirst
convertedintoanelectricform(voltageorcurrent)bytransducers
Inputsignal Outputsignal
Signal
(voice,speed, Transducer Transducer (voice,speed,
pressure,etc.) Processor
pressure,etc.)

ElectricalSignals ElectricalSignals
v(t) v(t)

t t

Signalsources
Thevenin form:(voltagesourcevs +seriesresistanceRs)
Presentingthesignalbyavoltageform
IspreferredwhenRs islow(Rs canbeneglected)

Nortonform:(currentsourceis +shuntresistanceRs)
Presentingthesignalbyacurrentform
IspreferredwhenRs ishigh(Rs canbeneglected)

Inelectronicssystems,thesignalistakenfromoneofthetwoformsforanalysis
Twoformsareinterchangeablewithvs(t)=is(t) Rs

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 1.2FrequencySpectrumofSignals

Sinusoidalsignal
Asinusoidalsignalisgivenas:va(t)=|Va|sin(at + a ) va(t)

Characterizedbyitsamplitude(|Va|),frequency(a)andphase(a )
Va
Frequencydomainrepresentation
Anytimedomainsignalcanbeexpressedbyitsfrequencyspectrum t

Periodicsignal Fourierseries
a
Nonperiodicsignal Fouriertransform T
Periodicsignal
Thefundamentalfrequencyofperiodicsignalsisdefinedas0 =2/T.
Aperiodicsignalcanbeexpressedasthesumofsinusoidsatharmonicfrequencies(n0)
Example:asquarewavewithperiodT
4V 1 1
v(t ) (sin 0t sin 30t sin 50t ...)
3 5
Timedomainrepresentation Frequencydomainrepresentation

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 4V 1 1
v(t ) (sin 0t sin 30t sin 50t ...)
3 5

Nonperiodicsignal
TheFouriertransformisappliedtoanonperiodicfunctionoftime
Thespectrumofanonperiodicsignalcontainsallpossiblefrequencies
Timedomainrepresentation Frequencydomainrepresentation

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 1.3AnalogandDigitalSignals

Signalclassification
Analogsignal:signalcantakeonanyvalue Continuoustimeanalogsignal
v(t)
Digitalsignal:canonlytakeonfinitequantizationlevels
Continuoustimesignal:definedatanytimeinstant
Discretetimesignal:definedonlyatthesamplinginstants
Sampling:theamplitudeismeasuredatequaltimeintervals t
Quantization:representthesamplesbyfinitevalues Discretetimeanalogsignal Sampling
Quantizationerror:
Differencebetweensampledvalueandquantizedvalue
Canbereducedbyincreasingthequantizationlevels
Dataconversion t
Analogtodigitalconverter(ADC):
Digitalsignal
b0
Analog A/D b1 Digital Quantization
vA 3
input converter output
...

bN1 2

Digitaltoanalogconverter(DAC): 1
0 3,3,3,2,3,3
b t
Digital b0 D/A vD
Analog
1
input converter output

...

Quantizationerror
bN1

vD b0 20 b1 21 ....bN 2 N 1
t
vA =vD +quantizationerror

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 1.4Amplifiers

Gainofamplifiers
VoltagegainAv vO /vI
CurrentgainAi iO /iI
PowergainAp vO iO /vI iI
Amplifiergainsaredimensionless(ratioofsimilarlydimensionedquantities)
Voltageandcurrentgaincanbepositiveornegativedependingonthepolarityofthevoltageand
thecurrent
Thegainisfrequentlyexpressedindecibels:
VoltagegainAv (dB) 20log|Av |
CurrentgainAi (dB) 20log|Ai |
PowergainAp (dB) 10log|Ap |
Gain>0dB |A |>1(amplification)
Gain<0dB |A |<1(attenuation)
ThepolarityofthevoltageandcurrentisnotshownindBexpression
Amplifierpowersupplies
Amplifiersrequiredcpowersupplies
Pdc =VCCICC +VEE IEE
Pdc +PI =PL +Pdissipated
(efficiency)=(PL /Pdc )100%

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Transfercharacteristicsoflinearamplifier
Theplotofoutputresponsevs.input transfercharacteristics
Forlinearamplifier,thetransfercharacteristicisastraightline
passingtheoriginwithslope=Av
Itisdesirabletohavelinearamplifiercharacteristicsformostof
theapplications
Outputwaveformisanenlargedcopyoftheinput:vO(t)=AvvI(t)
NohigherpowertermsofvI attheoutput

Amplifiersaturation
Practically,theamplifiertransfercharacteristicremainslinear
overonlyalimitedrangeofinputandoutputvoltages
Theamplifiercanbeusedasalinearamplifierforinputswing:
L/Av vI L+/Av vO =AvvI
Forinputlargerthantheswinglimitation,theoutputwaveform
willbetruncated,resultinginnonlineardistortion
Thenonlinearitypropertiescanbeexpressedas:
vO =a0 +a1vI +a2vI2 +a3vI3 ..

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Nonlineartransfercharacteristicsandbiasing
Inpracticalamplifiers,thetransfercharacteristicsmayexhibitnonlinearitiesofvariousmagnitude
Thenonlinearitycharacteristicswillresultinsignaldistortionduringamplification
Inordertousethecircuitasalinearamplifier:
Usedcbiastooperatethecircuitnearthemiddleofthetransfercurve quiescentpoint
Superimposethetimevarying(ac)signalonthedcbiasattheinput
Besurethatthesignalswingissufficientlysmallforgoodlinearapproximation
Thetimevarying(ac)componentsattheoutputisthedesiredoutputsignal

Slope=Av

vO

vO (t)
Q
VO

VI
vI vI (t ) VI vi (t ) vo (t ) Av vi (t )
vO (t ) VO vo (t ) dv
Av O |at Q
dvI
vI (t)

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Symbolconvention:
dcquantities:IC,VD
Incremental(ac)quantities:ic(t),vd(t)
Totalinstantaneous(ac+dc)quantities:iC(t),vD(t)
iC(t)=IC +ic(t)
vD(t)=VD +vd(t)

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 1.5CircuitModelsforAmplifiers

Conceptofequivalentcircuit
Practicalamplifiercircuitcouldberathercomplex
Useasimplifiedmodeltorepresentthepropertiesandbehavioroftheamplifier
Theanalysisresultsdonotchangebyreplacingtheoriginalcircuitwiththeequivalentcircuit
Voltageamplifiers
Asimplifiedtwoportmodeliswidelyusedforunilateral voltageamplifiers

VoltageAmplifier

Themodeliscomposedofthreecomponents:
Inputresistance(Ri):theresistancebylookingintotheinputport
Outputresistance(Ro):theresistancebylookingintotheoutputport
Opencircuitvoltagegain(Avo):thevoltagegain(vo/vi)withoutputopencircuit
Circuitanalysiswithsignalsourceandload:
vo RL
Voltagegain: Av Avo
vi RL Ro
Overallgain: Gv vo Ri Avo RL
vs Ri Rs RL Ro
Idealvoltageamplifier:Ri = andRo =0

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Circuitparametersintheamplifiermodel
Themodelcanbeusedtoreplaceanyunilateralamplifierbypropercircuitparameters

Theparameterscanbeobtainedbycircuitanalysisormeasurement ix
Analysis(measurement)oftheinputresistance:
Theresistancebylookingintotheinputport vx
(findix foragivenvx orfindvx foragivenix) Ri vx/ix
Analysis(measurement)oftheoutputresistance: ix
Setvi =0byinputshort
Theresistancebylookingintotheoutputport
vx
(findix foragivenvx orfindvx foragivenix) Ro vx/ix
Analysis(measurement)oftheopencircuitvoltagegain:
Givenvx atinput
vo
Findopencircuitoutputvoltagevo
vo isdividedbyvx vx
Avo vo/vx

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Cascadeamplifier
Multiplestagesofamplifiersmaybecascadedtomeettheapplicationrequirement
Theanalysiscanbeperformedbyreplacingeachstagewiththevoltageamplifiermodel

Bufferamplifier
Impedancemismatchmayresultinareducedvoltageswingattheload
Bufferamplifiercanbeusedtoalleviatetheproblem
Thegainofthebufferamplifiercanbelow(~1)
Thebufferamplifierhashighinputresistanceandlowoutputresistance

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Amplifiertypes
Voltageamplifier:gainofinterestisdefinedbyvo/vi (V/V)
Currentamplifier:gainofinterestisdefinedbyio/ii (A/A)
Transconductane amplifier:gainofinterest isdefinedbyio/vi(1)
Transimpedance amplifier:gainofinterestisdefinedbyvo/ii ()
Amplifiermodels
VoltageAmplifier CurrentAmplifier

Transconductance Amplifier Transimpedance Amplifier

Unilateralmodels
Theamplifiermodelsconsideredareunilateral;thatis,signalflowonlyfrominputtooutput
Themodelissimpleandeasytousesuchthatanalysiscanbesimplified
Notallamplifiersareunilateralandmorecomplicatedmodelsmaybeneededfortheanalysis

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Circuitanalysisforamplifiers

VoltageAmplifier Transconductance Amplifier

vo =Avovi RL /(RL+Ro) io =Gmvi Ro /(RL+Ro)

vo /vs =Avo[Ri /(Ri+Rs)][RL /(RL+Ro)] io /vs =Gm[Ri /(Ri+Rs)][Ro /(RL+Ro)]
Foridealcase(Ri ,Ro 0):vo /vs =Avo Foridealcase(Ri ,Ro ):io /vs =Gm

CurrentAmplifier Transimpdeance Amplifier

io =Aisii Ro /(RL+Ro) vo =Rmii RL /(RL+Ro)

io /is =AisRsRo /[(RL+Ro)(Ri+Rs)] vo /is =RmRsRL /[(RL+Ro)(Ri+Rs)]
Foridealcase(Ri 0,Ro ):io /is =Ais Foridealcase(Ri 0,Ro 0):vo /is =Rm

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Exercise1.12(Textbook)
Exercise1.13(Textbook)
Exercise1.14(Textbook)

Exercise1: ForavoltageamplifierwithRi =100k,Ro =10k andAvo =20,findits

equivalentmodelsascurrent,transconductance andtransimpedance amplifiers.

Exercise2: Considertwoamplifierstagesarecascaded.Themodelofthefirststageis
givenbyRi =1M,Ro =10k andAvo =20,whilethemodelofthesecondstageisgivenby
Ri =100k,Ro =10 andAvo =2.
(1) Findthevoltageamplifiermodelforthecascadeamplifier.
(2) ForRs =100k andRL =100 ,findAv andGv.

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 1.6FrequencyResponseofAmplifiers

Conceptoffrequencyresponse
Theinputsignaltoanamplifiercanbeexpressedasthesumofsinusoidalsignals
Frequencyresponse:thecharacteristicsofanamplifierintermsofitsresponsetoinputsinusoidals
ofdifferentfrequencies
Measuringtheamplifierfrequencyresponse
Applyingasinusoidalsignaltoalinearamplifier,theoutputisasinusoidalatthesamefrequency
Theoutputsinusoidalwillingeneralhaveadifferentamplitudeandashiftedphase
TransferfunctionT()isdefinedasafunctionoffrequencytoevaluatethefrequencyresponse
MagnitudeofT()isthevoltagegainoftheamplifier:|T()|=Vo /Vi
PhaseofT() isthephaseshiftbetweeninputandoutputsignals:T()=

Amplifierbandwidth
Thebandwidthisdefinedwithin3dBfromtheflatgain
Forsignalcontainingcomponentsoutsidethebandwidth,theoutputwaveformwillbedistorted

Flatgain
3dB

vo(t)=Vosin(t+ +)

vi(t)=Visin(t+ )

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Frequencydependentcomponentsinamplifiers
Thefrequencyresponseofamplifiersismainlyduetofrequencydependentcomponents
Themostwidelyusedcomponentsarecapacitorsandinductors
Capacitors
d
Currentvoltagerelation: iC (t ) C vC (t )
dt
Forsinusoidalsignals: vC (t ) V0 cos(t ) iC (t ) CV0 sin(t )
Theratioofvoltageamplitudeandcurrentamplitudeisproportionalto1/C,andisconsidereda
frequencydependentimpedance
Phasoranalysis: vC (t ) V0 cos(t ) VC V0e j
iC (t ) CV0 sin(t ) I C CV0e j ( / 2)
Z C VC / I C 1 / jC

Inductors
d
Currentvoltagerelation: vL (t ) L iL (t )
dt
Forsinusoidalsignals: iL (t ) I 0 cos(t ) vL (t ) CI 0 sin(t )
TheratioofvoltageamplitudeandcurrentamplitudeisproportionaltoL,andisconsidereda
frequencydependentimpedance
Phasoranalysis: iL (t ) I 0 cos(t ) I L I 0e j
vL (t ) LI 0 sin(t ) VL LI 0e j ( / 2)
Z L VL / I L jL

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Derivingthetransferfunctionofamplifiers
Complexfrequency(s)
TreataninductanceL asanimpedance sL
TreatacapacitanceC asanimpedance1/sC
DerivethetransferfunctionwithphysicalfrequencyT(s)=Vo/Vi
Physicalfrequency(replaces byj)
TreataninductanceL asanimpedance jL
TreatacapacitanceC asanimpedance1/jC
DerivethetransferfunctionwithphysicalfrequencyT(j)=Vo/Vi
Evaluatingthefrequencyresponseofamplifiers
Thetransferfunctionforphysicalfrequencyisgenerallyacomplexvalueasafunctionof
Themagnitude|T()|definesthevoltagegainofasinusoidalat
ThephaseT()definesthephaseshiftofasinusoidalat
Themagnitudeandphasearegenerallyplottedversusfrequencytoevaluatethefrequencyresponse
Frequencydomainanalysis
UseFourierseries/Fouriertransformtorepresentatimedomaininputsignal
Usethefreq.responsetodeterminetheamplitude/phaseofthesinusoidalcomponentsattheoutput
Thetimedomainoutputsignalcanbeobtainedbyaddingtheoutputsinusoidalcomponents
Example:vi(t)= Ansin(nt +n)=A1sin(1t+1)+A2sin(2t+2)+ ..
vo(t)=A1 |T(1)|sin(1t+1+ T(1))+A2 |T(2)|sin(2t+2+ T(2))+ ..
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Singletimeconstant(STC)networks
Thenetworkisgenerallycomposedofonereactivecomponent(L orC)andoneresistance
MostSTCnetworkscanbeclassifiedintotwocategories:lowpass (LP)andhighpass (HP)
LowpassSTC
Bodeplot

Vo ( j ) 1 / jC 1
T ( j )
Vi ( j ) R 1 / jC 1 jRC
K
General form T ( j )
1 j / 0
K
Magnitude | T(j ) |
1 ( / 0 ) 2
Phase T ( j ) tan 1 ( / 0 )
or 180 tan 1 ( / 0 )
Straightlineapproximations:
Lowfrequencymagnitude:|K|indB
Cornerfrequency:0
Fastevaluationofgainandphase

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Exercise3: Findthetransferfunctionandplotitsfrequencyresponse.IsitaSTCnetwork?

Exercise4:Findthetransferfunctionandplotitsfrequencyresponse.IsitaSTCnetwork?

Exercise5: AvoltageamplifierismodeledasRi =100k,Ro =10k andAvo =20V/V.

ConsiderthecasewhereRs ofthesignalsourceis25k andtheamplifierisloadedwith10
k||100nF.
(1) Findthetransferfunction(Vo/Vs)andplotitsfrequencyresponse.
(2) Giventhatvs(t)=10cos(102t)+5cos(104t)+3cos(106t)V,findvo(t).

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 1.7IntrinsicSemiconductors

Covalentbond
Eachvalenceelectronofasiliconatomissharedbyoneofitsfournearestneighbors
Electronsservedascovalentbondsaretightlyboundtothenucleus
Electronholepair
At0K,nofreecarriersareavailable Sibehavesasaninsulator
Atroomtemperature,asmallamountofcovalentbondswillbebrokenbythethermalenergy
electronholepairgenerationasfreecarriers
Bothelectronsandholesarefreetomove cancontributetocurrentconduction

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Carrierconcentrationinintrinsicsemiconductor
Forintrinsicsemiconductorsatthermalequilibrium,electronholegenerationandrecommendation
ratesareequal
Theelectronandholeconcentrationsremainunchangedatthermalequilibrium
Theconductanceofintrinsicsemiconductorisproportionaltothecarrierconcentration
Thecarrierconcentrationisgivenby
n =p =ni (intrinsiccarrierconcentration)
np =ni2
ni2(T)=BT3eEg /kT
ni increasesastemperatureincreases
ni decreasesastemperaturedecreases
IntrinsiccarrierconcentrationforSiatroomtemperature:ni =1.51010 /cm3
Theconductivityisrelativelylowduetothecarrierconcentration

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Extrinsicsemiconductor
Extrinsic(doped)semiconductor=intrinsicsemiconductor+impurities
Accordingtothespeciesofimpurities,extrinsicsemiconductorcanbeeitherntypeorptype
ntypesemiconductor
Thedonorimpuritieshave5valenceelectrons
areaddedintosilicon
P,As,Sbarecommonlyusedasdonor
TheSiatomisreplacedbyadonoratom
Donorionsareboundedinthelatticestructureand
thusdonatefreeelectronswithoutcontributingholes
Byaddingdonoratomsintointrinsicsemiconductor,
thenumberofelectronsincreases(n>p)
ntypesemiconductor
Majoritycarrier:electron
Minoritycarrier:hole

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ptypesemiconductor
Theacceptorimpurityhas3valenceelectron(Boron)
Th Siatomisreplacedbyanacceptoratom
Theboronlacksonevalenceelectron.Itleaves
avacancyinthebondstructure
Thisvacancycanacceptelectronattheexpenseof
creatinganewvacancy
Acceptorcreatesaholewithoutcontributing
freeelectron
Byaddingacceptorintointrinsicsemiconductor,
thenumberofholesincrease(p>n)
ptypesemiconductor
Majoritycarrier:hole
Minoritycarrier:electron

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Carrierconcentration
Chargeneutrality:
Particleswithpositivecharge:
p:holeconcentration(mobile);ND:donorconcentration(immobile)
Particleswithnegativecharge:
n:electronconcentration(mobile);NA:acceptorconcentration(immobile)
Chargeneutrality (positivecharge=negativecharge): NA n =ND p
Massactionlaw
np =ni2 forsemiconductorunderthermalequilibrium
Forntypesemiconductor
ND 2n
n =ND p n [1 1 ( i ) 2 ]
n ND
np =ni2 2
p ni / n
2
ND
ifND ni
p ni2 / N D
Forptypesemiconductor
NA 2n
p =NA n p [1 1 ( i ) 2 ] p NA
np =ni2 2
n ni / p
2
NA ifNA ni
n ni2 / N A

Exercise1.27(Textbook)
Exercise6:WhatmustND besuchthatn =10000p atroomtemperature(T =300K)

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 1.9CurrentFlowinSemiconductors

Freecarriersinsemiconductors
Mobileparticleswithpositiveornegativecharges:electronsandholes
Thetransportationofcarriersresultsincurrentconductioninsemiconductors
Carrierdrift
Thermalmotionintheabsenceofelectricfield:
Thedirectionofflightbeingchangedateachcollisionwiththeheavy,almoststationaryions
Statistically,aelectronhasarandomthermalmotioninthecrystalstructure
Netdisplacementoveralongperiodoftimeiszero nonetcurrentflow(I =0)
ThermalmotionunderelectricfieldE:
Thecombinedmotionofelectronunderelectricfieldhasarandomandadriftcomponent
Still,nonetdisplacementduetorandommotioncomponentoveralongperiodoftime
Thedriftcomponentprovidestheelectronanetdisplacement
Driftisthecarriermovementduetotheexistenceofelectricfield

ElectricfieldE =0 ElectricfieldE 0

Speed(instantaneous)>0 Speed(instantaneous)>0
Nonetdisplacement DriftcomponentduetoE
Velocity(average)=0 Velocity(average) 0

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Mobility
F =qE a = F /m* (m* istheeffectivemassofelectron)
Assumethetimeintervalbetweencollisionistcoll andthedriftvelocityimmediatelyafterthe
collisionis0
Thentheaveragevelocityoftheelectronduetotheelectricfieldis:
atcoll qE vd qtcoll
v d (drift ) tcoll E (cm 2 /Vsec)
2 2m* E 2m*
Mobility()indicateshowfastanelectron/holecanmoveundercertainelectricfieldintensity
n isusedtospecifythemobilityofelectron
Similarly, p isusedtospecifythemobilityofhole
Inmostcases,electronmobilityislargerthanholemobilityinasemiconductor
Carrierdriftinsemiconductor L
Semiconductorparameters:
Electronconcentration:n(1/cm3)
Electronmobility:n (cm2/V)
Holeconcentration:p(1/cm3)
Holemobility:p (cm2/V)
A
Dimensions:
Crosssectionarea:A (cm2)
Length:L(cm)

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Driftcurrentinsemiconductor
Electroncurrent:
TimeintervalforelectronsflowingacrossL:T =L/vd =L/nE (sec)
Totalelectroncharge:Qn =qnAL (Coulomb)
ElectrondriftcurrentIn,drift =Qn/T=qnAL/T=qnnEA (A)
CurrentdensityJn,drift =In,drift/A =qnnE (A/cm2)
Holecurrent:
TimeintervalforholesflowingacrossL:T =L/vd =L/pE (sec)
Totalholecharge:Qp =qpAL (Coulomb)
HoledriftcurrentIp,drift =Qp/T=qpAL/T=qppEA (A)
CurrentdensityJp,drift =Ip,drift /A =qppE (A/cm2)
Theelectroncurrentandholecurrentareinthesamedirection
Totaldriftcurrentdensity:Jdrift=Jn,drift +Jp,drift =(qnn +qpp)E=E
Conductivity =qnn +qpp (cm)1
OhmsLow
I =JA =EA =VA/L =V/R (A)
R =L/A =L/A ()

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Carrierdiffusion
Diffusionisamanifestationofthethermalrandommotionofparticles
SectionI:total#=6(3movingtotheleftand3movingtotheright)
SectionII:total#=4(2movingtotheleftand2movingtotheright)
Netflux:1movingacrosstheinterfacefromsectionItosectionII I II
Statistically,anetcarrierflowfromhightolowconcentrationregioninainhomogeneousmaterial

dp
J p ( diff ) qD p
dx
dn
J n ( diff ) qDn
dx

Dn:diffusionconstant(diffusivity)ofe
Dp:diffusionconstant(diffusivity)ofh+

EinsteinRelation:Dp/p =Dn/ n =kT/q =VT (thermalvoltage)

Totaldiffusioncurrentdensity
Bothelectronandholediffusioncontributetocurrentconduction
Totaldiffusioncurrentdensity:
dn dp
J diff J n ( diff ) J p ( diff ) qDn qD p
dx dx

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 Gradedsemiconductor
Foranonuniformsemiconductor,thedopingconcentrationisrepresentedasND(x)
Themobilecarrierwilldiffuseduetothenonuniformdistribution
Theuncompensatedspacechargebuildsupafield(potential)forthesystemtoreachequilibrium
Nonetcurrentflowsatanypointunderequilibrium
Thebuiltinpotentialcanbederivedunderthermalequilibriumbetweenpointswithdifferent
dopingconcentration

Electrondiffusion Electrondiffusion
Builtinpotential Builtinpotential
n(x) n(x)
fromelectronconcentration fromholeconcentration
Electrondrift
dn dp
Excessnegative J n qn n E qDn 0 J p qp p E qD p 0
dx dx
mobilecharge dn dp
n n E Dn p p E D p
dx dx
VT dn dV VT dp dV
E E
x x n dx dx p dx dx
dn dp
dV VT dV VT
n p
n2 p1
E V21 V2 V1 VT ln V21 V2 V1 VT ln
n1 p2
n1 n2 e V21 / VT p1 p2 eV21 / VT
ND(x) ND(x) Excesspositive
spacecharge

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Currentinsemiconductors
Driftcurrent:Jdrift =qnnE +qppE E
Diffusioncurrent:Jdiff =qDn(dn/dx) qDp(dp/dx) e Jn
Totalcurrent:J =Jn +Jp =(qnnE +qDn(dn/dx))+(qppE qDp(dp/dx))
h Jp

Exercise7:Asiliconbarhasacrosssectionalareaof4cm2 andalengthof10cm.
(1) ForintrinsicSiwith n =1350cm2/Vsandn =480cm2/Vs,findtheresistanceofthe
baratT =300K.
(2) ForextrinsicSiwithNA =1016 /cm3,n =1100cm2/Vsandn =400cm2/Vs,findthe
resistanceofthebaratT =300K.
Exercise1.28(Textbook)
Example1.9(Textbook)
Exercise1.29(Textbook)

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 1.10Thepn JunctionwithOpenCircuitTerminals

Physicalstructureofapn junction
Closecontactofantypesemiconductorandaptypesemiconductor
Atwoterminaldevicewithanodeandcathode

pnjunctionincontact
ptype(NA)ntype (ND)
ptype:dopingconcentration:NA

ntype:dopingconcentrationND

Majority carriersarecrossingtheinterfacebydiffusionandrecombinedintheotherside
LeavinguncompensatedspacechargesND+ andNA depletionregion
Indepletionregion,electricfield(potential)buildsupduetotheuncompensatedspacecharges
Thebuiltinpotentialbehavesasanenergybarrier,reducingthemajoritycarrierdiffusion
Thisfieldresultsinminority carrierdriftacrosstheinterfaceintheoppositedirectiontodiffusion

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pnjunctionformation(thermalequilibrium)
Depletionregionincreasesduetomajoritycarrierdiffusionacrossthejunction
Thebuiltinpotentialfromuncompensatedspacechargeincreasesasabarrierforcarrierdiffusion
Minoritycarriersaresweptacrossthejunctioninthepresenceofthebuiltinfield driftcurrent
EquilibriumisreachedwhenJdiff andJdrift areequalinmagnitudeandoppositeindirection
Nonetcurrentflowsacrossthejunction
E
ptype(NA)ntype (ND)

holediffusion
Jp =0
holedrift
electrondiffusion
Jn =0
electrondrift

Neutral Depletion Neutral

Region Region Region

ptype V0
nn 0 p p0 N N
| V0 | VT ln VT ln VT ln A 2 D
ntype np0 pn 0 ni

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Thedepletionregion Chargedensity(v)
Stepgradedjunction(abruptjunction)isusedforanalysis
Carriersarefullydepletedinthedepletionregion qND
Neutralregioninntypeandptypeoutsidedepletionregion
Builtinpotential:V0 =VT ln (NAND /ni2) xp
x
d 2V dE xn
Poissonsequation:
dx 2
dx Si
Derivationofpnjunctionatequilibrium:
qNA
qN D xn qN A x p
Electricfield(E)
E v / Si dx Emax qN D xn / Si qN Ax p / Si
xp xn

V Edx V0 Emax ( xn x p ) / 2 VT ln N A N D / n 2
i x

N D xn N A x p

(qN D xn / Si )( xn x p ) / 2 VT ln N A N D / ni2 Emax

Electrostaticpotential(V)
2 SiV0 N A 2 SiV0 N D 2 SiV0 N A N D
W xn x p
qN D ( N A N D ) qN A ( N A N D ) q ND N A
V0
2 SiV0 2 SiV0 x
ForNA>>ND: W ForND>>NA: W xp xn
qN D qN A
Potentialofelectron

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Carrierdistribution cm3
Neutralntyperegion: pp0
Majoritycarriernn =nn0 =ND 1018
nn0
Minoritycarrierpn =pn0 =ni2/ND 1014
Neutralptyperegion: V0
1010 V0 pn0
Majoritycarrierpp =pp0 =NA
Minoritycarriernp =np0 =ni2/NA 106
np0
Depletionregion:
102
n =0
p =0 102
Nonetcurrentflowsacrossthejunction
xp xn
Builtinpotentialacrossthepnjunction:
Fromholedensity: | V0 | VT ln( p p 0 / pn 0 ) VT ln( N A N D / ni2 )
Fromelectrondensity: | V0 | VT ln(nn 0 / n p 0 ) VT ln( N A N D / ni2 )

Example1.10(Textbook)
Exercise1.32(Textbook)

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 1.11Thepn JunctionwithanAppliedVoltage

Depletionregion
Forwardbias:VF reducesthedepletionregionandtheenergybarrier
Reversebias:VR increasesthedepletionregionandtheenergybarrier

Forwardbias(V=VF) Reversebias(V=VR)

Chargedensity( v) Chargedensity(v)

qND qND

xp xn x xp xn x Emax qN D xn / Si qN Ax p / Si

qNA qNA
2 Si (V0 V ) N D N A
Electricfield(E) Electricfield(E) W
q ND N A
xp xn x xp xn x

NA 2 Si N A (V0 V )
Emax Emax xn W
N A ND qN D ( N A N D )
Electrostaticpotential(V) Electrostaticpotential(V)
ND 2 Si N D (V0 V )
xp W
N A ND qN A ( N A N D )
V0+VR
V0VF

xp xn x xp xn x

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Minoritycarrierdistributionduetojunctionbias cm3 ZeroBias(V =0)
pp0
Minoritycarrierdistributionisinfluencedbythejunctionbias 1018 nn0
Diffusioncurrentsexistduetononuniformcarrierdistribution
Junctionbiascondition: 1010 pn0
Zerobias(equilibrium):V =0 np0
Forwardbias:V =VF 102
Reversebias:V =VR
Minoritycarrierdistributionforallbiasconditions: cm3
pp0 ForwardBias(V =VF>0)
( x x ) / L pn0eV/VT
pn ( x) pn 0 (eV / V 1)e
T
pn 0
n p
1018 nn0
( x x p ) / Ln
n p ( x ) n p 0 (e
V / VT
1)e np0
n (p):excessminoritycarrierlifetime 1010 pn0

Ln =Dnn (Lp =Dpp ):diffusionlength np0

102
Boundarycondition:
pn(x=xn)=pp0exp[(V0V)/VT]=pn0exp(V/VT)
cm3 ReverseBias(V=VR <0)
pn(x =)=pn0 pp0
np(x=xp)=nn0exp[(V0V)/VT]=np0exp(V/VT) 1018 nn0
np(x=)=np0
1010 pn0
np0
102 pn0eV/VT
np0eV/VT

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Junctioncurrentdensity
Assumenocarriergenerationandrecombinationwithinthedepletionregion:
Jn(xp)=Jn(xn)andJp(xp)=Jp(xn)
DiffusioncurrentsJp andJn attheedgeofthedepletionregioncanbeobtainedby:
dpn qD p pn 0
J p ( xn ) qD p xn (eV / VT 1)
dx Lp
dn p qDn n p 0
J n ( x p ) qDn xp (eV / VT 1)
dx Ln

Totaljunctioncurrent:J(x)=Jn(x)+Jp(x)=Jn(xp)+Jp(xp)=Jn(xp)+Jp(xn)
AssumeJp andJn donotchangeacrossthedepletionregion:Jp(xp)= Jp(xn)andJn(xp)=Jn(xn)
Thetotalcurrentcanbeexpressedas:J(x)=Jn(x)+Jp(x)=Jn(xp)+Jp(xp)=Jn(xp)+Jp(xn)
qDn n p 0 qD p pn 0 qV / kT
J J n ( x p ) J p ( xn ) ( e 1) J s (e qV / kT 1)
L Lp
n

TheIVcharacteristicsofthepn junction
Thejunctioncurrentdependsonthejunctionvoltage
Thejunctioncurrentisproportionaltothejunctionarea
Thejunctioncurrentisgivenby I I s (e qV / kT 1)

D p Dn Dp Dn
Saturationcurrent: I s qA p n 0 n p 0 qAni2
L Ln L N
p p D Ln N A

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Reversebreakdown
Breakdownvoltage:areversejunctionbiasVR=VZ
AlargereversecurrentflowswhenreversebiasexceedsVZ
Breakdownregion
Forbreakdownvoltage<5V Zener breakdown
Forbreakdownvoltage>5V avalanchebreakdown
Breakdownisnondestructiveifthepowerdissipationislimited
Zener breakdown
Strongelectricfieldinthedepletionregionbreakscovalentbonds,generatingelectronholepairs
Generatedelectrons(holes)aresweptintontype(ptyperegion)forareversecurrent
Zener breakdownnormallytakesplaceforpn junctionwithhighdopingconcentration
Avalanchebreakdown
Theminoritycarriersthatcrossthedepletionregiongainsufficientkineticenergyduetothefield
Thecarrierswithhighkineticenergybreakcovalentbondsinatomsduringcollision
Morecarriersareacceleratedbythefieldforavalanchereaction
Avalanchenormallytakesplacefirstforpn junctionwithlowdopingconcentration

Example1.11(Textbook)

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Comparisonofbreakdownmechanism
Zener breakdownAvalanchebreakdown
Chargedensity(v) Chargedensity(v)
qND

qND

qNA

qNA

Electricfield(E) Electricfield(E)

Emax

Emax

Electrostaticpotential(V) Electrostaticpotential(V)

Breakdown
voltage
Breakdown
voltage

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 1.12CapacitiveEffectsinthepn Junction

Depletionorjunctioncapacitance Chargedensity
Thedepletionwidthiscontrolledbytheterminalvoltage
ptype ntype
Thechangeofterminalvoltage(dV)willresultindQ atthe
edgeofthedepletionregion capacitance
ThejunctioncapacitanceduetospacechargeisCj =dQ/dVR
positivespacecharge
dQ d qAN D wn q Si ND N A (donors)
Cj A
dVR dVR 2(V0 VR ) N D N A negativespacecharge
Cj canalsobeestimatedbyaparallelplatecapacitor: (acceptors)

2 Si N D N A
W (V0 VR )
q ND N A
Si A Si q N A N D 1 VR
Cj A C j0 1
wdep 2 N A N D V0 VR V0
Si q N A N D1
C j0 A
2 N A N D V0

Underforwardbiasconditions,W reduces largerCj

Underreversebiasconditions,W increases smallerCj
Generalformulaofjunctioncapacitanceforarbitrarydopingprofile:
VR m
C j C j 0 (1 )
V0

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Diffusioncapacitance
Excessminoritycarrierstoredinneutralregionschangewiththeterminalvoltage capacitance
Byintegrationtheexcessminoritycarriersatbothsides:
L2p
L2n
Q Q p Qn Ip In p I p nIn T I
Dp Dn

Smallsignaldiffusioncapacitance:
Q T I T I s e qV / kT T I s eV / VT
dQ T
Cd ( )I
dV VT
Cd islargeunderforwardbiasconditions
Cd isneglectedunderreversebiasconditions
Capacitanceofpnjunction
Operatedatforwardbias:C =Cj +Cd
Operatedatreversebias:C Cj
Totalcapacitanceincreasesasamorepositivejunctionvoltageisapplied

Exercise1.40(Textbook)

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